MATTER & ITS COMPOSITION-CLASS 9

MATTER AND ENERGY

Everything in the universe can be classified as either matter or energy. The planets, the stars, air, water,
etc., are made up of matter, and things like heat and light are forms of energy.
Since, as we have just said, everything can be categorized as either matter or energy, it is essential to study
them in order to understand the laws of nature.

Matter Any thing that occupies space has a mass and offers resistance is called matter.
For example, a chair, a table, a book, water and air around us are all matter. It is obvious that they occupy
space and have mass, let us see if they offer resistance. Resistance is the tendency to oppose an external
effort. A chair, a table or a book opposes your effort to lift it. Water opposes your effort to swim. Air opposes
your effort to drive your bicycle. All these bodies, thus, offer resistance.

Energy Anything that is not matter and has the capacity to do work is called energy.
For example, heat, light, electricity and sound do not possess mass. So they are not matter. However, they
have the capacity to do work. Heat causes water to boil. Light helps plants prepare their food from carbon
dioxide and water (photosynthesis). Electricity makes fans revolve and trains run. Sound causes your
eardrum to vibrate so that you can hear. Thus, heat, light, electricity and sound are forms of energy.

MOLECULAR OR PARTICLE CONCEPT OF MATTER

The following are some of the important points of the molecular concept of matter.
 Matter consists of extremely small particles, which are capable of independent existence. These are
called molecules.
 The molecules of the same substance are similar in all respects. Molecules of one substance are
different from those of the other.
 The molecules are always in a state of ceaseless motion.
 The molecules exert forces of attraction on one another.
 The molecules possess definite quantities of kinetic and potential energies.
 For the chemical reaction, the molecules of the reacting substances collide. This results in the
redistribution of atoms between the molecules to form the new product molecules.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter can be classified in a number of ways. Ancient philosophers and scientists attempted to analyze and
classify matter in the form of five elements: Air, Earth, Fire, Sky and Water. According to modern science
there are two principal ways of classifying matter.
(i) On the basis of physical states as a solid, liquid or gas and
(ii) By its chemical constitution as an element, compound or mixture.

Classification on the Basis of Physical State

Matter can exist in one of the three physical forms under different conditions. These three states are solids,
liquid and gas. For example, water exists as ice (solid water), as liquid water and as stream (gaseous water).

Solid Liquid Gaseous

A solid has a fixed volume and a A liquid has a fixed volume, but A gas has neither a fixed volume
definite shape. not a definite shape. It assumes nor a definite shape. It assumes
Example: A piece of glass (say, the shape of the container in the volume and shape of the
a paper weight) or steel (say, a which it is placed. container in which it is held.
screw), Sand, Sugar, Silver, Example: Place 100ml of water Example: When an incense stick
Copper etc. in a flask and a glass. The is burnt in a room, the entire
volume is the same i.e., 100ml room, big or small, is filled with
in each case, but the liquid its fragrance. The gas molecules
assumes the shape of the carrying the fragrance travel
container. throughout the room. Thus the
Water, Benzene, alcohol etc. gas assumes the volume and
shape of the room.
Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Carbondioxide, Nitrousoxide etc.
 Distinction between the Three States of Matter
S.No. Property Solids Liquids Gases
Liquids do not have
Gases neither have
Solids possess definite definite shape, but
definite shape nor
Shape and shape and volume. This is volume is definite. This
1 volume. It is due to
Volume due to the close packing of is due to the loose
the random motion of
molecules in solids. packing of the
molecules.
molecules.
The intermolecular
The intermolecular space in The intermolecular
space in a liquid is
Intermolecular a solid is very small, much space in a very
2 large than in a solid
spaces smaller than in a liquid or a large, the largest
and smaller than that in
gas. among all the states.
a gas.
Forces of attraction Forces of attraction
Mutual forces of attraction
Intermolecular between molecules are between the
3 between the molecules are
force less than those in case molecules are
maximum.
of solids. negligible.
The density of solid is high.
This is because large
number of particles is
The density of a liquid
packed in a given volume.
is less than that of The density of the
4 Density However, there are few
solids and higher than gas is extremely low.
exceptions to this; for
that of gas.
example, ice has a lower
density than water and
floats on it.
The surface area of a solid
is large because it is open
from all sides. If a solid is
The surface area of a
broken, the surface area A gas does not have
liquid is small as it can
5 Surface Area increases because new a free surface like a
have maximum of one
surfaces are created. Thus, solid or a liquid.
free surface.
the surface area of a
crushed solid is extremely
large.
Gases are highly
Solids are least compressible. It is
It is slightly more than
compressible. It is due to due to the large
6 Compressibility that in solids and less
the small empty space empty spaces
than that of gases.
between their molecules. between the
molecules.
Gases show the
property of diffusion.
Liquids have a small
Solids have no tendency to It is again due to the
7 Diffusion tendency and diffuse
diffuse. large empty spaces
slowly.
between the
molecules.
Molecules have
Molecules have linear
complete freedom of
as well as vibratory
Molecular The molecules possess motion. They
8 motion. Motion is
motion vibratory motion. possess translatory
restricted to the
vibratory and rotatory
boundary of the liquid.
motion.
Molecules possess
Molecules possess least These molecules are
9 Energy moderate value of
energy most energetic.
energies.
The drops of the same
liquid or miscible liquids A gas freely mixes
Pieces of a solid do not
coalesce. That is, when with all other gases
coalesce as the drops of
10 Coalescence they are brought in to form a
liquid do.
contact with each other, homogenous
they diffuse and form mixture.
one bigger drop.
11 Rigidity Rigid Fluid Fluid
Inter conversion of Matter
Solid to liquid state:
Melting
Solid             Liquid
Solidification freezing

