41 Dredging

John H Sargent CEng, FICE, FGS

Costain Group plc, London

Contents
41.1 History 41/3 41.7 Other important considerations 41/11

41.2 Dredging plant and techniques 41/3 41.8 Environmental aspects 41/11
41.2.1 General comments 41/3
41.9 Hydrographic surveys and geotechnical
41.3 Mechanically operated dredgers 41/3 investigations 41/12
41.3.1 Bucket ladder dredging 41/3
41.3.2 Grab dredging 41/4 41.10 Organizations 41/13
41.3.3 Dipper and backhoe dredgers 41/5 41.10.1 World Association of Dredging
Organizations 41/13
41.4 Hydraulically operated dredgers 41/5 41.10.2 Permanent International Association
41.4.1 General comments 41/5 of Navigational Congresses 41/13
41.4.2 Plain suction dredgers 41/6 41.10.3 International Association of Dredging
41.4.3 Cutter suction dredgers 41/6 Companies 41/13
41.4.4 Hopper suction dredgers 41/8
41.4.5 Pump-ashore plant 41/9 References 41/13

41.5 Ancillary plant and equipment 41/9 Bibliography 41/13

41.6 Reclamation works 41/9

41.6.1 Construction of ‘islands’ 41/11

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

41.1 History either continuously or at frequent intervals, sometimes called
'campaign dredging'. The demand which maintenance dredging
It is believed that dredging works originated in Egypt at about places on the port budget can be onerous and may directly affect
4000 BC when canals were excavated using massive labour forces the economic viability of the port operation, especially when
and the simplest of tools. During the sixteenth and seventeenth dredging work is a constant need.
centuries dredging was often carried out both to improve In this respect there is a frequent discussion regarding the use
navigation and obtain material to be utilized as ballast for of private contractors versus publicly or locally owned dredging
outgoing ships, often undertaken using the 'bag-and-spoon' organizations. When a port has a continuous demand, can
method. reliably predict the geology, working conditions, and motivate
An important historical point in the development of dredging staff to attain acceptable production and be certain of the
plant was reached about 1590, with the invention in Holland of mechanical efficiency of its plant, there is a case for the purchase
the 'mud mill'. This machine superficially resembled the modern of specific dredging equipment. If these factors are not assured
bucket ladder dredger in which the mud was scooped up a chute and difficult or uncertain geological conditions may be encoun-
suspended below a moving chain and discharged overboard or tered, then the private contractor is often preferred and is likely
into barges. to be more efficient and cost-effective. Criticism is sometimes
The introduction of the steam engine and the development of levelled at port authorities who operate their own plant that the
the centrifugal dredge pump in the nineteenth century marked a true operational cost is hidden by adopting 'noncommercial'
dramatic step forward and led directly to the development of the accounting procedures. Port authorities should therefore ensure
modern dredger. Improvement in the design of 'traditional' that calculations are based on realistic economic parameters and
dredging plant is still taking place, in particular in relation to a comparison with private industry should be sought whenever
improved production and in the ability of the dredger to work in possible prior to decision on purchase.
more adverse sea conditions. In the 1970s in the Middle East a A useful report which outlines the types of dredging plant
self-elevating platform with a cutter suction installation was in commonly available was issued by the Permanent International
use, enabling work to take place in considerable sea swell. The Association of Navigational Congresses (PIANC)1
introduction of modern electronics, especially in the field of
survey control and on-board construction, is now in full appli-
cation and dredging plant is becoming increasingly sophisti- 41.3 Mechanically operated dredgers
cated.
41.3.1 Bucket ladder dredging
41.2 Dredging plant and techniques The design of the basic bucket ladder dredger comprises a chain
of continuously revolving buckets moving along a steel ladder
inclined into the sea or river bed, excavated material being
41.2.1 General comments carried to the top of the ladder where it is gravity-discharged
For convenience, dredging plant can be subdivided into: (1) into a chute (see Figure 41.1). Historically, the majority of
mechanically operated dredgers; and (2) hydraulically operated bucket ladder dredgers were dumb, i.e. requiring towage to and
dredgers. from site, and discharged through the chute into a self-propelled
The following description of plant and techniques is related
primarily to the use and application of plant from a civil
engineering viewpoint, and does not deal exhaustively with the
mechanical design or performance of equipment.
Likewise, the aspects of cost and dredged material production
