General Chordate Characters :

1. Aquatic, aerial or terrestrial. All free-living with no fully parasitic forms.

2. Body small to large, bilaterally symmetrical and metamerically segmented.

3. A postanal tail usually projects beyond the anus at some stage and may or may
not persist in the adult.

4. Exoskeleton often present; well developed in most vertebrates.

5. Bodywall triploblastic with 3 germinal layers : ectoderm, mesoderm and

endoderm.

6. Coelomate : animals having a true coelom.

7. A skeletal rod, the notochord, present at some stage in life cycle

8. A cartilaginous or bony, living and jointed endoskeleton present in the majority

of members (vertebrates).

9. Pharyngeal gill slits present at some stage; may or may not be functional.

10.Digestive system is complete with digestive glands

11.Blood vascular system closed. Heart ventral with dorsal and ventral blood
vessels. Hepatic portal system well developed.

12.Excretory system comprising proto-or meso-or meta-nephric kidneys.

13.Nerve cord dorsal and tubular. Anterior end usually enlarged to form brain.

14.Sexes separate with rare exceptions.

Special Chordate Characterisctics :

1. Presence of the notochord : 1. Notochord: It is a solid un-jointed, elastic rod-

like structure made of cartilage. Sheath covering the notochord is called
notochordal sheath. they are situated on the dorsal side between the dorsal
hollow nerve cord and the alimentary canal

2. Presence of the dorsal tubular nerve cord : The nerve cord of chordates is
always hollow and consists of bundle of nerve fibres and lies dorsal to the
notochord.
 3. Presence of the paired pharyngeal gill-slits : All the chordates have at some
stage of life, a series of paired narrow openings, the gill slits on the lateral
sides of the pharynx

4. Presence of the Post-anal tail : It is a post-anal part of the body which is

reduced or absent in many adult chordates.

1. Urochordates are marine forms, found in all seas from the intertidal zone to
deep waters.

2. They commonly called as ‘sea-squirts’ as they splash water when disturbed.

They are either single or colonial. The ascidians, when disturbed, forcefully
eject two jets of water from the two siphons by sudden contraction, hence the
popular name 'sea squirts'.

3. They are enclosed in a sac like structure called tunic.

4. Notochord, dorsal nerve cord are present in the larval forms

5. Urochordates (95%) exhibit alteration of generation in which there is free

moving larval stage and an adult which leads a sessile (attached) life

6. Few Urochordates lead a pelagic life throughout their life

7. These are also called as the Tunicata because of the protective outer covering
that is present called as the tunic.

Characteristics of Herdmania :

Orientation of the body:

1. The body of the herdmania is more or less laterally compressed and has a
peculiar orientation. The two flat surfaces represent the lateral left and right
sides.

2. This unusual orientation is caused by the rotatory changes undergone by the

larva during metamorphosis.

3. Shape is roughly oblong. Resembling a potato. Size varies from 9.5cmx7cmx

4cm to 12x8x4
 4. Colour of the Herdmania when emerged is pink in colour but later develops
red patches which is characteristic of this species.

5. The entire animal is enclosed inside a sac like structure called tunic or test

6. The animal is divisible into 2 regions, the body and the foot.

Body Proper:

1. The free broad end is the body proper has 2 external openings

2. Branchial or incurrent and atrial or exhalent siphons project out as branchial

and atrial apertures.

3. The branchial aperture marks the anterior end

4. The atrial aperture will be slightly in higher position than the branchial and
opens outward whereas the atrial opens on the sides

5. The base of the branchial siphon there is a ring of long tentacles called
branchial tentacles

6. The base of the atrial there is a ring of serrated folds called atrial tentacles

7. The position where the atrial aperture is placed is considered dorsal which is
limited whereas opposite to it which is extensive is the ventral surface

Foot

1. Narrow end is attached to the substratum is called the foot and is completely
the test. Foot measures about 4cms

2. Shape of the foot varies according to the habitat. In smooth sand it is oval in
shape and smooth surface if the habitat has rough surface the foot has irregular
outline