1. The process of conversion of a solid into liquid state at a particular temperature is called melting.
2. The process of conversion of a liquid into solid, at a particular temperature is called freezing.
E.g.:  Ice    Melting
     Water 
Freezing
The constant temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid is called the melting point of the solid.
1. Melting points of pure solids are fixed and sharp however presence of impurities can lower the
melting point of a solid. Thus melting point can be used to test the purity of a substance.
E.g.: Ice melts at a temperature above 0C form water, so melting point of ice is 0C.

Liquid to Gaseous State:

 Lilquid                Gas 
Vaporisation
liquefication condensation 

 The process of conversion of a liquid into gaseous (or) vapour state is called vapourisation
 The process of conversion of gaseous state into liquid state is called condensation. It is also known
as liquefaction.

Boiling point:
The constant temperature at which a liquid changes into the gaseous (or) vapour state at normal
atmospheric pressure is called the boiling point of the liquid.

E.g.: Water boils at 100C, above which it converts into steam. Hence boiling point of water is 100C.
The boiling point of pure liquids at constant pressure is fixed,
However liquids also undergo slow and gradual conversion to vapour state, at temperatures below
their boiling points, such a process is known as evaporation.

Effect of pressure on the Boiling Point of a liquid:

The boiling point of a liquid rises with increases in atmospheric pressure and falls with the decrease in
atmospheric pressure.
E.g.: Pressure cooker works on the principle that the B.P is proportional to the pressure existed.
 At hill stations, water boils at a temperature lower than 100C due to atomic pressure is less than 1
atm.

Solid to Gaseous state :

 Solid   Sub      Gas 
 limation
De  sub lim ation /
Deposition

The process by which a solid charges directly into vapour state or gaseous state without going through liquid
state is called sublimation.
E.g.: Ammonium chloride, Iodine crystals, naphthalene and camphor

Inter conversion of solid to liquid to gas:

Latent Heat of fusion:

The heat required convert a solid into the liquid state is called latent heat of fusion. Latent heat of fusion of
ice is 3.34 x 105 J/Kg

Intermolecular Space and Force

As you know, everything is made up of very small particles, called molecules, which can exist independently.
The space between the molecules of a body is called intermolecular space. And the force of attraction acting
between these molecules is called intermolecular force.
The stronger the intermolecular force, the closer are the molecules to each other. Similarly, the weaker the
intermolecular force, the farther are the molecules from each other.
Diffusion
The mixing of one gas with another gas is called diffusion.

Compressibility
Decrease in the volume of the same quantity of gas under pressure is known as compressibility.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON STATES OF MATTER

It has been observed that both temperature and pressure affect the physical state of matter. Now let us see
that what will happen when heat is supplied to a crystal of a solid? On heating a solid expands because the
rise in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles. As a result of this the constituents of the
solid start vibrating more strongly and take up more space. Eventually, molecules vibrate so much that they
leave their fixed positions and a solid melts, becoming a liquid. This liquid can be poured in a container and it
will take up the shape of the container.

Now let us see as to what will happen if a liquid is supplied with heat? Liquid will be converted into a gas
(vapor). In the process, kinetic of the molecules will go much higher and the distance among the molecules
increases approximately one thousand times. Here each molecule is free to move in a continuous chaotic
motion (disordered motion) at a great speed throughout its containing vessel as mentioned earlier.

Effect of pressure on the three states of matter

Characteristics Solids Liquid Gas
Volume (and shape) does (a) Decreases with
1. Volume Negligible change
not change with pressure. increasing pressure.
(a) Cooling takes place
(a) The melting point is when the pressure is
(a) The boiling point rises
lowered slightly on suddenly released. Cooling
with increasing pressures.
2. Melting / increase in pressure. may lead to liquefaction of
(b) The boiling point is
Boiling (b) The melting point rises the gas.
reduced with decrease in
on decrease in pressure. (b) Liquefies at high
pressure.
pressure and low
temperature.

Effect of temperature on the three states of matter

Characteristics Solids Liquid Gas
At constant pressure, the
(a) Increases with rising
(a) Increases only slightly volume
temperature
with rising temperature (a) Increase with increasing
1. Volume
(b) Decreases only slightly temperature and
(b) Decreases with
with rising temperature (b) Decreases with
reduction in temperature.
reduction in temperature.
(a) Evaporates at all
temperatures.
(a) Melts at a particular (b) Evaporation becomes
Liquefies at low
2. Change in temperature called the faster at elevated
temperature and high
state melting point temperatures.
pressure.
(b) Some solids sublime. (c) Boils at a particular
temperature, called the
boiling point.