have only been considered in a general manner. These aspects
will vary over a very wide range since they are dependent on a
number of factors which cannot be considered without a much
fuller discussion and will in any case vary from project to
project. Such factors will include: (1) the physical conditions
imposed by the site and its geology; (2) the working hours and
tides available; (3) the water depths existing prior to and during
dredging; (4) the location in relation to authorized disposal
areas at sea or on land; (5) the hydraulic conditions (allied to the
exposure of the site); (6) the availability and skill of local staff,
tradesmen and labour; (7) the proximity of the project to
navigation; and (8) probable interference from other water-
source traffic.
In addition to these factors will be the local attitude to private
or public employment and the state of the market in the
dredging industry at the time of tender and contract discussion
and agreement. As for civil engineering projects, each job must
be viewed separately and costed for its own particular set of
circumstances.
Dredging works can also be considered conveniently in the
categories of: (1) capital projects; and (2) maintenance works.
Capital projects include the construction of new ports, har-
bours, waterways and canals and normally involve private
contractors due often to the size of the project and the need to
obtain competitive bids. Figure 41.1 Bucket dredger with self-propelled hopper alongside.
Many of the world's ports need some maintenance dredging, (Courtesy. Westminster Dredging Co. Ltd)
hopper or dumb barge for disposal. Later designs include tackle a range of soil types but will be very restricted in respect
dredgers which are self-loading hoppers and, as in this case, may of rock and the heavier clay soils.
be self-propelled. Foreign material (such as scrap iron, wires, etc.) can also be
Since the bucket ladder dredger needs positioning in its removed by the bucket ladder dredger, although production
working area and in particular requires a reaction when exca- (compared with dredging 'normal' soils) will suffer seriously.
vating into the face of material to be dredged, the vessel is Bucket types can be changed to suit the ground conditions: it
usually held by several moorings, the headline (working through is common to use a heavy bucket in soil, and a bucket fitted with
a strong-head winch) being of utmost importance to provide the strengthened lip and fitted with digging teeth when working in
reaction into the digging face. In practice, the headline may soft rock. Bucket capacities vary from 0.5 to 1.2m 3 , using
extend for some hundreds of metres for fully effective operation. bucket chain speeds at 18 to 30 buckets per minute depending
Short headlines can be used, but result in loss of efficiency. Side on the material and the conditions. Dredging depths vary with
lines (winch operated) are used to traverse the dredger across the the size of plant but commonly extend to 20m or so with
working face. extensions to allow greater depths.
The bucket ladder dredger is commonly of poor stability Environmental problems may occur when using bucket lad-
when moving or under towage from site to site and, conse- der dredgers owing to the noise of the operation. Disturbance is
quently, towage can be slow and expensive. Insurance costs are particularly common where work is in progress at night and the
also likely to be high. Depending on its size, the dredger will site is close to residential property, but 'silent' bucket chains are
normally require light tug or workboat assistance when on site, now available which can help to solve this problem.
both to run lines and to help move the dredger from area to Outside the civil engineering industry the bucket ladder
area. dredger is much used as a basic tool in mining for rare earths
As with most dredging craft based on a pontoon design, the and precious metals. Perhaps best-known is the extensive use of
average bucket ladder dredger is susceptible to heavy swell and large dredgers of this type for tin-mining in the Far East.
may suffer badly in swell conditions in excess of about 1 m. An
important feature in such work will be the presence of hoppers 41.3.2 Grab dredging
or barges alongside the dredger. Serious problems can occur
under swell conditions owing to the differential movement This type of plant (often called a clamshell dredger in North
between the craft, with consequent danger to both craft and America) is nearest to normal civil engineering equipment
men. employing a prime mover mounted on a pontoon or vessel
The advantage of the heavy bucket ladder dredger as a loading either into attendant hoppers or barges, or into its own
dredging tool is its ability to dredge a wide variety of materials hopper. In the latter case the vessel may also be self-propelled.
ranging from soft alluvium to soft rock. The lighter units can Grab dredger sizes can vary over a wide range from very small

