CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Flow through pipes in Chemical Engineering is a process which can be viewed with a
macroscopic point of view. The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different
regimes namely laminar and turbulent flow. The laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles
moving in the form of lamina sliding over each other, such that at any instant the velocity at all
the points in particular lamina is the same. The lamina near the flow boundary move at a slower
rate as compared to those near the center of the flow passage (Singh, 2005). This type of flow
occurs in viscous fluids, fluids moving at slow velocity and fluids flowing through narrow
passages.

The turbulent flow is characterized by constant agitation and intermixing of fluid particles such
that their velocity changes from point to point and even at the same point from time to time.
This type of flow occurs in low density.

1.1 SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENT

Though, flow through pipes is not only the flow encountered in Engineering application, other
engineering flow that can be encountered include flow around solid object, diffusion of smoke
or gases in air and so on. But this experiment focuses on flow in pipes of small diameter. The
Reynolds number is determined from the visualization of the flow from measuring the time
taken to exit certain volume of fluid. The flow rate and velocity is determined in this
experiment.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE EXPERIMENT

 I. To understand the nature of turbulent flow through pipes in the classic Reynolds
experiment.
II. To verify that the Reynolds number is the sole quantity that characterizes normal flow
behavior in a smooth conduct by showing that the critical values of Reynolds number
are independent of process condition.
III. To determine the upper and lower critical values of Reynolds number through the visual
observation of flow behavior spanning the laminar flow regime, translational flow and
the turbulent flow regime.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 THEORY

The three common states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. A fluid is either a liquid or a gas. If
surfaces effects are not present, flow behaves similarly in all common fluids, whether gases or
liquid. According to Bansal (2002), a fluid is defined as a substance which deforms continuously
under the application of a shear stress. Fluid flow is generally divided into two which are
laminar and turbulent with them being distinguished by the Reynolds attached to their specific
flows. Transitional flow is usually found between these two flows. Osborne Reynolds carried
out extensive experiment on the study of fluid.

2.1 OSBORNE REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT

Reynolds conducted an experiment for observation and determination of these regimes of flow.
By introducing a fine filament of dye in to the flow of water through the glass tube, at its
entrance he studied the different types of flow. At low velocities the dye filament appeared as
straight line through the length of the tube and parallel to its axis, characterizing laminar flow.
As the velocity is increased the dye filament becomes wavy throughout indicating transition
flow. On further increasing the velocity the filament breaks up and diffuses completely in the
water in the glass tube indicating the turbulent flow. After conducting his experiment with
pipes different diameters and with water at different temperatures Reynolds concluded that
the various parameters on which the regimes of flow depend can be grouped together in a
single non dimensional parameter called Reynolds number. Reynolds number is defined as, the
ratio of inertia (destabilizing) force to the viscous damping (stabilizing) force. As R increases, the
inertial forces grow relatively larger and the flow gets destabilized into full-blown turbulence.
The Reynolds experiment determines the critical number at which laminar flow becomes
transitional and transitional becomes turbulent. The advantage of using a critical Reynolds
number, instead of a critical velocity is that the result of the experiment is applicable to all
Newtonian fluid flows in round pipes of all diameter.

Osborne Reynolds found from his experiment that the nature of flow in a closed conduit
depends on the following factors:

i. Internal diameter of the pipe (D)

ii. Density of the liquid (ℓ)
iii. Viscosity of the liquid (µ)
iv. Velocity of flow (v)

By combining the above variables, Reynolds determined a non-dimensionless quantity equal to

l vd l vd
which is known as the Reynolds number (Re) i.e Reynolds number, Re=
µ µ

In general, D is replaced by L, known as the characteristic length and the equation can therefore
be express as

l vL vL
Re= µ = Ʋ

µ
` Where Ʋ = kinematic viscosity =
l

In classifying certain flows, for incompressible flow in pipes, Reynolds number is based on the
pipe diameter. Therefore, laminar corresponds to Re≤2000, transitional flow occurs in the
range of 2000<Re<4000, and turbulent flow exist for Re>4000. The laminar flow is characterized
by particles of fluid that move in parallel layers each of which has a constant velocity but is in
motion relative to its neighboring layers. The flow is usually of a parabolic profile with the
greater resistance at the edges of the flow through narrow passages for example, pipes. The
turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic property changes. This includes low
momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow
velocity in space and time.