Boiling point: The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure is called boiling point of a liquid.
Melting Point: The temperature at which the solid melts.

Classification on the basis of chemical constituents

As you know, matter may exist in three physical states solid, liquid and gaseous. Let us now study how
matter may be classified on the basis of its chemical contents and characteristics.
Matter

Impure Substances
Pure Substances
(or Mixtures)

Elements Compounds
(Homogeneous) Homogeneous Heterogeneous
(Homogeneous)
1. Homogeneous matter:
Matter that has uniform composition and identical properties throughout the phase is called homogeneous
matter. All pure substances, elements or compounds are the examples of homogenous matter.

Some Common examples:

(i) Copper, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Salt, Water, Sugar etc.
(ii) A solution is also classified as homogenous matter. When a salt is dissolved in water, its
composition is uniform throughout the solution.
(iii) Air is a uniform mixture of so many gases.

All pure substances are homogeneous, but all homogeneous substances are not pure. For example, water
and sugar are pure and homogenous substances, but a solution of sugar in water, though homogenous, is
not a pure substance. Every drop of the solution has the same taste and composition, but it is neither pure
water nor pure sugar.

2. Heterogeneous matter:
Matter, that is made of two or more components, which are physically distinct, is called heterogeneous
matter. It consists of various phases and one phase has composition different from the other. All impure
substances, mixtures are the examples of heterogeneous matters.

Some Common examples:

(i) Mixture of sand and sulphur
(ii) A mixture of two different salts (sodium chloride + copper sulphate)
(iii) Mixture of two immiscible liquids (water + benzene) etc.

All heterogeneous substances are impure, but all impure substances are not heterogeneous. For example, a
mixture of sand and water is an impure substance and at the same time heterogeneous. But a solution of
sugar in water though impure, is not heterogeneous.

ELEMENTS
An element is a pure substance which cannot be split into simpler substances by any physical or chemical
means.
For instance, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, iron and chlorine are elements because they
cannot be broken down into simpler substances. However, water is not an element as it cane be broken
down into simpler substances, viz., hydrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide is also not an element as it can be
broken down into carbon and oxygen.

Characteristics of an Element
1. An element is pure and homogeneous substance.
2. It has characteristic melting and boiling points.
3. An element cannot be broken down into simpler substances by physical or chemical means.
4. An element is made up of the same kind of atoms. Different elements are made up of different kinds of
atoms. It is the kind of atom an element is made up of that determines its properties. That is why different
elements have different properties.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that takes part in the chemical reaction.

5. An element may chemically react with another element or compound (a compound may be broken down
into simpler substances) to form new substance(s). For example, hydrogen (an element) combines with
oxygen (an element) to form water (a compound). Also, Sodium (an element) reacts with water (a
compound) to form sodium hydroxide (a compound) and hydrogen (an element).

Classification of Elements
It should be noted that there are 114 elements known to us, out of which 92 elements occur in nature
whereas remaining 22 elements have been prepared artificially. All the substances in our universe are made
up of one or more of these elements. The elements are widely distributed in the earth crust in the free as well
as in the combined state. The elements are classified as follows.

(A) Classification of Elements on the Basic of their Physical State

On the basis of physical state, elements are classified as :

1. Solid elements: Solid elements are those which exist as solid at room temperature, sodium, potassium,
iron, gold, copper, sulphur, etc.
2. Liquid elements: Liquid elements are those which exist as liquid at room temperature. Some common
examples are bromine and mercury.
3. Gaseous elements: Gaseous elements are those which exist as gas at room temperature. For example,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, etc.
(B) Classification of Elements on the Basis of their Physical and Chemical Properties
Depending upon the physical and chemical properties, elements are further classified into following classes;

1. Metals
A metal is an element which is generally malleable, ductile and a good conductor of heat and electricity.
About 80% of the elements are metals. For example, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium,
silver, gold, mercury, tin, zinc, iron, etc. are metals. All the metals are solid at room temperature except,
mercury which is a liquid at room temperature.

2. Non-metals
Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity. They are neither malleable nor ductile. Non-metals
are generally soft. Examples of non-metals are hydrogen, oxygen, helium, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.
All the non-metals, except bromine, are solid or gas at room temperature. Bromine is only non-metal which is
liquid at room temperature.

3. Metalloids
The elements, which have properties intermediate between those of metals and non-metals are known as
metalloids or semimetals. Examples of metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, antimony, arsenic etc.

General Characteristics of Metals, Non-Metals and Metalloids

Property Metals Non-Metals Metalloids
May or may not have
No luster (except
1. Luster Metallic luster luster (arsenic has luster,
graphite and iodine)
but silicon does not)
Usually solid (carbon,
Usually hard solids
iodine, phosphorus,
(except metals like
sulphur, etc.) or
sodium and potassium,
2. State gaseous (hydrogen, Hard solids.
which are soft and those
nitrogen, oxygen,
like mercury, gallium and
chlorine, etc.); bromine
cesium, which are liquids)
is a liquid.
Usually high (except that
of sodium, potassium,
3. Density Low Intermediate
magnesium, calcium,
aluminium, etc.)
Bad conductors of heat Intermediate conduction of
4. Conduction of Good conductor of heat &
and electricity. heat.
Heat & Electricity electricity.
(except graphite)
Weakly basic & Weakly
5. Nature of oxides Basic Acidic
acidic or amphoteric.