3. It helps to anchor the organism to the substratum

Tadpole Larva

1. The zygote formed undergoes unequal holoblastic cleavage

2. At the end of cleavage blastula is formed which lead to gastrulation

 3. Gastrulation leads to formation of three germinal layers and the end a tadpole
larva is formed

4. Larva has two distinct regions: short oval body and a long tail

5. The entire larva is covered by a thin test secreted by the ectoderm

6. The test in the tail region is fringed and forms the caudal fin and the sides of
the tail has oblique striations thereby giving the appearance of fin rays

7. Anterior part of the body there are three adhesive papillae made of ectodermal
cells

8. Nervous system consists of an enlarged anterior part called sense vesicle or

brain

9. The sense vesicle is continued posteriorly into a solid, thick mass of nerve
cells, the visceral ganglion which continues as dorsal hollow nerve cord

10.Ventral to nerve cord is the notochord

11.Sense vesicle contains a pigmented statocyst (otocyst) and two unequal ocelli

12.The alimentary canal formed is distinguished into pharynx, oesophagus,

stomach, intestine but not functional

13.Atrial cavity with aperture forms around the pharynx

14.The heart and pericardium is formed

15.For three hours it swims actively and sink to the bottom to metamorphose into
an adult

Retrogressive Metamorphosis

The type of metamorphosis, where the highly advanced larval form ends in lowly
organised adult is called as retrogressive metamorphosis. This is observed in the life
history of herdmania of urochordate animals. This phenomenon is explained with
reference to Herdmania.

Digestive System of Amphioxus

 1. The digestive system of Branchiostoma consists of an alimentary canal and
digestive glands.
2. Hepatic diverticulum, the so-called liver, referred to as digestive gland. It is a
large blind pouch, seen at the junction of the oesophagus and the midgut.
Food:
Amphioxus is a microphagous animal. The food consists of protozoans, algae,
diatoms and other organic particles.

Feeding:
1. It obtains food by filtering the stream of water that enters the oral hood.
2. The oral cirri bend to act as a sieve which prevents the large food particles
entering the vestibule. The sensory papillae in the buccal cirri and velar
tentacles act as chemoreceptors and taste the nature of the food particles and
also estimate the size of food particles.
3. Inside the vestibule the ciliated wheel organ produces a swirling current so that
the water with the food enters the velum. The Hatschek pit function is not
known but the food gets trapped in it and the beating action of the cilia pushes
the food to the velum. Velum acts as a sphincter in sending the food into the
pharynx.
4. The pharynx helps in the collection of food. The major part of the water passes
into the atrium through the gill slits.
5. The cilia helps to push the water out into the atrium through the atriopore.
6. The food particles then fall on the floor of the pharyngeal cavity which is then
entangled by the mucus secrecting cells of the endostyle.
7. The mucus entangled food parctles are then pushed by the upward current
which is produced by the cilia of endostyle and the lateral cilia of the gill bars.
8. These food particles move towards the epipharengeal groove then to the
oesophagus followed by the hepatic diverticulum and midgut.
9. The food once it enters the hepatic diverticulum and the midgut is then
subjected to the digestive enzymes secreted by the hepatic diverticulum.
10.The food is then pushed backwards by the cilia that is present in the cavity,
goes to the intestine and the undigested food is the thrown out of the anus.
11.This has two types of digestion that is the intercellular ans the extracellular, the
intercellular digestion takes place in the hepatic diverticulum whereas the
erxtracellular digestion takes place in the midgut.

Circulatory System
1. resembles almost the vertebrates
2. The blood is colourless and lacks the pigment, there is no heart
3. The blood vessels are muscular and pulsatile in nature.
4. The rate of contraction is very slow and the phenomenon of contraction is
irregular and is not controlled by any coordinated system.

The Blood vessels present:

Sinus venosus:
 1. The blood from the different parts of the body is collected into a large sac
called sinus venosus.
2. The sinus venosus is situated below the posterior end of the pharynx. It is
contractile and allows the pump the blood to ventral aorta.

Ventral Aorta:
1. From the sinus venosus a large median artery arises which extends forward
below the
pharynx.
2. This artery is named the ventral aorta. The ventral aorta gives the branchial
vessels
carrying impure blood to the gill- bars.

Branchial Vessels:
1. There are two types of branchial vessel, efferent and afferent branchial vessel.
Impure blood
from the ventral aorta enters the gills by means of afferent branchial vessel.
2. Purification of blood is done in gills and the pure blood is collected by the
efferent branchial vessel which empties the pure blood into dorsal aorta.