For a pipe of general consideration;

ρvL vL µ
ℜ= = where Ʋ=
µ Ʋ ρ

Where

Re-Reynolds number
v - Velocity of flow
L - Characteristic length
Ρ - Mass density of fluid
µ - dynamic viscosity of fluid
Ʋ - Kinematic viscosity of fluid
ul lu 2 l2 internal force( drag force)
Also, multiplying the Reynolds no by yields which is
ul µ ul viscous force

For flow in pipes;

ρvD vD QD
ℜ= = =
µ Ʋ AƲ

Where

Re - Reynolds number
v - Velocity of flow
Q – Volumetric flow rate
A – Characteristic Area
D - Diameter in case of pipe flow
 Ρ - Mass density of fluid
µ - dynamic viscosity of fluid
Ʋ - Kinematic viscosity of fluid

2.1.1 OSBORNE REYNOLDS APPARATUS

Reynolds apparatus consists of water tank having a glass tube leading out of it. The glass tube
has a bell mouth at entrance and a regulating valve at outlet, a dye container with an
arrangement for injecting a fine filament of dye at the entrance of the glass tube. Each of these
parts can be described below:

i. Dye reservoir: It is a small tank which is fixed under it, a dust that is used to store dye.
The cover plate was provided by the dye injector.
ii. Dye injector: It is a capillary tube connected to the edge of dye reservoir through which
the dye is injected into the water stream. It made a provision for thin and gradual flow
of dye into the water stream.
iii. Tank: It is a huge cylindrical container made of plastic material, supported by the tank
stand. It stores the water used throughout the experiment. It is designed such that a
constant edge of water in the tank is maintained.
iv. Ring diffuser: Is used to dispose the fluid dye from the injection point to the tank for
disposal.
v. Sight tube: It consist of a transparent tube where it aids in studying the fluid flow. This
transparent conduit makes it possible to study all visual observation about the fluid
flowing through the tank.
Figure 1: Osborne Reynold’s Apparatus
2.1.2 OSBORNE REYNOLDS OBSERVATION

Reynolds observed that in case of flow through pipe for values of Re<2000 the flow is laminar
while offer Re>40000 it is turbulent and for 2000<Re<4000 it is transition flow as seen in the
table below.

Table 1: Reynolds number for different types of flow and for different boundary conditions

Type of flow Reynolds number

Pipe flow Canal flow

Laminar flow < 2000 < 500

Transition flow 2000 to 4000 500 to 2000

Turbulent flow > 4000 >2000

CHAPTER THREE
 THE EXPERIMENT
At the beginning of the experiment, the dye reservoir was filled with dye and its valve was
opened until it reaches mark at the bell mouth inlet. Then the control valve was closed. The
head tank was then filled gradually with water to the overflow and the valve was left opened.
The control valve was opened and closed in the flow visualization pipe to admit water to the
pipe.

The inlet valve was slightly opened until water tickles from the overflow pipe. The control pipe
on the flow visualization pipe was opened slightly so that a low speed flow occurs in the pipe.
The valve controlling was turned in to let the dye make a slight trace of dye into the pipe. The
traces of the dye in the flow visualization pipe illustrated the character of flow of the water
from the start of the experiment (i.e. the first flow observed, the dye should remain in a steady,
narrow stream indicating laminar flow).

The control valve was opened in small increment so that the flow speed gradually increased. At
a certain point, the flow speed increases and the flow becomes transitional. The flow rate was
further increased till the flow finally reached a turbulent state. The change to fully turbulent is
the second stage at which measurement was taken.

During each stage of visualization of flow, the exit water is collected in a graduated cylinder and
the time taken to collect it was taken so that volume per seconds is calculated (volumetric
flowrate). The nature and temperature of flow was taken and the procedure was repeated for
two other times.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2: Three flow regimes: (a) laminar, (b) transitional & (c) turbulent
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.0 RESULT

The average velocity of flow was determined using the continuity equation for incompressible
fluid.

V
v=
A ∆t

Where:

v = Average velocity of flow

V = Volume of water collected

A = Cross-sectional area of pipe
∆ t = Time required to collect it

πD 2
Q = AV, i.e flow rate of the water through the area of the pipe cross section ( ) where D =
4
Diameter of the pipe. The Reynolds number can be calculated using the formula

l vL vD
Re= µ = Ʋ

The result obtained from these formula can be found on table_____________________

The temperature (T) is plotted against

4.1 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION AND REFERENCES

5.0 CONCLUSION

The following can be concluded from the experiment conducted:

i. Laminar flow regime occurs when the Reynold’s number is less than 2000;
ii. Transitional flow occurs when the Reynold’s number fall between 2000 and 4000;
iii. Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number is greater than 4000.

The experiment was assumed to be at room temperature and so therefore, it cannot be

concluded that the flow behavior in conduit is a function of temperature.

5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

i. The flow rate should be measured directly by incorporating a flowmeter into the
apparatus instead of calculating It manually which may cause larger deviation it
manually which may cause larger deviation from the real value.
ii. The experiment should be carried out at different temperatures to help reach a more
considerable conclusion.
iii. A pipe of uniform diameter and length should be used instead of joining one with
another.
iv. All joint should be fixed and blocked to avoid future leakages.

5.2 REFERENCES

Bansal, R.K. (2002). ‘Fluid mechanics’. 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, London.
Singh, S. (2005). ‘Experiments on Fluid Mechanics’. 1 st ed., Sarabjit Publishing Corp.,
Bangladesh.