COMPOUNDS
A compound is a pure substance formed by the combination of two or more elements in a definite proportion
by mass.

A compound is a pure and homogeneous substance, and may be split into more than one element by
chemical means. For example, water is a compound as it is formed by the combination of 1 part by mass of
hydrogen and 8 parts by mass of oxygen. When split up, water gives hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio
(1:8) by mass. Similarly, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, etc., are compounds, as they are formed
by the combination of more than one element.

Some common compounds and their constituent elements.

S.No. Compound Constituent elements Proportion by mass
1 Water (H2O) Hydrogen, Oxygen 1:8
2 Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon, Oxygen 3:8
3 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Sulphur, Oxygen 1:1
4 Ammonia (NH3) Nitrogen, Hydrogen 14 : 3
5 Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Hydrogen, Chlorine 1 : 35.5
6 Marble (CaCO3) Calcium, Carbon, Oxygen 10 : 3 : 12
7 Sand (SiO2) Silicon, Oxygen 7:8
8 Glucose (C6H12O6) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen 6:1:8
9 Cane sugar (C12H22O11) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen 72 : 11 : 88
10 Lime (CaO) Calcium, Oxygen 5:2
Characteristics of Compound
1. A compound is a pure and homogeneous substance.
2. The behavior of a compound is entirely different from that of its constituent elements. For example,
the behaviour of water is entirely different from that of its constituents – hydrogen and oxygen.
3. A compound may be broken down into its constituent elements by chemical means but not by
mechanical or physical means. For example, water may be split into hydrogen and oxygen by an
electrochemical method called electrolysis, i.e., by passing an electric current through water mixed
with a very small amount of an acid. But it cannot be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by
mechanical or physical means like filtration, distillation or sublimation.
4. A compound contains elements in a definite proportion by mass. For example, water contains
hydrogen and oxygen in a 1 : 8 proportion by mass. Similarly, carbon dioxide contains carbon and
oxygen in a 3 : 8 proportion by mass.
5. A compound has a characteristic melting point and boiling point. A compound melts or boils at a
temperature which is characteristic of that compound and which will differ from the melting and
boiling points of its constituent elements.
6. When a compound is formed from its elements, energy is either released or absorbed in the process.
For example, when hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water, or when carbon combines with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide, energy is released in the form of heat. Such reactions are called
exothermic reactions and the compounds thus formed exothermic compounds. It should be
remembered that this property of hydrogen or carbon makes it a good fuel, i.e., a source of energy.

On the other hand, when hydrogen reacts with iodine, or nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form nitric oxide,
energy is absorbed in the process in the form of heat. Such reactions are called endothermic reactions and
the compounds thus formed endothermic compounds.

A comparison between elements and compounds

Element Compound
1. An element contains only one type of atoms. A compound contains different type of atoms.
2. An element cannot be broken down into simpler A compound may be broken down to simpler
substances by physical or chemical means. substances by chemical means.
A compound also has characteristic physical and
3. An element has characteristic physical and
chemical properties, but these are entirely different
chemical properties
from those of its constituent elements.
4. The number of elements known is limited. Only
Numbers of known compounds are very large.
114 elements are known.

MIXTURES
A mixture is an impure material containing more than one element or compound, in any proportion, that can
be separated into its components by simple mechanical or physical means.

Some examples:
1. Air is a mixture of various gases; since the constituents of a mixture do not combine chemically they
can be separated by physical methods.
2. Salt solution is a mixture of common salt in water; its components (salt and water) can be separated
by physical methods.
3. Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon with small amounts of nickel and chromium.
4. Gun powder is a mixture of sulphur, potassium nitrate and carbon (in the form of charcoal).

Some common mixtures are sea water, air, soil, petroleum, kerosene, lime water, etc.

Types of Mixtures
Mixtures are of two types – homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures.

Homogeneous Mixtures
A homogeneous mixture is the one which has a uniform composition throughout its mass. All parts of a
homogeneous mixture are same in every property.

Examples:
(Solid-Solid Mixtures)
Alloys:
a) Brass (copper + zinc)
b) Stainless steel (Iron + Chromium + Nickel + Carbon) etc.
c) Bronze (copper, zinc, tin)
d) Nichrome (nickel, chromium)
e) Amalgam (sodium/potassium/zinc + mercury)
(Solid-Liquid Mixtures)
Solutions of: a) Sugar in water.
b) Iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine)
c) Sulphur in Carbon disulphide

(Solid-Gas Mixtures)
a) Palladium + Hydrogen

(Liquid-Liquid Mixtures)
a) Alcohol + water
b) Acetone + water.
c) Petrol + Kerosene

(Liquid-Gas Mixtures)
a) Soda Water (Water in CO2)

(Gas-Liquid Mixtures)
a) Ammonia + Water
b) Hydrogen chloride + water
c) Oxygen + Water

(Gas-Gas Mixtures)
a) Air (Mixture of Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbondioxide and noble gases).
b) Any number of gases mixed together.