Dorsal aorta:
1. From the gill-bars the pure blood is collected by the paired dorsal aortae,
situated one on each dorsolateral side of the pharynx.
2. These paired aortae join posteriorly to form an unpaired median dorsal aorta.
This dorsal aorta extends posteriorly up to the tip of the tail as caudal artery.
The paired dorsal aortae give small arterial vessels to the anterior part of the
body.
3. True capillaries are absent.

Sub-intestinal vein:
1. The blood from the tail region is collected by a caudal vein.
2. It proceeds forward to join the sub-intestinal vein. The sub-intestinal vein
collects blood from the intestinal plexus.

Hepatic portal system:

1. The sub intestinal vein proceeds anteriorly as the hepatic portal vein it breaks
into a capillary network.
2. From hepatic diverticulum blood is collected by a hepatic vein which runs
along the dorsal side of the hepatic diverticulum and joins with the contractile
sinus venosus.

Cardinal veins:
1. The blood from the ventrolateral sides of the body wall is collected by two
pairs of cardinal veins — the anterior cardinals and the posterior cardinals.
Course of circulation:
The course of circulation in Amphioxus is as follows:
(a) The blood circulates from the posterior to the anterior end through the ventral
vessel,
sub-intestinal vein and the posterior cardinal veins, whereas
(b) The paired and unpaired dorsal aortae and the anterior cardinal veins drive blood
from
the anterior to the posterior direction.

General characteristics of Agnatha

1. These are the jawless vertebrates.

2. All are aquatic – Marine and freshwater

3. Both parasitic and non-parasitic forms are present.

4. They have eel like body which grows for about a meter.

5. Paired appendages with the absence of exoskeleton. Unpaired fins are present
with slender fin rays.

6. Endoskeleton- membranous/cartilage

7. Vertebral column- persistent notochord with a fibrous neural tube

8. Single median nasal opening, semicircular canals are 2 , eyes present/absent

9. Presence of gill slits which are 7 to 14.

10.They have a persistant hypophysis.

11.Gonads are absent.

12.Sexes are separate, external fertilisation, development may be direct or indirect

Classification

2 classes

i- Ostracodermi- Extinct class Paleozoic Era (542–251

million years ago)

Fossil jawless Agnathans

Fish like body with heavy armour- heavy dermal plates

Single paired fin behind their head

e.gs- Heterostracans –Cephalaspis and

osteostracans-Pteraspis

ii- Cyclostomata- only living class Extant

(cyclo-circular; stoma-mouth)

Ammocete larva
1. The eggs hatch in about 3 weeks into minute transparent larvae called
ammocoetes.

2. They are so radically different from their parents that they were originally
described as a distinct genus, Ammocoetes.

3. At first, they are about 7 mm in length and stay in the nest.

4. When about 15 mm long, they quit the nest and burrow in mud and sand in
quiet water.

5. Each larva constructs and inhabits a V or U-shaped tunnel.

6. The larval period lasts from 3 to 7 years, according to species during which
they grow to about 170 mm in length and become opaque.

7. The ammocoete larva is of great importance as it probably represents the most

primitive and generalized vertebrate form intermediate between
cephalochordates and vertebrates.

8. Its body is eel-like but it differs from the adult in several respects.

9. It has a continuous single median dorsal fin. It is a blind, toothless and non-
parasitic filter
feeder.

10. The larva’s mouth is overhung by a hood like upper lip that protrudes above
the surface of the silt.

11. The pharynx is continued into the oesophagus posteriorly.

12.The endostyle is present on the ventral side of the pharynx.

 13.The mucus secreted by the endostyle passes into the epipharyngeal grooves of
the pharynx.

14. Ammocoete is regarded as connecting link between the cephalochordates and

cyclostomes.

15.After about three –seven years, the ammocoete reaches about 17cm, it
undergoes a metamorphosis

16.On completion of metamorphosis, a typical lamprey such as Petromyzon

migrates to the sea, where it feeds by attaching itself with its sucker to bony
fishes

17.It rasps into the flesh with a toothed, tongue like structure on the floor of the
mouth

18.Saliva containing an anticoagulant facilitates the ingestion of blood and muscle

tissue.