Figure 41.2 Grab dredger mounted on pontoon, loading hopper barge

 units with small cranes mounted on pontoons or barges (such as
the small hydraulic cranes used in narrow barges for canal
dredging) to large machines capable of handling grabs in excess
of 30m3.
Simple grab dredgers can be built easily and quickly by
running a crawler-mounted excavator on to a pontoon,
although in this case production may suffer unless work is being
carried out in very quiet waters owing to the instability of the
design (see Figure 41.2).
Small and medium-sized grab dredgers have found much
favour in harbours and ports because of the limited capital
expenditure required, their relative ease of maintenance and
their particular ability to dredge close to quay walls, jetties and
in basins without damage. Further, the quantity of 'foreign'
material (scrap iron, etc.) within port basins is often very
considerable and a grab can handle much of this material with
reasonable ease. Commonly occurring harbour materials such
as silts or soft silty clays, can also be removed easily with
standard grabs, making the unit particularly useful to the port
authority.
Dredging depths will be limited by the size of the available
winch drum with a practical limitation imposed by the hoisting
speed of the grab and the effect of sea or river currents on the
grab when working at or near maximum depths. Working
depths up to 25 m or so below water level are common although Figure 41.3 Backhoe on spudded pontoon. (Courtesy:
greater depths have been undertaken. An example where dredg- Westminster Dredging Co. Ltd)
ing was used for purposes other than producing navigational
depth occurred in the Hong Kong Plover Cove earth dam,
where work was undertaken by a specially designed cantilever 41.4 Hydraulically operated dredgers
grab dredger to considerable depths to excavate the cutoff
trench for the dam.
Grab dredgers are able to operate in a swell condition, but 41.4.1 General comments
production is affected badly over about 1.5 m swell, and under This class of dredger comprises the most widely used unit in the
all conditions the profiling of the bottom must be carefully world's dredging fleets. Basically, the design comprises a centri-
supervised. Single grab dredging requires a fairly simple pattern fugal dredge pump installed in a pontoon or hull with a suction
of attack, working forward after dredging through an arc. With pipe lowered on a ladder to the bed. Where the bed material is
several cranes mounted on the unit the dredger must be moved loose and granular in nature, such as a running sand, it will be
diagonally to obtain optimum coverage. drawn under suction directly through the pipe and dredge pump
into a discharge line. If the bed material is compact or dense,
41.3.3 Dipper and backhoe dredgers such as a firm clay or cemented sand, it is necessary to fit a
rotating cutter on to the end of the suction line. The cutter will
As with the grab dredger, the dipper and backhoe dredger have be turned by a separate cutter motor which is commonly
evolved through the adaptation of land-based excavators. Ad- mounted at the head of the suction line ladder. For deep
vances in design, in particular with the backhoe (which exca- dredging this may now be placed close to the suction head.
vates with the bucket movement towards the hull) have been The hydraulic technique of dredging is often claimed to be
rapid in recent years and a very high output and mobility is highly efficient because it combines excavating and transporting
possible when this plant is used on 'dry' land jobs. Outputs waterborne dredged material in one continuous operation.
when used for dredging cannot normally match 'dry' land work, Improvements over the last few years have occurred primarily
but the tool is still of considerable value since it can excavate through better pump design, and dredging pumps now represent
effectively not only the softer sediments but also cemented a compromise with high efficiency against low power consump-
sands, clays and soft rock (see Figure 41.3). tion matched against reliability and accessibility. Additionally,
Limitation is generally in depth capability and hopper barges the development of the submerged dredge pump has produced a
will be needed to remove the dredged soil. greater efficiency.
The dipper dredger, which is usually of very heavy construc- A problem with the technique is inherent in the movement of
tion, is still in use but has never gained general favour in Europe abrasive materials such as sands and gravels through a pipeline
owing to its relatively low production and limited depth of system, since this may cause extremely high wear and tear.
digging. The dipper dredger can, however, be valuable when Pump liners and pipes must be designed to stand this mixture,
dredging clays in a firm or stiff condition, or soft and friable and in some cases double-walled pumps are now installed.
rock. The tool has also been usefully employed for the demolish- Attention has also been given to the use of water jets at or
ing of old stone defence works, jetties, locks and similar 'heavy' close to the suction mouth to assist in the break up of in situ
jobs, which other dredging plant could not handle. Dipper material and its movement into the suction pipe. Suction heads
dredge plant is normally controlled by a spudded arrangement, comprise a wide variety of shapes and designs often linked to the
often using two forward spuds to pin up the hull and stern spuds dredge manufacturer's or contractor's own individual beliefs
for walking and advancing the dredger. and theories.
Suction dredgers have evolved into several classes of plant
which for simplicity may be listed as: (1) plain suction dredgers;
(2) cutter suction dredgers; (3) hopper suction dredgers; and (4)
pump-ashore units.
 self-propelled and has been employed to keep open river naviga-
41.4.2 Plain suction dredgers tion, pumping unconsolidated sands or alluvial soft silts and
Plain suction dredgers (sometimes called profile dredgers) may silty clays away from the navigable channel into a nearby area
be defined as having a plain 'mouth' to the suction tube, the (outside the channel) where the discharged material is distri-
suction mouth or head being buried into the material to be buted or spread thinly by erosion currents.
excavated. This unit is much used where there is clean free-
running granular material that is used as fill on reclamation
sites. 41.4.3 Cutter suction dredgers
After dredging, the material may be pumped through side
arms and discharged into barges moored alongside the dredger This type of plant is the most commonly used dredging unit.
or pumped directly from the dredger through a pipeline system, Dredger sizes range widely from small designs with 150mm
parts of which will usually be floating, to shore. suction pipe diameters and limited power, to very large units
Some use has been made with this type of dredger for the with suction pipe diameters of 1000mm and installed power in
removal of soft, cohesive materials such as silts or silty clays in excess of 1500OkW (see Figure 41.4).
river and estuary conditions. Although the dredger is useful in Basically, the cutter suction dredger is pontoon- or hull-built.
these conditions, problems will arise if a suitable deposit area is It is normally dumb, requiring towage and assistance on site (as
not available nearby for the disposal of the dredged material, for the majority of plain suction dredgers and bucket ladder
which will normally be unsuitable for use on a reclamation site. dredgers) although an increasing number of large units are now
The plain suction dredger design is usually based on a dumb self-propelled and capable of seagoing journeys.
pontoon which requires either an anchoring system or stern A qualifying feature is the incorporation of a rotating cutter
spuds, to allow walking when moving forward, plus anchors. around the suction pipe mouth, powered by a separate electric
A variation of this type of dredger, developed in North or hydraulic cutter motor which turns the cutter into the
America, is the 'dustpan' dredger based on the use of a suction excavation face. The cutter in this case lies with its axis of
head which often has a width equal to the hull and is fitted with rotation parallel and in line with the cutter ladder.
high-velocity water jets and capable of dredging alluvial When working, the unit usually has a spud driven to the river
materials at very high volumes. In this case the dredger is often or sea bed mounted in the stern and the vessel pivots about the