Heterogeneous Mixtures
A heterogeneous mixture does not have a uniform composition throughout its mass.
All parts of heterogeneous mixture are not alike.

Examples:
Solid-Solid Mixtures
a) Sand + Salt (sugar, iodine or ammonium chloride)
b) Common salt + Ammonium chloride
c) Iron + Sulphur

Solid-Liquid Mixtures
a) Water + Sand (are sawdust, chalk)

Solid-Gas Mixtures
a) Smoke or fumes (fine carbon particles suspended in it).
b) Bread (There are air spaces in bread).

Liquid-Liquid Mixtures
a) Water + Oil

Characteristics of a Mixture
1. A mixture is not a pure substance. When two or more substances are mixed together, without a new
substances being formed, the material cannot be pure. For example, a mixture of sand and salt
cannot be either pure sand and or pure salt.
2. A mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
As we have already seen, a mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Infact, mixtures are
generally heterogeneous except solutions which are homogeneous. This is because in a mixture the
constituents are not chemically combined.
3. The components of a mixture may be separated by simple mechanical or physical means like hand
picking, magnetic separation, filtration and distillation.
For example, iron may be separated from sulphur in a mixture by attracting the iron particles with the
help of a magnet. Similarly, sand may be separated from common salt by dissolving out the salt in
water, filtering off the sand and recovering the salt by evaporating the solution to dryness.
4. A mixture does not have a fixed composition.
In other words, we may mix the components of a mixture in any proportion we like – in every case it
will be a mixture for example, two different sugar solutions can be prepared one containing 10 g
sugar in 100 ml water and the other sugar solution containing 20 g sugar in 100 ml water. Both these
solutions are mixtures.
5. The melting point or the boiling point of a mixture is not fixed; it is dependant on the proportion of its
components.
E.g.: For example, the boiling point of a solution of sugar in water is dependent on the amount of
sugar. The more the amount of sugar, the higher is the boiling point.
6. There may or may not be a change in energy during the formation of mixture. The formation of
heterogeneous mixtures does not involve any change in energy. For example, if we mix sand with
common salt, or iron with sulphur, no heat is evolved or absorbed.
Homogeneous mixtures of (i) a solid and a liquid, (ii) two or more miscible liquids and (iii) gases in
liquids involve a change in energy during their formation.

General separation techniques of mixtures:

Techniques used to separate mixtures rely on differences in the physical properties of the components.
Techniques used for separation of mixtures include:

Distillation:
This process is used to purify impure liquids
by heating them to their boiling point, causing
vaporization, and then condensing the vapor
to collecting the purified liquid. It is easy to
remove liquids from nonvolatile solids because
nonvolatile solids are left behind during
distillation. Separating a mixture of two liquids
is possible if they have different boiling
temperatures. Heat sensitive liquids can be
separated by decreasing the pressure over a
liquid mixture to reduce all boiling
temperatures.

Filtration
The process of removing or “straining” a
solid (sometimes called a precipitate)
from a liquid by the use of filter paper or
other porous material. The solution
containing the suspended impurities is
made to pass through the porous
membrane such as filter paper. The
solution containing dissolved
substances passes through the porous
membrane, which is called filtrate. The
insoluble solid particles that remain on
the filter paper form the residue.

Decantation
'Decantation' is a fast method for separating a mixture of a liquid and a heavier solid. In this process , first
the solid impurities are allowed to sediment at the bottom of the container. Then, the pure liquid is poured out
carefully from the container into another container. The precipitate or solid is left behind at the bottom of the
container

Sedimentation
Sedimentation, or clarification, is the process of letting suspended material settles by gravity.

Sedimentation Decantation
Sublimation
The physical process by which some substances can pass directly from the solid state to the gaseous state
without the appearance of the liquid state. Not all substances possess this characteristic. If one component
of a mixture sublimes, this property may be used to separate it from the other components of the mixture.

E.g.: Iodine, naphthalene, ammonium chloride etc… sublime readily.

Evaporation 
It means a liquid changing to a gas or vapour. In
separation, its removing the liquid from a solution. It can
be done quickly with gentle heating or left out to 'dry up'
slowly. The solid will almost certainly be less volatile than
the solvent and will remain as a crystalline residue.

Chromatography

The separation of a mixture by the

distribution of its components between
a stationary phase such as paper or
aluminum oxide powder and a moving
phase such as water. Some examples
are gas chromatography, paper
chromatography, and thin-layer
chromatography.

Magnetic separation

It is mainly used to separate a magnetic component

from a mixture containing non- magnetic
components.
E.g.: Sulphur and iron can be separated by this
method because iron is magnetic substance.

Comparison between Compounds and Mixtures

COMPOUND MIXTURE
1. A compound is a pure substance. A mixture is an impure substance.
2. A compound is formed from elements A mixture is formed from elements and/or
combined in a definite proportion by mass. compounds mixed in any proportion.
3. A compound is homogeneous. A mixture may be homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
4. The constituent elements of a compound The components of a mixture can be separated
cannot be separated by simple physical by simple physical means.
means.
5. A compound has a characteristic melting point A mixture does not have a characteristic melting
and boiling point. point and boiling point.
6. An energy change takes place during the There may or may not be an energy change
formation of a compound. during the formation of a mixture.
7. The properties of the constituent elements are The properties of the components of a mixture
not retained in a compound. are retained in the mixture.