General Characters of Pisces

Devonian period is called as the “Golden age of fishes”

The largest fish is Rhinodon typus
The smallest fish is Paedocypis progenetica

1. Fishes are aquatic, they are cold blooded.

2. It has a streamlined spindleshaped body. It is helpful in swimming.

3. Their body is dividible into head, trunk and tail region.

4. Skin contains multicellular mucus glands which acts as a lubricant.

5. The body is covered by scales. The types of scales are placoid, cycloid, ctenoid
and ganoid.

6. Exoskeleton – Dermal scales/ Bony plates

7. Endoskleton – Bone or cartilage

8. Ribs are present.

9. Pectoral and pelvic girdles – support paired fins.

 10. On head a pair of eyes is present.

11. On the lateral side

Interesting features about Dipnoi

1. They have a discontinuous distribution

2. Fresh water fishes with streamlined or eel shaped

3. Body is covered with thin cycloid scales which are modified cosmoid scales

4. They have a diphycercal tail/caudal fin

5. Presence of Paired fins which are lobe/filamentous like with partly calcified fin
rays

6. Notochord persists in these fishes

7. Skull is slightly ossified

8. Maxillae and Premaxillae bones are absent. Teeth are absent instead have
crushing plates

9. Autostylic type of Jaw suspension

10.The lateral line sensory system is well-developed

11.Digestive system- spiral valve is present in the intestine

12.Presence of Single or two lungs for pulmonary respiration apart from gill
respiration

13.The external nostrils are enclosed within the upper lip and two internal nostrils
open into the mouth cavity

14.Nostrils helps in aerial respiration

15.Heart auricle is partly divided giving the appearance of three chambers

16.Conus arteriosus is contractile

17.Excretion is by mesonephric kidneys

 18.Presence of cloaca

19.Well developed cerebral hemispheres. Optic lobes are fused and forms a single
lobe attached to the cerebellum

20.Fertilisation is external

21.Development includes a larval form

Evolutionary significance

The features indicate that dipnoans are not most advanced pisces from which
amphibians could evolve. They are degenerate descendants of Crossopterygii

According to Jarvik (1968) dipnoans are more specialized than crossopterygian.

According to latest view, both dipnoans and amphibians have originated from some
crossopterygian like
ancestor

There must have been a common ancestor for Dipnoi, Crossopterygii and
Labyrinthodont amphibia. So most probably, dipnoans are not the “fathers of the
amphibia”, but “uncles of the amphibian”.

However, Jarvik (1980) considers that the Dipnoi may be related to elasmorbranchs
than any other animals

General Characteristics of Amphibia :

1. Amphibians live on both land and freshwater, these are modified from the
fishes and have limbs to live on the land so they are called as the amphibians.

2. The body is divided to head, elongated trunk, neck and tail may or may not be
present. It is present in urodela but not in anurans.

3. There is no exoskeleton the skin is moist, smooth and with several mucus
glands in some it is rough, dermal scales are hidden in the skin. The skin is
well vascularized and used as respiratory organ.

4. The head consists of a pair of eyes, tympanum and a pair of nostrils that
communicaes with the buccal cavity.
5. These are carnivorous, mouth is bounded by the jaws which consists of small
homodont teeth the tongue is protrusible, alimentary canal teminates into
cloaca.

6. Trunk bears two pairs of limbs (tetrapods) one pair of forelimbs and one pair of
hindlimbs which are pentadactyl with five toes and sometimes only four digits
are present. Digits are clawless and some are limbless, paired fins are absent
and median fins if present is without finrays, tetrapod limbs help for
locomotion on land. The digits are webbed for swimming in water and in some
the limbs are absent.

7. Respiratory organs are lungs in adult amphibians but larval stages have gills as
respiratory organs, and some amphibians are having external gills in aquatic
adults respiration is also done by skin and mouth lining.

8. The heart is three chambered one right auricle , left auricle and one ventricle
which are permanent chambers. Sinus venosus and truncus arteriosis present .
Aortic arches 3 pairs.

9. Renal and hepatic portal system well developed. Erythrocytes (RBC) are
nucleated large, biconvex and oval in shape. body temperature variable
(poikilotherms).

10.Nervous system is well developed. Central nervous system consists of brain ,

brain is poorly developed having a pair of cerebral hemispheres and
cerebellum is small, there are
ten pair of cranial nerves.

