Olympic Games - Wikipedia

8/9/2021 Olympic Games - Wikipedia
Olympic Games
The modern Olympic Games or Olympics (French: Jeux olympiques)[1][2] are leading international sporting
events featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world
participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered the world's foremost sports
competition with more than 200 nations participating.[3] The Olympic Games are normally held every four
years, alternating between the Summer and Winter Olympics every two years in the four-year period.
Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games (Ancient Greek: Ὀλυμπιακοί Ἀγῶνες), held in
Olympia, Greece from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the
International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The
IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and
authority.
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to
the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for snow
and ice sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with disabilities, the Youth Olympic Games for athletes aged
14 to 18, the five Continental games (Pan American, African, Asian, European, and Pacific), and the World
Games for sports that are not contested in the Olympic Games. The IOC also endorses the Deaflympics and the
Special Olympics. The IOC has needed to adapt to a variety of economic, political, and technological
advancements. The abuse of amateur rules by the Eastern Bloc nations prompted the IOC to shift away from
pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to the acceptance of professional athletes participating at the
Games. The growing importance of mass media has created the issue of corporate sponsorship and general
commercialisation of the Games. World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916, 1940, and 1944 Olympics;
large-scale boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Olympics;[4] and the 2020
Olympics were postponed until 2021 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees
(NOCs), and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC
is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, and organises and funds the Games according to the
Olympic Charter. The IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at
the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the
opening and closing ceremonies. Over 14,000 athletes competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2018
Winter Olympics combined, in 35 different sports and over 400 events.[5][6] The first, second, and third-place
finishers in each event receive Olympic medals: gold, silver, and bronze, respectively.
The Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created
numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, and a terrorist attack in 1972.
Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide athletes with the chance to attain national and
sometimes international fame. The Games also provide an opportunity for the host city and country to
showcase themselves to the world.
Contents
Ancient Olympics
Modern Games
Forerunners
Revival
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games 1/41
1896 Games
Changes and adaptations
21st-century Games
Cost of the Games
Economic and social impact on host cities and countries
International Olympic Committee
Criticism
Commercialisation
Under national organising committees
Under IOC control
Budget
Effect of television
Olympic marketing
Symbols
Ceremonies
Opening ceremony
Closing ceremony
Medal presentation
Sports
Amateurism and professionalism
Controversies
Boycotts
Politics
Use of performance-enhancing drugs
Sex discrimination
War and terrorism
Citizenship
IOC rules for citizenship
Reasons for changing citizenship
Citizenship changes and disputes
Champions and medallists
Nations
Nations at the Summer Olympics
Nations at the Winter Olympics
Host nations and cities
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Ancient Olympics
The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held
every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece.
Competition was among representatives of several city-states and
kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but
also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration, horse and
chariot racing events. It has been widely written that during the Games,
Stadium in Olympia, Greece
all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the
Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the
Olympic peace or truce.[7] This idea is a modern myth because the
Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to
Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus.[8] The origin of
the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend;[9] one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his
father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games.[10][11][12] According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the
Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years.[13] The myth continues that
after Heracles completed his twelve labours, he built the Olympic Stadium as an honour to Zeus. Following its
completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a "stadion" (Greek: στάδιον,
Latin: stadium, "stage"), which later became a unit of distance. The most widely accepted inception date for the
Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, listing the winners of a footrace
held every four years starting in 776 BC.[14] The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon
(consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race, and wrestling), boxing, wrestling,
pankration, and equestrian events.[15][16] Tradition has it that Coroebus, a cook from the city of Elis, was the
first Olympic champion.[17]
The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices
honouring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero
and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis.[18] The
winners of the events were admired and immortalised in poems and statues.[19] The Games were held every
four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time
measurement. The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the Pythian
Games, the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games.[20]
The Olympic Games reached the height of their success in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually
declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. While there is no scholarly
consensus as to when the Games officially ended, the most commonly held date is 393 AD, when the emperor
Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated.[21] Another date commonly cited is
426 AD, when his successor, Theodosius II, ordered the destruction of all Greek temples.[22]
Modern Games
Forerunners
Various uses of the term "Olympic" to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since
the 17th century. The first such event was the Cotswold Games or "Cotswold Olimpick Games", an annual
meeting near Chipping Campden, England, involving various sports. It was first organised by the lawyer Robert
Dover between 1612 and 1642, with several later celebrations leading up to the present day. The British
Olympic Association, in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London, mentioned these games as "the first
stirrings of Britain's Olympic beginnings".[23]
L'Olympiade de la République, a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary
France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games.[24] The competition included several disciplines
from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into
sport.[24]
In 1834 and 1836, Olympic games were held in Ramlösa (Olympiska spelen i
Ramlösa), and an additional in Stockholm, Sweden in 1843, all organised by
Gustaf Johan Schartau and others. At most 25,000 spectators saw the games.[25]
In 1850, an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much

Wenlock, in Shropshire, England. In 1859, Brookes changed the name to the
Wenlock Olympian Games. This annual sports festival continues to this day.[26]
The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November
1860.[27]
Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival.
Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly, these games were the first to be
wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook, although only 'gentlemen
amateurs' could compete.[28][29] The programme of the first modern Olympiad
Baron Pierre de Coubertin
in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics.[30] In
1865 Hulley, Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian
Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its
articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic
Charter.[31] In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organised
at London's Crystal Palace.[32]
Revival
Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of
Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet
and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead",
published in 1833.[33] Evangelos Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian
philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a
permanent revival of the Olympic Games.[34] Zappas sponsored the first 1834 Handbill, written in
Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes phonetic vernacular,
participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the advertising "Ho-limpyc
restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Gaymes" in Shropshire,
Olympic Games.[34] England
The stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875.[35] Thirty thousand spectators
attended that Games in 1870, though no official attendance records are
available for the 1875 Games.[36] In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games
of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to
found the International Olympic Committee (IOC).[37] Coubertin built on the
ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing
internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years.[37]
He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly
created International Olympic Committee. This meeting was held from 16 to 23
June 1894, at the University of Paris. On the last day of the Congress, it was
decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC
would take place in Athens in 1896.[38] The IOC elected the Greek writer
Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.[39]
1896 Games
Evangelos Zappas
The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the
Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14
nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events.[40] Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left
the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust
was used to help finance the 1896 Games.[41][42][43] George Averoff
contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in
preparation for the Games.[44] The Greek government also provided
funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets
and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.[44]
Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of Opening ceremony in the
hosting an Olympic Games. This feeling was shared by many of the Panathinaiko Stadium, 6 April 1896
athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic
host city. The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to
various host cities around the world. The second Olympics was held in Paris.[45]
Changes and adaptations
After the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of
stagnation which threatened its survival. The Olympic Games held at
the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at
St. Louis in 1904 failed to attract much participation or notice. Of the
650 athletes in the 1904 Olympics, 580 were American; the winner of
the marathon was later disqualified upon discovery of a photograph of
him riding in a car during the race.[46] The Games rebounded with the
1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Francis Field of Washington
Olympics to take place within the third Olympiad), which were held in University in St. Louis during the
1904 Summer Olympics
Athens. These Games attracted a broad international field of
participants and generated a great deal of public interest, marking the
beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics.
The 1906 Games were officially recognised by the IOC at the time (although not any longer), and no
Intercalated Games have been held since.[47]
Winter Games
The Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that
were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure
skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as
Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand
this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921
Olympic Congress in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version
of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days)
was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France, in connection with the Paris
Ice hockey game during the 1928
Games held three months later; this event became the first Winter
Winter Olympics at St. Moritz
Olympic Games.[48] Although it was intended that the same country
host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year, this idea was
quickly abandoned. The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be
celebrated every four years in the same year as their summer counterpart.[49] This tradition was upheld through
the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were
held every four years, two years after each Summer Olympics.[50]
Paralympics
In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the

rehabilitation of soldiers after World War II, organised a multi-sport
event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London
Olympics. Originally known as the Stoke Mandeville Games,
Guttmann's event became an annual sports festival. Over the next 12
years, Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an
avenue to healing.
In 1960, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to Rome to compete in the 1964 Summer Paralympics in Tokyo
"Parallel Olympics", which ran in parallel with the Summer Olympics
and came to be known as the first Paralympics. Since then, the
Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year and, starting with the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul, the
host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics.[51][a] The International Olympic Committee
(IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement in 2001 which guaranteed that
host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games.[53][54] The agreement
came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, and at the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver.
Two years before the 2012 Games, the LOCOG chairman Lord Coe made the following statement about the
Paralympics and Olympics in London:[55]
We want to change public attitudes towards disability, celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport
and to enshrine from the very outset that the two Games are an integrated whole.