True Solutions:
The solutions which are homogeneous in nature are called true solutions. In true solutions, the particles of
solutions have extremely small size (< 10–7 cm).

Properties of True Solutions

The important properties of true solutions are:

1. A solution is homogeneous in nature

2. The particles of solute in solution easily pass through the filter paper.
3. The particles of solute in solution are not visible even through microscope.
4. The size of solute particles in solution is less than 10–7 cm.
5. The solute particles in solution do not settle on keeping.
6. The properties of solute are retained in solution. For example, a solution of common salt in water is
saline in taste.
7. True solutions are transparent to light, i.e., they do not scatter light and do not show Tyndall effect
Differences between true solutions and ordinary mixtures
True Solutions Ordinary Mixtures
1. Components are not visibly distinguishable. 1. Components are visibly distinguishable.
2. Uniform or homogeneous mixing of molecules or 2. Components are not uniformly or
ions of the components. homogeneously mixed.
3. The dispersed particles are of atomic, ionic or 3. The dispersed particles are not of molecular or
molecular size. ionic or atomic size.
4. It consists of one phase and more than one 4. It consists of different phases which can be
component. easily distinguished.
5. There is a limit of the amount of a substance
5. There is no such limit. Any amount of one
which can dissolve in a definite amount of the
substance can be mixed with any amount of the
solvent. It depends on the temperature and
other.
pressure

SUSPENSIONS
Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which one of the substances having particle size greater than 10 –
5
cm is spread throughout another substance without dissolving in it. Some common examples are; muddy
water, chalk water, smoke, and sand–water mixture.

Properties of Suspensions
Some of the properties are
1. Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
2. Particles of suspension have size (diameter) greater than 10–5cm.
3. Particles of suspension cannot pass through the pores of the filter paper. Hence, they can be
separated by ordinary filtration. For examples, sand water mixture can be separated by filtration.
4. Particles of suspension can be seen with naked eye or with simple microscope.
5. The particles of suspension settle down on keeping for some time.
6. A suspension is not transparent to light.

Colloids or Colloidal Solutions

A colloid is a kind of solution in which the size of solute particles is bigger than those of true solution but
smaller than those of suspension. They are also called colloidal solutions or simply sols. The size (diameter)
of solute particles in colloids is between 10 –7 cm and 10–5 cm. Some examples of colloids are: blood, ink,
soap solution, milk, gum, mist or fog, jelly, etc.
A colloidal solution consists of two phases: the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium.

(a) Dispersed phase: It is that component of colloidal solution which is present in smaller proportion and
consists of particles of colloidal dimensions (10–7 cm to 10–5cm).
(b) Dispersion medium: It is that component of colloidal solution which colloidal particles is dispersed
phase.
For example, in colloidal solution of sulphur in water, water is dispersion medium and sulphur is
dispersed phase.
 In the colloidal solution, dispersed phase is like solute and dispersion medium is like solvent in a
solution.
 Different types of colloidal given specific names depending upon the physical sates of two phases.
 Colloids and sometimes given specific names depending on the nature of the dispersion medium.
For example, colloidal solutions having water as dispersion medium are called hydrosols. Similarly, if
alcohol is dispersion medium, then sol is called alcosol and if air is dispersion medium then the sol is
called aerosol.

Exercise 6: What is the dispersed phase and dispersion medium in smoke.

Properties of Colloidal Solutions

1. Heterogeneous nature
A colloidal solution is heterogeneous in nature. It consists of two phases: dispersed phase and dispersion
medium.

2. Visibility of dispersed particles: Although colloidal solutions are heterogeneous in nature, yet the
dispersed particles present in them are not visible to the naked eye and they appear homogenous. This is
because colloidal particles are too small to be visible to the naked eye.

3. Filterability
The size of the colloidal particles is less than the pores of a filter paper, and therefore, they easily pass
through the filter paper. Colloidal particles, however, cannot pass through the parchment paper of a
membrane of ultra–filter.

4. Stability: Lyophilic sols in general and lyophobic sols in the absence of substantial concentrations of
electrolytes are quite stable and the dispersed particles present in them do not settle down even on keeping.
However, on standing for a long time, a few colloidal particles of comparatively larger size may get
sedimented slowly. 

5. Colour: The colour of a colloidal solution depends upon the size of colloidal particles present in it. Larger
particles absorb the light of longer wavelength and therefore transmit light of shorter wavelength. For
example, a silver so having particles of size 150nm appears violet, whereas that having particles of size
60nm appears orange yellow.

6. Tyndall Effect
When a strong beam of light is passed through a colloidal solution placed in a beaker in dark place, the path
of the beam gets illuminated by a bluish light. The illumination of the path, due to scattering of light by the
colloidal particles is called Tyndall effect. No such phenomenon is observed when a beam of light is passed
through true solution.