11.Sense organs such as a pair of eyes with eyelids , tympanum and olfactory
receptors are present. Lateral line sense organs are seen in the larval stages and
in the aquatic forms. Nostrils are connected to buccal cavity and middle ear has
single ossicles, columella.

12. Endoskeleton is bony, Notochord is replaced by vertebral column. Skull is

bicondylar with two occipital condyles. Jaw suspension is autostylic,(autostylic
means upper jaw is fused with the skull).

13.Kidneys are mesonephric. They are ureotelic animals and have large urinary
bladder are is present. urinary ducts open into cloaca

14.Sexes are separate and have paired gonads , Gonoducts are present that are
present and open into cloaca along with rectum and urinary bladder .male
without copulatory organs . Fertilization can be external or internal. Females
mostly oviparous.
 15.Development is indirect cleavage is holoblastic but unequal , no extra
embryonic membranes, larva is aquatic tadpole larva which metamorphoses
into adult.

Amphibia is classified as :
Class Stegocephalia (extinct form)

Order Labyrinthodontia

Order Phyllospondyli

Order Lepospondyli

2. Sub class Lissamphibia (living forms)

Order Apoda (limbless)

Example: Ichthyophis, Uroaeotyphlus

Order Urodela (tailed amphibians)

Example Necturus, Siren, Ambystoma ,Triton

Order Anura (tail-less amphibians)

Example Pipa, Rana, Bufo, Hyla.

Origin of Amphibia
1. The extinct class of amphibia is the Labyrinthodontia, their fossils were so
called because of the nature of dentine of their teeth they fluorished during the
devonian period to permian period.

2. The amphibians resemble the pisean characteristics, they are cold blooded,
respire through gills, Both have air bladders which serves as the lungs. The
aquatic amphibians have canal system which are the samein the fishes. Both
lay their eggs in water whee the larval form continues.

Causes of transistion from land to water

During Devonian period seasonal drought Rhipidistian crossopterygians had

sufficiently developed lobe fins to move over land to ponds containing water,
periodic escapes resulted in conversion of their lobe fins into pentadactyl tetrapod
limbs another view contrasts between aquatic and terrestrial habitats during
Devonian. compared to water, Land had food, cover, shelter and breeding places,
and had less impurities and less predators.
General Characteristics of Reptiles
1. These are the terrestrial forms which are formed creeping burrowing, found in
tropical areas and deserts .

2. The body is divisible into head, trunk, neck and tail region, it varies from long
cylindrical, limbs are lost in snakes.

3. Exoskeleton consists of epidermal scales which cover the body, the skin is dry
and devoid of mucus glands, in turtles the dermal scales are present and scutes.

4. Head consists of terminal mouth

General Chaterisctics of Mammals:
1. Mammals are aquatic, aerial and terrestrial in habitat, they are warm blooded
and air breathing vertebrates.
2. Body is divisible into head, neck trunk and tail region the body size varies
from as small as a shrew to as big as a whale or an elephant.
3. Head is well developed, eyes are present with movable eyelids, thecodont
dentition, external ear is present.
4. Body is covered with hair, which helps in protection and for conservation of
heat.
5. The trunk bears limbs, limbs are two pairs, pentadactyl each with 5 or fewer
digits and variously adapted for walking, swimming, flying, holding and for
offence and defence purposes.
6. Exoskeleton includes the lifeless nails, horny epidermal hairs, scales, spine,
claws, hoofs, bony dermal plates.
7. Skin is richly glandular which consists of sweat glands, sebaceous glands, in
females the the mammary glands are well develped.

Pisciculture
It is a part of aquaculture involves in breeding, rearing, harvesting, preserving and
transporting the fishes for the commercial value.

Aquaculture It is a branch of biology that deals with rearing and culturing of fishes,
prawns, crabs, lobsters and oysters under controlled conditions using scientific
methods for maximum productivity.

Marine Fisheries

1. Fishing areas found in sea.

2. There are three types – coastal, offshore and deep sea

3. The five main fishing harbours are – Mangalore, Kochi, Chennai,
Vishkapatnam and Raichak in Kolkata.
4. The examples are : Hilsa, Sardine, Bombay duck, Mackerel and red mullet.
5. These fishes are catched by using catamarans.