Figure 41.4 Large cutter suction dredger. (Courtesy: Boskalis Westminster Baggeren b.v.)
spud, pulled by side anchors in order that the cutter head can be and development is in hand in this respect and greater depths
hauled across the working face. A second stern spud known as can be achieved with specific units.
the 'walking spud' is employed to move the dredger forward. In The design of the cutter is a subject with innumerable
the majority of cutter suction dredgers, the side lines are led individual ideas and opinions. When working in hard and
through sheaves fixed to the suction ladder and run to anchors abrasive materials it is essential that cutter replacement can be
along or just above the sea or river bed. Side booms are often effected at high speed, and in order to assist with this problem
fitted which allow the facility of lifting and moving anchors many rock cutters have replaceable teeth. A very wide variety of
forward without the necessity to use a separate workboat. cutters have been designed for different soil and rock conditions
Depending on the structural strength of the design (in parti- but contractors usually employ their own preferences based on
cular the weight of the ladder and the available power on the experience.
cutter coupled to the power available from the centrifugal Modern cutter suction dredgers are both expensive to build
dredge pump) the cutter suction dredger can excavate and and operate and are becoming increasingly more sophisticated.
remove most 'normal' soils and soft rock formations. With In order to work at optimum efficiency, it is necessary to provide
regard to large units, it may be considered as a rough guide that adequate control and instrumentation, and to do this it is
the softer sedimentary rocks such as chalk, marl, coral and essential to provide a system to optimize output by co-ordinat-
weathered sandstones are within the scope of direct excavation. ing the functions of vacuum (on the dredger pump), cutter
After excavation, the material can either be pumped through torque and the swing speed of the cutter ladder via side winches.
a pipeline system (in which case suitable material will be used as Of particular interest for small-project work is the dismantie-
reclamation fill and unsuitable material placed into a deposit able cutter suction dredger, typified by a standard range from a
area) or pumped through the dredge pump and loaded into major manufacturer with units with installed powers ranging
hoppers or barges which lie alongside the dredger. The dis- from 100 to 1120 kW. Although these units can be broken down
charge distance through the pipeline system from the dredger into component parts for road, rail or water transport, the size
will be dictated by the installed pump power, unless separate and weight of the individual pontoons with the larger units
booster units are used. should not be underestimated.
Working depths vary considerably with size of plant but are All conventional dredging plant are vulnerable to swell condi-
commonly up to 30 m or so with the larger units. Much research tions which restrict working. In answer to the problems of

Figure 41.5 Self-elevating walking heavy-duty cutter suction dredger. (Courtesy: Gulf-Cobla (Private) Ltd)
operating under severe sea conditions on a project in the Middle 41.4.4.1 Trailer dredger
East, a self-elevating walking heavy duty cutter suction dredger
The trailer dredger is designed as a self-contained vessel
was designed (see Figure 41.5). The vessel could be raised above
equipped with a suction pipe or pipes trailed along the bottom
the sea and was able to work continuously in swell over 4 m and
whilst the dredger is moving forward under its own propulsion.
in high winds.
The dredged material is excavated by a suction head and taken
through the pipe and dredge pump and passed into the hopper.
41.43.1 Bucket wheel dredger After loading, the dredger will either (in the case of poor-quality
material) sail to sea to deposit the cargo through bottom doors
A recent development of the cutter suction dredger has been
or (if the material is suitable) sail to a pump-out installation for
adaption of the bucket wheel in the place of the cutter head.
reclamation fill. In the latter instance an alternative method is to
Very large bucket wheel excavators have been used in open-cast
deposit the material in a prepared location for double-handling,
mining on land for many years, but recently small bucket wheel
probably by stationary suction or cutter suction dredger and
dredgers have been developed for underwater work. It is
pipeline system.
claimed that the bucket wheel gives a greater efficiency than the
A considerable improvement in the bottom discharge of
normal cutter head in certain soil types and different designs are
certain types of soil (especially in relation to material such as
being developed to extend its use. Designs so far have been fairly
boulder clay) has been effected through the successful develop-
limited in size, dredgers typically being small to medium in
ment of split-hull vessels. Originally confined to dumb hopper
relation to cutter suction dredging plant.
barges, the design has been extended to self-propelled hoppers
and to trailer dredgers (see Figure 41.6).
A trailer dredger operates in exactly the same manner as a
41.4.4 Hopper suction dredgers ship without wires, spuds or other restrictions, and is conse-
In this category of 'suction dredging' plant, two types are best quently highly manoeuvrable. It does, however, require suffi-
known; the trailer dredger and the stationary dredger, of which cient room to work both in terms of waterway and water depth.
the self-propelled trailer hopper suction dredger has become a Manoeuvrability is often improved by the provision of twin-
dominant member of the dredging family in recent years, propulsion units and sometimes by the addition of bow thrus-
particularly in its role of deepening or maintaining navigable ters.
waterways under exposed conditions. Sizes of trailer dredgers vary greatly as with all dredging