Youth Games
In 2010, the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games, which give athletes between the ages of
14 and 18 the chance to compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge
in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC.[56][57] The first Summer Youth Games were held
in Singapore from 14 to 26 August 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck, Austria,
two years later.[58] These Games will be shorter than the senior Games; the summer version will last twelve
days, while the winter version will last nine days.[59] The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to
participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games.[60][61]
The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games, however there will be
variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of
disciplines and events.[62]
21st-century Games
The Summer Olympics have grown from 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, to more than 11,200
competitors representing 207 nations in 2016.[63] The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller; for
example, Pyeongchang hosted 2,922 athletes from 92 nations in 2018. Most of the athletes and officials are
housed in the Olympic Village for the duration of the Games. This accommodation centre is designed to be a
self-contained home for all Olympic participants, and is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations
for religious expression.[64]
The IOC has allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees (NOCs) to represent individual nations.
These do not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organisations
demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games, examples being
territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite
being legally a part of another country.[65] The current version of the Olympic Charter allows for the
establishment of new NOCs to represent nations that qualify as "an independent State recognised by the
international community".[66] Consequently, the IOC did not allow the formation of NOCs for Sint Maarten and
Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010, although the IOC had recognised
the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986.[67][68] Since 2012, athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles have
had the option to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba.[69]
Cost of the Games
The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 found that, since 1960, sports-related costs for the Summer Games were on
average US$5.2 billion and for the Winter Games $3.1 billion. These figures do not include wider infrastructure
costs like roads, urban rail, and airports, which often cost as much or more than the sports-related costs. The
most expensive Summer Games were Beijing 2008 at US$40–44 billion,[70] and the most expensive Winter
Games were Sochi 2014 at US$51 billion.[71][72] As of 2016, costs per athlete were, on average, US$599,000
for the Summer Games and $1.3 million for the Winter Games; for London 2012, the cost per athlete was
$1.4 million, and the figure was $7.9 million for Sochi 2014.[72]
Where ambitious construction for the 1976 Games in Montreal and the 1980 Games in Moscow had burdened
organisers with expenses greatly in excess of revenues, Los Angeles strictly controlled expenses for the 1984
Games by using existing facilities that were paid for by corporate sponsors. The Olympic Committee led by
Peter Ueberroth used some of the profits to endow the LA84 Foundation to promote youth sports in Southern
California, educate coaches and maintain a sports library. The 1984 Summer Olympics are often considered the
most financially successful modern Olympics and a model for future Games.[73]
Budget overruns are common for the Games. Average overrun for Games since 1960 is 156% in real terms,[74]
which means that actual costs turned out to be on average 2.56 times the budget that was estimated at the time
of winning the bid to host the Games. Montreal 1976 had the highest cost overrun for Summer Games, and for
any Games, at 720%; Lake Placid 1980 had the highest cost overrun for Winter Games, at 324%. London 2012
had a cost overrun of 76%, Sochi 2014 of 289%.[72]
It has been documented that cost and cost overrun for the Games follow a power-law distribution, which means
that, first, the Games are prone to large cost overruns and, second, it is only a matter of time until an overrun
occurs that is larger than the largest to date. In short, hosting the Games is economically and financially
extremely risky.[75]
Economic and social impact on host cities and countries
Many economists are sceptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games, emphasising that
such "mega-events" often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run.[76]
Conversely hosting (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country's exports, as the
host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games.[77] Moreover,
research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic
contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector.