Inland Fisheries
1. The fresh water system have the major rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, tanks
and ponds have their own fish population.
2. Fresh water in the form of canal and lakes ponds and pools.
3. 3.9 million metric tonnes of fish production in 2019.
4. The examples are Paleomon, Macrobranchium, Labeo rohita, Catla catla and
Mali
Procedure of Fish culture
1. The fishes should be herbivorous, and should be able to feed on the natural
food available and on the artificial feeds.
2. The fish should be hardy and disease resistant.
3. The fish should be able to withstand the environmental conditions like high
temperature and pH.
4. The fish should have fast growth rate inspite of less consumption of food.
5. The fish shuld be tasty and in demand.
6. The fish should have a high productive rate.
7. The temperature of the water should be between 20 to 30 degree celsius.
8. The light is the important factor of the influences the rate of productivity. It
controls the flora and oxygen content of the water of the pond.
9. Turbidity due to profusion of plankton is an indication of pond’s high fertility.
Turbidity due to high concentration of silt, mud or algal growth causes death of
fishes due to choking of gills.
10.The water gets it colour by the phytoplankton, zooplankton and the organi
materials which are present The water colour that is suitable for the fishes is
colourless, ligh green or blue.
11.A favorable pH range is between 6.5 and 9
12.Alkalinity refers to amount of carbonates and bicarbonates and hydroxides in
the water and water hardness refers to the concentration of calcium,
magnesium salts in water - alkalinity - 50-300ppm hardness - 30-180 ppm

Types of cultutre

Monoculture A single species is grown in a pond, helpful in producing uniform

healthy and better yeild. Eg catfish.

Mono sex culture The fish of only one sex is grown in a pond, this gives a better yield
and lager fishes. Eg Tilapia mossambica

Poly sex culture Either the male or the female of two or more is reared Eg male of
rohu, naini and bhakur on same pond.

Composite Fish Farming

1. it is the method of culturing of fishes
Types of breeds:
Indigenous breeds
1. The breeds that are native to India.
2. They are highly disease resistant
3. Chickens are poor layers of small sized eggs.
4. Examples : Aseel, Chittagong, Ghagus and Basra

Exotic Breeds :
5. Breeds are produced outside India.
6. Modern breeds of India
7. Very good yeild in the egg and meat production.
8. Several Breed varieties have been developed
9. The examples are : Plymouth Rock, White Leghorn, New Hampshire, Cornish

Birds of American Class :

These are the birds that are developed or native of United States.
Dual purpose breeds – egg and meat.
All breeds have yellow coloured skin
They lay brown shelled eggs.

Types of Breeds
There are two types of Breeds – indegenous and exotic. They are the ones which have
been introduced to India with the objective of improving milk production.

Some exotic breeds are:

1. Holstein Friesian
2. Red Dane
3. Brown Swiss
4. Jersey
5. Ayrshire

Holstein Friesian – North Holland in Netherlands

1. They are black and white
2. Best milch breed in the world.
3. 12 to 15l per day
4. 7200-9000 kg of milk / lactation.

Red Dane – Denmark

1. Red in colour
 2. Dual purpose breed
3. Good milk yeilders
4. 4500 - 5500 Kg of milk / lactation.

Jersy - British Island of Jersey in the English Channel.

1. They are light brown with or without white markings
2. Best milch breed in the world.
3. 4000 – 5000 L of milk / lactation.
4. Milk Production – 20 L / day

Brown Swiss - Switzerland

1. They are brown in colour.
2. It is a miltch and a draught brees.
3. Capacious udder and are good milk yielders.
4. Milk Production – 25 L / day

Ayshire – South west Scotland

1. Colour - Light to deep cherry red with or without white markings on the body.
2. Milk Production – 18 L / day
3. 5200–5400 L of milk / lactation.
4. Capacious udder and are good milk yielders.

Improvements In Cattle breeds.

1. The process of creating a new breed with superior characters in the offsprings
is called as animal breeding.
2. Breeding of animals is called as
Skull of the Frog
1. The skull is made up of cartilage bones and membrane bones, it is broad and
flat, made up of the following parts – cranium, jaws, orbits and sense capsules.
2. The cranium is the middle narrow cavity that lodges