Figure 41.6 Seagoing split trailer hopper dredger. (Courtesy: Costain-Blankevoort (UK) Dredging Co. Ltd)
plant, but typically the medium-sized trailer dredger in present- forward direction. Vessels of this type have been much
day use will have about 2500 m3 hopper capacity and an overall employed for the dredging of offshore sand and gravel deposits
length of about 110 m. Dredging depths vary but are frequently to obtain aggregates.
up to 25 m with an increasing number of vessels able to dredge Offloading of the material will be in the same manner as the
to 35 m. trailer dredger with the exception that, for sand and gravel
Because the trailer dredger is frequently used to produce and extraction operation, the cargo may often be rehandled directly
maintain waterways for modern shipping, particularly large from the hopper by a grab to stockpiles or to screening and
tanker transport, the dredging depth and capacity of the dredger washing plant ashore. In some instances screening may be
are geared to the optimum waterway depth required by ports on carried out on the vessel with reject material pumped overboard,
a global scale. where this is permitted by local legislation.
Close control of a sophisticated and costly ship such as the
modern trailer dredger is vital and the control systems for both
the suction pipe and operation of the sand pump are usually 41.4.4.3 Scraper dredger
centred on the bridge together with the usual controls for A recent development by a Finnish company has involved the
propulsion and other navigational equipment. Further automa- construction of a scraping hopper dredger in which the complete
tion and dredging aids now provided include the use of concen- hopper is hinged and lowered to the sea-bed, to be filled
tration, production and loading meters together with multi- mechanically by moving forward at low level prior to the hopper
channel recorders and on-board computer systems, both to being lifted in place for transport. Such plant, although interest-
provide automatic dredging and to give instant read-out facili- ing in conception, has a very small hopper capacity and its
ties of survey position and production to aid the dredgemaster. application will be restricted.
A limited number of trailer dredgers have pump-ashore
facilities. To effect this operation, a suction line is installed in the
hopper well together with an upper set of doors plus the 41.4.5 Pump-ashore plant
necessary discharge lines. Designs provide either for the sand Pump-ashore units are normally used in conjunction with other
pump to be connected directly to a shore line or for an dredging plant, the purpose of the installation being to empty a
additional pressure pump to be included which may be driven filled barge or hopper by suction means and to move the
by one of the trailer's propulsion engines. dredged material ashore through a pipeline system to a reclama-
The trailer dredger has a high production characteristic in tion area or stockpile.
soft or loose alluvial soils but due to the need to drag the suction In essence, the technique provides an alternative in the cycle
head, it is more difficult for the dredger to excavate stiff or hard of the total dredging operation and avoids the use of lengthy
clays, cemented sands or similar material. The work can be floating pipeline systems (in the case of suction or cutter suction
undertaken with adapted dragheads, but low productions have or bucket wheel dredgers) and is applicable in particular where
normally to be accepted. Very fine material such as silt can be the distance from dredging location to reclamation site is too
loaded easily, but because of its poor settlement characteristics great or is uneconomic for direct pumping by the dredger.
in the hopper it is usual to take only part loads during each
cycle.
A dredging technique where hydraulic conditions are known 41.5 Ancillary plant and equipment
to be suitable and in which the soil is a fine freely moving
sediment, such as fluid silt, is agitation dredging. One method is In conjunction with the major items of dredging plant discussed
to use the side-cast or boom trailer dredger. This involves a so far, the provision of waterborne ancillary plant and craft to
special design of trailer dredger with a revolving deck-mounted support the dredging operation is essential and includes barges,
boom that will allow discharge of the dredged material outside tugs, workboats, survey launches and small marine craft.
the limits of the navigable channel. It follows that the hydraulic Of prime importance are dumb barges and hoppers, used
conditions must be suitable to remove the discharged material extensively with bucket ladder dredgers and other plant for
away from the navigable channel with the minimum of resil- carrying dredged material to disposal grounds or to pump-
tation. ashore plant for reclamation fill.
Adaptation of plant is typified by the development of a trailer The size of project and quantities of dredged material will
dredger as an alternative oil-spill recovery vessel. The economics dictate the capacity and type of such craft to be used, e.g. self-
of such vessels must, however, be closely checked since, as is propelled hoppers are used where large volumes and long sailing
usual with engineering plant, multi-purpose tools invariably distances are involved.
suffer in cost effectiveness.
Recent research and development has taken place regarding
the development of a silt draghead for use in trailer dredging. It 41.6 Reclamation works
has a useful application in specific cases and should improve the
results of maintenance dredging in harbours and waterways. A major contribution of the dredging industry to development is
An important feature of the trailer dredger when considering the use of dredging plant to enable land reclamation (in the
the dredging requirements of a new project is its ability to sense of building new land) to take place. Particular examples of
operate in exposed locations, often in swell in excess of several this are the immense reclamation schemes in Holland, the US
metres and in wind, weather and sea conditions totally beyond and Japan and schemes in many other countries, including the
the capacity of other types of dredging plant. There is little UK (see Figure 41.7).
doubt that it will continue to be of major importance for work Reclamation methods using dredging plant as the prime
in sea or estuary approach channels. mover may be subdivided into reclamation by polder method or
reclamation using pumped fill material.
In the case of the former (polder) method, normal practice is
41.4.4.2 Stationary dredger
to construct dykes around a water area and artificially drain the
The stationary hopper dredger is of the same basic design as the area. The resulting dry land (frequently below sea- or ground-
trailer dredger but does not move from the working location water level) is in Holland termed a 'polder' which gives its name
while dredging and often has the suction pipe placed in a to the method.
Figure 41.7 Reclamation at port using cutter suction dredger