7. Visibility
Colloidal particles are too small to be seen by naked eye. However, they can be seen by high power
microscope called ultra microscope.

8. Brownian movement
In colloidal solution, the colloidal particles are in a state of continuous random movement in zigzag in all
directions. The zigzag motion of colloidal particles is referred to as Brownian movement. Brownian
movement is caused by the collision of the molecules of dispersion medium with colloidal particles.

9. Diffusion
Colloidal particles diffuse from a region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration. However,
because of their large size, they move slowly and, therefore, diffuse at slower rate.
10. Sedimentation
The colloidal particles settle down under the influence of gravity at a very slow rate. This phenomenon is
called sedimentation and is used to calculate the molecular mass.

11. Presence of electrical charge on colloidal particles and stability of sols

One of the most important properties of colloidal solutions is that colloidal particles posses a definite type of
electrical charge. The origin of the charge on the sol particles in most cases is due to the preferential
adsorption of either positive or negative ions on their surface. ... The charge on the colloidal particles is
balanced by the oppositely charged ions in the sol.
In a particular colloidal solution, all the colloidal particles carry the same type of charge, while the dispersion
medium has an equal but opposite charge. Thus, the charge on colloidal particles is balanced by that of the
dispersion medium and the colloidal solution as a whole is electrically neutral. For example, in a ferric
hydroxide sol, the colloidal ferric hydroxide particles are positively charged, while the dispersion medium
carries an equal and opposite negative charge.

Colloidal Particles of Fe(OH)3

The stability of a colloidal solution is mainly due to the presence a particular type of charge on all the
colloidal present in it. Due to the presence of similar and equal charges, the colloidal particles repel one
another and are thus unable to combine together to form larger particles. This keeps them dispersed in the
medium and the colloidal remains stable. This is why sol particles do not settle down even on standing for a
long time.

Based on the nature of charge, the colloidal sols may be classified as positively charged and negatively
charged sols. 

 Positively charged sols: Metallic hydroxide sols e.g., Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, Cr(OH)3, etc., TiO2 sol,
haemoglobin, sols of basic dyes such as methylene blue etc. 

 Negatively charged sols:  Metal sols e.g., Au, Ag, Cu, Pt etc. sols, metal sulphide sols e.g., A s2S3,
CdS etc. sols; starch sol, sols of acid dyes such as Congo red etc.

Origin of Charge on Colloidal Particles 

There are several views regarding the origin of charge on colloidal particles. According to these views,
colloidal particles acquire charge due to the following reasons.
 Due to dissociation of the adsorbed molecular electrolytes: Colloidal particles have a strong
tendency to adsorb reactant or product molecules. The molecules thus adsorbed on the surface of
colloidal particles may undergo dissociation/ionization and may impart charge to them.
For example, during the preparation of sulphide sols (e.g., As 2S3 sol), H2S molecules get adsorbed on
 colloidal particles. H2S molecules thus adsorbed undergo ionization and release H + ions into the medium.
Consequently, colloidal particles are left with negative charge.
 Due to the dissociation of molecules forming colloidal aggregates: The molecules responsible for
the formation of aggregates of colloidal dimensions may themselves undergo dissociation/ionisation
resulting in the development of charge on the colloidal particles formed by their aggregation.
For example, the soap molecules (RCOONa) dissociate to give RCOO - and Na+ ions. RCOO- ions
aggregate together to form micelles which carry negative charge as explained earlier. 
 Due to preferential adsorption of ions from solutions: The colloidal particles have a tendency to
preferentially adsorb a particular type of ions from the solution. A colloidal particle usually adsorbs those
ions which are in excess and are common to its own lattice.
This preferential adsorption of a particular type of ions imparts a particular type of charge to colloidal
particles. 
For example, when a ferric hydroxide sol is prepared by the hydrolysis of ferric chloride in warm water,
the colloidal particles of Fe(OH)3 formed have a tendency to adsorb preferentially the Fe 3+ ions present in
the solution. This is because Fe3+ ions are common to the lattice of Fe(OH)3 particle. The Fe3+ ions thus
adsorbed impart positive charge to the colloidal particles present in the sol.
Fe(OH)3  Fe 3  Fe(OH)3  Fe 3
Fe(OH)3 on the reactants side is the colloidal particle, Fe+3 ions on the reactants side are the ions common to
the lattice of colloidal particle. The ferric hydroxide on the products side adsorbs the Fe +3 ions and the
colloidal particles acquire positive charge.
AgCl  Cl  AgCl : Cl AgCl  Ag  AgCl : Ag
When the colloid AgCl adsorbs Cl–, it acquires negative charge, but when it adsorbs Ag + ion, it acquires
positive charge.

Electrophoresis
It is a process in which an electric field is been applied to a colloidal solution which is responsible for the
movement of colloidal particles. Depending upon the accumulation near the electrodes the charge of the
particles can be predicted. The charge of the particles is positive if the particles get collected near a negative
electrode and vice versa.

The phenomenon is movement of colloidal particles towards one of the electrodes under the applied electric
field is called electrophoresis.