This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards,
although not permanently. This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities
to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society.[78]
The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities; for example, the Centre on Housing
Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often
disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups.[79] The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most
expensive Olympic Games in history, costing in excess of US$50 billion. According to a report by the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games, this cost will
not boost Russia's national economy, but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of
Russia in the future as a result of improved services.[80] But by December 2014, The Guardian stated that Sochi
"now feels like a ghost town", citing the spread-out nature of the stadiums and arenas, the still-unfinished
construction, and the overall effects of Russia's political and economic turmoil.[81] Furthermore, at least four
cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics, citing the high costs or the lack of local support,[82]
resulting in only a two-city race between Almaty, Kazakhstan and Beijing, China. Thus in July 2016, The
Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is that very few cities want to host
them.[83] Bidding for the 2024 Summer Olympics also became a two-city race between Paris and Los Angeles,
so the IOC took the unusual step of simultaneously awarding both the 2024 Games to Paris and the 2028
Games to Los Angeles.[84] The 2028 Los Angeles bid was praised by the IOC for using a record-breaking
number of existing and temporary facilities and relying on corporate money.[85]
International Olympic Committee

The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organisations and
federations, recognised media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and
institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter.[86] As the umbrella organisation of the
Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city,
overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the Olympic sports programme, and
negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights.[87]
The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:
International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international
level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for
association football, and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing
body for volleyball. There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each of the
Olympic sports.[88]
National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each
country. For example, the Russian Olympic Committee (ROC) is the NOC of the Russian
Federation. There are currently 206 NOCs recognised by the IOC.[89][90]
Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) are temporary committees responsible
for the organisation of each Olympic Games. OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the
final report is delivered to the IOC.[91]
French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each
Olympic Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official
language apart from French or English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during
the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three (or more) languages, or the main two
depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country: French is always spoken first,
followed by an English translation, and then the dominant language of the host nation (when this is not English
or French).[92]
Criticism
The IOC has often been accused of being an intractable organisation, with several life members on the
committee. The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially
controversial. Brundage fought strongly for amateurism and against the commercialisation of the Olympic
Games, even as these attitudes came to be seen as incongruous with the realities of modern sports. The advent
of state-sponsored athletes from the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as
it placed self-financed amateurs of Western countries at a disadvantage.[93] Brundage was accused of racism—
for resisting the exclusion of apartheid South Africa—and antisemitism.[94] Under the Samaranch presidency,
the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption.[95] Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain
were also a source of criticism.[96]
In 1998, it was reported that several IOC members had taken gifts from members of the Salt Lake City bid
committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. There were soon four independent investigations
underway: by the IOC, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), the Salt Lake Organizing Committee
(SLOC), and the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). Although nothing strictly illegal had occurred, it
was felt that the acceptance of the gifts was morally dubious. As a result of the investigation, ten members of
the IOC were expelled and a further ten sanctioned.[97] Stricter rules were adopted for future bids, and caps
were introduced to define how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Additionally, new term and
age limits were put into place for IOC membership, and fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to the
committee. Nevertheless, from sporting and business standpoints, the 2002 Olympics were one of the most
successful Winter Games in history; records were set in both the broadcasting and marketing programs. Over
2 billion viewers watched more than 13 billion viewer-hours.[98] The 2002 Games were also a financial
success, raising more money with fewer sponsors than any prior Olympic Games, leaving SLOC with a surplus
of $40 million. This excess revenue was used to create the Utah Athletic Foundation (also known as the Utah
Olympic Legacy Foundation), which maintains and operates many of the surviving Olympic venues.[98]
It was reported in 1999 that the Nagano Olympic bid committee had spent approximately $14 million on
entertaining the 62 IOC members and many of their associates. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano
destroyed the financial records after the IOC requested that the entertainment expenditures should not be made
public.[99][100]
A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, which aired in August 2004, investigated the
taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics.[101] The documentary claimed that it
was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in
their bid for the 2012 Games,[102] Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime
minister Tony Blair and the London bid committee, headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe, of
breaking the bid rules. He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews
concerning his involvement[103] but the allegation was never fully explored. Turin's 2006 Winter Olympic bid
was also clouded by controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, closely connected to the rival bid of
Sion, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organising Committee. These accusations led to
a wide-ranging investigation, and also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid which potentially
helped Turin to capture the host city nomination.[104]
In July 2012, the Anti-Defamation League called the continued refusal by the IOC to hold a moment of silence
at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich
Olympics, "a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli
athletes."[105]
In April 2018, Norwegian track and field athletics manager Håkon Lutdal argued for abolishing the Olympic
Games, arguing against the concept of gathering many sports in a single town, city or region no matter how
popular or unpopular those sports are there. Instead, he argued for elevating the status of various world
championships in different sports, usually at locations attracting more interested spectators.[106]
In 2020, a group of Oxford University scholars documented high costs and cost overruns for the Games and
criticised the IOC for not taking enough responsibility for controlling increasing costs.[75] The IOC criticised
the study and the Oxford scholars countered the criticism, point by point, in an open letter to IOC President
Thomas Bach.[107]
Commercialisation
Under national organising committees
The Olympic Games have been commercialised to various degrees since the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics
in Athens, when a number of companies paid for advertising,[108] including Kodak.[109][110] In 1908, Oxo,
Odol mouthwash, and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic
Games.[111][112][113] Coca-Cola first sponsored the Summer Olympics in 1928, and has remained an Olympic
sponsor ever since.[108] Before the IOC took control of sponsorship, the NOCs had responsibility for
negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and use of the Olympic symbols.[114]
Under IOC control
The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors. It was not until the retirement of IOC President
Avery Brundage, in 1972, that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative
advertising markets available to them.[114] Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began
to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand.[115]
Budget
During the first half of the 20th century, the IOC ran on a small budget.[115][116] As president of the IOC from
1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest.[114]
Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC's decision-making.[114]
Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organising committees to negotiate their own
sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols.[114] When Brundage retired the IOC had US$2 million in
assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US$45 million.[114] This was primarily due to a shift in
ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights.[114]
When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially
independent.[116]
The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history. The Los Angeles-based
organising committee, led by Peter Ueberroth, was able to generate a surplus of US$225 million, which was an
unprecedented amount at that time.[117] The organising committee had been able to create such a surplus in part
by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies.[117] The IOC sought to gain control of these
sponsorship rights. Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Programme (TOP) in 1985, in order to create
an Olympic brand.[115] Membership in TOP was, and is, very exclusive and expensive. Fees cost
US$50 million for a four-year membership.[116] Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights
for their product category, and use of the Olympic symbol, the interlocking rings, in their publications and
advertisements.[118]
Effect of television
The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television, though only to local
audiences.[119] The 1956 Winter Olympics in Italy were the first internationally televised Olympic Games,[120]
and the broadcasting rights for the following Winter Games in California were sold for the first time to
specialised television broadcasting networks—CBS paid US$394,000 for the American rights.[121][115] In the
following decades, the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War, and the International
Olympic Committee wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium.[121] The
sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games, thereby generating
more interest, which in turn enhanced the appeal of TV air time to the advertisers. This cycle allowed the IOC
to charge ever-increasing fees for those rights.[121] For example, CBS paid US$375 million for the American
broadcast rights for the 1998 Nagano Games,[122] while NBC spent US$3.5 billion for the American rights to
air every Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012.[115] In 2011, NBC agreed to a $4.38 billion contract with the IOC
to broadcast the Olympics through the 2020 Games, the most expensive television rights deal in Olympic
history.[123] NBC then agreed to a $7.75 billion contract extension on 7 May 2014, to air the Olympics through
the 2032 Games.[124] NBC also acquired the American

television rights to the Youth Olympic Games,
beginning in 2014,[125] and the Paralympic
Games.[126] More than half of the Olympic
Committee's global sponsors are American
companies,[127] and NBC is one of the major sources
of revenue for the IOC.[127]
Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s

until the end of the 20th century. This was due to the
advent of satellites for broadcasting live television A cartoon from the 1936 Olympics imagines the year
worldwide starting in 1964, and the introduction of 2000 when spectators will have been replaced by
colour television in 1968.[128] The global audience for television and radio, their cheers coming from
the 1968 Mexico City Games was estimated to be loudspeakers.
600 million, whereas the audience numbers at the Los
Angeles Games of 1984 had increased to 900 million;
this number had swelled to 3.5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.[129][130][131][132][133] With
such high costs charged to broadcast the Games, the added pressure of the internet, and increased competition
from cable, the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings. The IOC responded by
making a number of changes to the Olympic programme; at the Summer Games, the gymnastics competition
was expanded from seven to nine nights, and a Champions Gala was added to attract greater interest;[134] the
events programmes were also expanded for swimming and diving, both popular sports with a broad base of
television viewers.[134] Due to the substantial fees NBC has paid for rights to the Olympics, the IOC has
allowed the network to influence the event scheduling to maximise U.S. television ratings when
possible.[135][132][136][137]
Olympic marketing
The sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial. The argument is that the Games have become
indistinguishable from any other commercialised sporting spectacle.[118][138][138] Another criticism is that the
Games are funded by host cities and national governments; the IOC incurs none of the cost, yet controls all the
rights and profits from the Olympic symbols. The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast
income.[118] Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games, even though there is no
certainty that they will earn back their investments.[139] Research has shown that trade is around 30 percent
higher for countries that have hosted the Olympics.[140]
Symbols
The Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied
in the Olympic Charter. The Olympic symbol, better known as the
Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the
unity of the five inhabited continents (Africa, The Americas (is
considered one continent), Asia, Europe, and Oceania). The coloured
version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white