In this instance it will be necessary to maintain the water with water as the transport medium. Reclamation works using
levels inside the polder by pumping through a series of intercon- dredging methods therefore involve very large quantities of
necting drainage ditches and systems. water which must either be drained away or recirculated within
A major problem where land is open to the sea in tidal areas the system (see Figure 41.8).
will be the final closure of the dyke where the final gap will pass
large quantities of tidal flow at increasing velocities.
In the case of the second method, the general level will be
raised by pumping-in soil dredged from elsewhere. It is normal
practice to elevate the surface above high water mark for safety.
When considering the economics of the two methods, a major
cost of polder reclamation will be the dyke construction and its
subsequent protection. A project covering a large area will
therefore often be more attractive since the cost of the boundary
dyke will be lower in cost in relation to the reclaimed area.
In considering reclamation using fill material, a significant
cost will be the availability of suitable material. Ideally, the fill
material should be easily dredgeable, close to the site and have
good pumping characteristics with low wear and tear during
pumping and high compaction and load-bearing characteristics
when in place. In Holland, where reclamation works are exten-
sive, the predominant soil is a fine sand which meets several
(though not all) of these needs. In the UK an exceedingly wide
range of naturally occurring soils is encountered and a balance
will have to be obtained in deciding the choice of fill material.
Fill by dredging methods normally means that the material is
pumped hydraulically through a pipeline system as a mixture Figure 41.8 Reclamation in progress using hydraulic fill
 From a geotechnical viewpoint, materials such as sand and from the previous construction and dredging works is needed.
gravel will make excellent earthworks fill, but granular materials As implied previously, the nature of the materials to be
with increasing particle size (from coarse sand grading upwards) dredged and the quantities involved are vital statistics when
become increasingly expensive to pump. deciding on the correct dredging plant. For efficiency it is
Soft clays and silts are easily dredged and pumped but are important to use a common scientific language when describing
unsatisfactory fill materials and are usually avoided when soil and rocks and it is recommended that a standard classifica-
possible. However, use has been made of such material, both in tion method should be adopted. In this respect, the best
Holland and the UK, where deposit grounds can be husbanded approach is to use the PIANC report2 which provides a suitable
and redeveloped for agriculture. classification system for dredging purposes and gives recom-
In reclamation works clays with a firm or stiff cohesion mendations regarding the best type of soil and rock tests and
characteristic usually 'ball' if passed through a dredge pump, investigation procedures to be adopted.
and although they may form satisfactory fills, care is needed to When major dredging works are being considered, the possi-
analyse and predict the behaviour of such material. bility of trial dredging should not be overlooked. Clearly,
Prior to the commencement of reclamation projects, site because of the cost of mobilization it is likely to be economic
investigation into the virgin land conditions (which will become only if suitable equipment is available locally, or is passing the
the subsoil below the dredged fill) is important, in particular to location. If trial dredging can be arranged, the measurement of
provide the basic information for the engineering design of the trial work must be to a high standard and recorded in a
substructures. suitable manner for use in the future by the port engineer, his
civil consultant, and by dredging contractors required to bid for
the work.
41.6.1 Construction of 'islands9 Increasingly over the last few years, instrumentation has been
The construction of offshore 'islands' by dredging methods has installed in dredging plant. The majority of dredging plant now
developed rapidly in recent years and designs ranging from very has instrumentation which indicates the dredged material den-
small islands for pleasure purposes to jumbo projects for sity, pipeline velocity and the hopper loading. The larger and
airports or waste disposal have been researched. more sophisticated plant may have advanced data-collection
Such islands, except where they are of a temporary nature, systems based on computer technology to guide the operator in
will require effective (and usually expensive) protection against the search for high production. Where it is designed and
wave and wind attack. installed efficiently the introduction of such a system should lead
A new dredging technology has developed in order to con- to labour, energy and time saving, lowering of training time,