Coagulation or Flocculation
 The stability of a sol is due to the charge present on the colloidal particles. Due to similar charges,
colloidal particles repel one another and are unable to combine together to form larger particles.
However, if the charge on colloidal particles is destroyed, they are free to come nearer and grow in
size.
 When the particles become sufficiently large, they get precipitated. This phenomenon is termed as
coagulation or flocculation.
 The coagulation of colloidal solution can be achieved by the addition of an electrolyte.
 It is to be noted that a small amount of electrolyte is necessary for the stability of a sol because the
ions of the electrolyte get adsorbed on colloidal particles and impart them some charge. However,
when an electrolyte is added in substantial amount the positively charged ions of the electrolyte
neutralize the charge on colloidal particles and compel the sol to get coagulated.
 Coagulation may be defined as the phenomenon involving the precipitation of a colloidal
solution on addition of an electrolyte. 

Lyophilic and Lyophobic colloids

Lyophilic: Lyophilic colloids are liquid loving colloids (‘Lyo’ means solvent and ‘philic’ means loving).
Lyophobic: Lyophobic colloids are liquid hating colloids (‘Lyo’ means solvent and ‘phobic’ means hating).

Examples Lyophilic: Sols of organic substances like gelatin, gum, starch and proteins.
Lyophobic: Sols of inorganic substances like Arsenic (As2S3), Iron (Fe(OH)3) and Platinum.

Ease of Preparation

Lyophilic: As these colloids are liquid loving, their sols are easy to prepare and can be prepared directly by
mixing colloid with liquid. Additional stabilizers are not required during their preparation.
Lyophobic: As these colloids are water hating, their sols are easy to prepare and cannot be prepared
directly by mixing colloid with liquid. Special methods are employed to prepare lyophobic sols and additional
stabilizers are required during their preparation.

Stability
Lyophilic: Lyophilic sols are relatively stable as strong forces of interaction exist between colloidal particles
and liquid.
Lyophobic: Lyophobic sols are less stable as weak forces of interaction exist between colloidal particles and
liquid.

Charge
Lyophilic: The charge on the lyophilic sol depends upon pH of the solution and can be negative, positive or
neutral.
Lyophobic: The charge on lyophobic sol can be positive or negative.As 2S3 sol is negative in nature while
Fe(OH)3 sol is positive in nature.

Viscosity
Lyophilic: The lyophilic colloids are highly viscous in nature and have higher viscosity than that of the
medium.
Lyophobic: The Lyophobic colloids have almost same viscosity as that of medium.

Reversibility
Lyophilic: Reversible, because on evaporating the liquid, the residue left will passes into colloidal state on
addition of liquid.
Lyophobic: Irreversible, because on evaporating the liquid, the residue left cannot be converted into solution
on mere addition of liquid.

Electrophoresis
Lyophilic: Depending on the nature of charge these particles may migrate to cathode or anode or may not
move at all.
Lyophobic: Depending on the nature of charge these particles migrate to either cathode or anode.

Surface Tension
Lyophilic: The surface tension of these sols is less than that of dispersion medium.
Lyophobic: The surface tension is nearly same as that of dispersion medium.

Gold Number: Lyophobic colloids are readily coagulated by electrolyte, but it is difficult to coagulate lyophilic
colloid. It has been seen that if a lyophilic colloid is added to the lyophobic one, the later is not coagulated
easily by electrolytes and attains stability.
The lyophobic colloid is supposed to be enveloped by the lyophilic colloid. Therefore the former remains
protected against the action of electrolytes. The extent to which this protective action is exerted by lyophilic
colloids differs from substance to substance and is measured quantitatively in terms of Gold number, an
expression originated by Zsigmondy (1901).

“Gold number is the number of milligrams of protective colloid which must be added to 10 mL. of gold sol to
prevent coagulation solution of sodium chloride is added to the gold sol”.
Comparison of True Solutions, Colloidal Solutions and Suspension
Comparison in the properties of true solutions, colloidal solutions and suspensions is given in the table.

S.No. Property True Solutions Colloidal Solutions Suspensions

The particle size is less The particle size lies The particle size is larger
1. Particle size
than 10-7 cm. between 10-5 – 10-7 cm. than 10-5 cm
2 Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
3 Appearance Transparent Partially transparent Opaque
The particles are not
The particles are not The particles are visible to
visible to the naked eye
visible to the naked eye the naked eye or can be
4 Visibility but can be seen with the
as well as under powerful seen with the help of
help of powerful
microscope microscope
microscope
The particles can be
The particles do not settle The particles settle down
5 Settling made to settle by
on standing under gravity.
centrifugation.
True solution does not Colloidal solutions show May or may not show
6 Tyndall effect
show Tyndall effect. Tyndall effect. Tyndall effect.
True solution does not Suspension may or may
Brownian Colloidal solutions show
7 show Brownian not show Brownian
Movement Brownian movement
movement movement.
The solute particles in the
The solute particles in the The solute particles in the
colloidal solution do not
true solution diffuse suspension can not pass
pass through a
8 Filterability rapidly, pass through a through a parchment
parchment membrane.
parchment membrane as membrane or a filter
But they can pass
well as filter paper. paper.
through a filter paper.