struct from silt or fine-grained materials temporary islands improved recording and an increased dredging efficiency.
beyond the Arctic Circle in seas which become icebound for
much of the year. The purpose of such islands is to enable oil
and gas exploration to be effected on a year-long basis rather 41.8 Environmental aspects
than be confined to a narrow weather window. Hybrid dredgers
with very high production capacities have been developed and In common with civil engineering projects, present-day dredging
used for such work. works need great care to evaluate environmental factors and to
meet legislation which is local, national and international.
Each country will have its own regulations concerning aspects
41.7 Other important considerations of dredging work. For example, in the UK the disposal of
dredged material at sea must conform to the Food and Environ-
In the final analysis technical factors relating to the type of mental Protection Act (Part H) 1985. Furthermore, in the UK
dredging plant or which system to employ are one aspect of the Oslo and London (Dumping) Conventions3-4 regulate dispo-
implementing effective dredging work. Equally important fac- sal and often impose strict requirements. Developments in 1986
tors can be identified as: in the London Dumping Convention5 have produced guidelines
for dredged materials which is a first rational step to consider
(1) Exposure of the port and harbour to weather and sea and dredged materials separately from industrial wastes and sewage
the hydraulic conditions in the vicinity. sludge. Although the greater proportion of material deposited
(2) Volume and frequency of dredging requirement. at sea comprises dredged materials, the percentage of polluted
(3) Environmental aspects such as availability of dredged material is very small and has been estimated as probably only
material disposal grounds or land-fill areas. 5% of the total volume.
(4) Availability of dredging plant from private contractors or While every care must be taken to comply with environmental
publicly-owned organizations. restrictions when using dredging plant, the greatest attention is
required at the disposal situation. Disposal at sea should be
Where a port is to be built from new, or where developments considered as an equal option with disposal on land. When the
take place at an existing port or harbour, the designer should dredged material is coarse-grained and clean, its use causes no
take into account a wide range of engineering criteria to problem and it may be ideal for landfill. Fine-grained materials
determine the design and location of waterways, structures and (such as silts and clays) are much more difficult to use and
land reclamation in order to minimize future dredging and limit disposal to lagoons on land or disposal areas at sea would be the
the chance of siltation. usual method. In these cases, environmental studies will often be
In relation to the dredging aspects, it cannot be over-empha- needed if a new site is under consideration.
sized that the most comprehensive site investigation (involving a Greater attention is now being given to the beneficial use of
study of the geological, climatic and hydraulic conditions) in dredged material, including widespread application for beach
conjunction with an assessment of the dredging quantities and creation or nourishment. A further recent example is processing
available time-scales is needed in order to decide on the most of silt material into a useful topsoil, although such special
suitable plant and modus operandi for the works. treatment is rarely economic except in specific circumstances.
Where a port is already in operation and it is necessary to At the present time, views on the impact of dredged material
plan the dredging maintenance, a more specific site investigation disposal both at sea and on land sites vary widely. Several
matched to a review of all earlier data collected over the years authorities maintain that (provided the material for deposit is
not itself severely contaminated) disposal at sea causes no harm
if the site is properly selected. Even where some contamination
is present in the material, a well-argued case has been presented
that the natural 'binding' properties of the material will contain
the pollutant.
Deposition of polluted material on land, apart from being
very expensive, may well be detrimental if leaching of pollutants
into the ground water system occurs.
The sensible approach to the selection of a disposal site
appears to be that of evaluating the 'choice of least detriment'
(accepting that in most instances there will be no detrimental
and even beneficial effects to be gained) and allowing disposal at
sea to be on an equal basis with land disposal.
For an overview on this developing subject reference should
be made to a PIANC report6 issued in 1986 which is concerned
with disposal at sea. The Association is currently preparing a
further report which will deal with disposal on land.

41.9 Hydrographic surveys and

geotechnical investigations
A vital feature of the assessment of dredging conditions to
enable plant selection to be made involves the early hydro-
graphic survey and investigation work.
In order to calculate quantities of material for excavation,
accurate hydrographic surveys are required. Additionally, dur-
ing the dredging operations, surveys may need to be carried out
to assess interim payments, particularly if these are made on an
in situ quantity basis. After the completion of dredging work, a
particularly accurate survey will be needed to check that the
specified depth has been reached, side slopes produced and to
agree the final quantities for payment.
With regard to the setting out of dredging work, stationary
plant such as bucket ladder dredgers, suction and cutter suction
dredgers and grabs can normally be positioned by relatively
simple hydrographic survey methods, using beacons, shore Figure 41.9 Sea-bed sampler designed for dredging
markers, theodolite systems and sextant observations. Further investigations. (Courtesy: Osiris-Seaway Ltd)
offshore and, where visibility problems occur (which may often
be the case for trailer dredging) radio position fixing systems project will be costly to all concerned! In many cases the dredger
have been used for many years and range-range or range- mobilized for a soil job may be totally unsuitable for rock work
bearing may be applicable. Laser-based systems have been and the mobilization of a new item of plant can be very
developed, some involving simultaneous measurement of range expensive and time-wasting.
and bearing. Due to the continuing development of the electro- At the present time, it is usual to apply soil and rock
nics and telecommunications industries, improved survey and mechanics practice to the evaluation of materials but an increas-
control systems for dredging works are constantly under review. ing value is the recovering of as much in situ data as possible,
Satellite-based systems, for example, may be applicable in the especially with respect to investigations into rock conditions.
future. The need to estimate whether any form of pretreatment (such
Investigations to check the nature and occurrence of the as drilling and blasting) is needed is particularly relevant to
materials to be dredged are within the field of marine geotechni- rock. At present the softer sedimentary rocks (soft sandstones,
cal investigations and will include boring in soils and drilling in limestones, corals, etc.) can frequently be dredged direct with
rock together with the recovery of samples or cores for inspec- large and heavy plant whilst the unweathered igneous and
tion, logging and testing. Laboratory work on the recovered metamorphic rocks will require pretreatment before removal.
samples and cores is invaluable in determining the properties of In many dredging projects it will be necessary to determine
the materials and provides essential information for the selec- the hydraulic conditions at the dredging site, the disposal area
tion of plant and the costing of the project (see Figure 41.9). and the project site (especially if reclamation works are to be
The application of geophysics during the site investigation is undertaken). In some cases the construction of a physical
proving increasingly useful, provided sufficient correlation in- hydraulic model will be needed in order to study the influence of
formation, possibly in the form of boreholes, is available and is the various hydraulic conditions. A study of current patterns
used. will be very important, in particular to check that navigation
Survey specification can vary widely but in the UK it is problems are not caused, siltation is kept to a minimum and
recommended that reference is made to a joint publication by wave action is reduced. Information on the latter is also vital to
the Institution of Civil Engineers and Royal Institution of determine the method of protection to be afforded to dykes and
Chartered Surveyors7 published in 1985. embankments.
Of particular importance is the delineation of rockhead for a If conditions are not too complex, it may be possible to
dredging contract. The difference in production by a specific evaluate the hydraulic conditions using a mathematical model
dredger in soil and the same dredger in rock is often so without having to construct a physical model which will usually
considerable that the unexpected occurrence of rock on a be much more expensive and time-consuming.
41.10 Organizations 41.10.3 International Association of Dredging
Companies (IADC)
It may be useful to those seeking further information about
This Hague-based organization (which is in effect a trade
dredging and its technology to note that the following organiza-
association for operators) has a worldwide membership. It often
tions have considerable involvement or access to such know-
ledge. assists in study work with its special expertise and also produces
an informative and valuable publication entitled Terra et Aqua
related to dredging (see bibliography).
41.10.1 World Association of Dredging
Organizations (WODA)
The World Association of Dredging Organizations consists of References
three linked organizations: 1 Permanent International Association of Navigational Congresses
(1977) Study of environmental effects of dredging and disposal of
(1) Western Dredging Association (WEDA) responsible for dredged materials. Report of the International Commission, annexe
North America. to Bulletin No. 27. PIANC, Brussels.
(2) Central Dredging Association (CEDA) responsible for Eur- 2 Permanent International Association of Navigational Congresses
ope, Middle East and Africa. (1984) Classification of soil and rocks to be dredged. Report of the
(3) Eastern Dredging Association (EADA) responsible for Far International Commission. Supplement to Bulletin No. 47. PIANC,
East, China, Japan and Australasia. Brussels.
3 Oslo Commission (1974) Convention for the prevention of marine
pollution by dumping from ships and aircraft, (Oslo Convention).
It embraces the total field of dredging including operators, Oslo Commission, London.
designers, manufacturers and research bodies and is responsible 4 International Maritime Organisation (1972) Convention on the
for frequent world conferences (see bibliography). prevention of maritime pollution by dumping of wastes and other
matters, (London Dumping convention). IMO, London.
5 International Maritime Organisation (1986) Guidelines for the
41.10.2 Permanent International Association of application of the annexes to the disposal of dredged material. Report
Navigational Congresses (PIANC) of the 10th consultative meeting of constructing parties to the
London Dumping convention, annexe 2, IMO, London.
This long-established (1885) organization is based in Brussels 6 Permanent International Association of Navigational Congresses
and is an important professional international body concerned (1986) Disposal of dredged material at sea. Supplement to Bulletin
with the design, operation and maintenance of ports, harbours, No. 52. PIANC, Brussels.
waterways and canals. 7 Institution of Civil Engineers and Royal Institute of Chartered
An important feature is its four-yearly congress (see biblio- Surveyors (1985) Guidelines for the preparation of hydrographic
graphy). The organization is supported by governments and has surveys for dredging. ICE and RICS, Thomas Telford, London.
national sections in many countries (including a British section).
Dredging has frequently been a subject for consideration at
the congresses and valuable reports on specific subject areas
related to dredging have been produced both at the congresses Bibliography
and by international working groups.
Central Dredging Association Proceedings world dredging conferences
(various dates from June 1968). CEDA, Delft.
Permanent International Association of Navigational Congresses
Proceedings (various dates from 1885). PIANC, Brussels.
International Association of Dredging Companies Terra et
Aqua-Journal of International Association of Dredging Companies
(from 1972). IADC, The Hague.
Dredging and Port Construction (monthly journal) Published by
Industrial and Marine Publications, Redhill.
World Dredging (monthly journal) Published by Symcon Co.,
California.