field forms the Olympic flag. These colours were chosen because every
nation had at least one of them on its national flag. The flag was
adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer
Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. It has since been hoisted during each
celebration of the Games.[141][142] The Olympic flag
The Olympic motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning

"Faster, Higher, Stronger" was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin in 1894
and has been official since 1924. The motto was coined by Coubertin's friend, the Dominican priest Henri
Didon OP, for a Paris youth gathering of 1891.[143]
Coubertin's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed:
The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most
important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have
conquered but to have fought well.[141]
Months before each Games, the Olympic Flame is lit at the Temple of Hera in Olympia in a ceremony that
reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess joined by ten female performers as
Vestal Virgins, ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun's rays; she then
lights the torch of the first relay bearer, thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the
host city's Olympic stadium, where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony.[144] Though the flame
has been an Olympic symbol since 1928, the torch relay was only introduced at the 1936 Summer Games to
promote the Third Reich.[141][145]
The Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was
introduced in 1968. It has played an important part of the Games' identity promotion since the 1980 Summer
Olympics, when the Soviet bear cub Misha reached international stardom. The mascot of the Summer
Olympics in London was named Wenlock after the town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire. Much Wenlock still
hosts the Wenlock Olympian Games, which were an inspiration to Pierre de Coubertin for the Olympic
Games.[146]
Ceremonies
Opening ceremony
As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the

opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. This ceremony takes place
on a Friday and is held prior to the commencement of the sporting
events (apart from some group-stage football matches, softball games,
and rowing heats).[147][148] Most of the rituals for the opening
ceremony were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in
Antwerp.[149] The ceremony typically starts with the entrance of the
president of the International Olympic Comittee and a representative of
Opening ceremony of the 2020
the host country followed by the hoisting of the host country's flag and
Summer Olympics in Tokyo
a performance of its national anthem.[147][148] The host nation then
presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theatre
representative of its culture.[149] The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive
hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor's in terms of memorability. The opening
ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $100 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic
segment.[150]
After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is
traditionally the first nation to enter and leads the parade in order to honour the origins of the Olympics.
Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language, with the host
country's athletes being the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens,
Greece, the Greek flag entered the stadium first, while the Greek delegation entered last. Beginning with the
2020 Summer Olympics, the succeeding hosts of the respective Olympic Games (summer or winter) will enter
immediately before the current host in descending order. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games.
Finally, the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier, often
a successful Olympic athlete from the host nation, who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium's
cauldron.[147][148]
Closing ceremony
The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place on a Sunday

and after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each
participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who
enter together, without any national distinction.[151] Three national flags
are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played: the
flag of the current host country; the flag of Greece, to honour the
birthplace of the Olympic Games; and the flag of the country hosting
the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games.[151] The president of the
Athletes gather in the stadium
organising committee and the IOC president make their closing
during the closing ceremony of the
speeches, the Games are officially closed, and the Olympic flame is
2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.
extinguished.[152] In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony, the
current mayor of the city that organised the Games transfers a special
Olympic flag to the president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the current mayor of the city hosting the next
Olympic Games.[153] The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and
theatre representative of its culture.[151]
As is customary, the last medal presentation of the Games is held as part of the closing ceremony. Typically, the
marathon medals are presented at the Summer Olympics,[151][154] while the cross-country skiing mass start
medals are awarded at the Winter Olympics.[155]
Medal presentation
A medal ceremony is held after the conclusion of each Olympic event.

The winner, and the second- and third-place competitors or teams, stand
on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals
by a member of the IOC.[156] After the medals have been received, the
national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national
anthem of the gold medallist's country is played.[157] Volunteering
citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal
ceremonies, assisting the officials who present the medals and acting as
flag-bearers.[158] In the Summer Olympics, each medal ceremony is A medal ceremony at the 2008
held at the venue where the event has taken place,[159] but the Summer Olympics with (from left to
ceremonies at the Winter Olympics are usually held in a special right): the Danish flag, the Union
"plaza".[160] Flag of the UK, and the New
Zealand flag
Sports
The Olympic Games programme consists of 35 sports, 30 disciplines and 408 events. For example, wrestling is
a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is further broken down
into fourteen events for men and four events for women, each representing a different weight class.[161] The
Summer Olympics programme includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics programme features 15
sports.[162] Athletics, swimming, fencing, and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never
been absent from the Olympic programme. Cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined,
ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics programme since its inception in
1924. Current Olympic sports, like badminton, basketball, and volleyball, first appeared on the programme as
demonstration sports, and were later promoted to full Olympic sports. Some sports that were featured in earlier
Games were later dropped from the programme.[163]
Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognised by the IOC as the global
supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC.[164] There are sports recognised by
the IOC that are not included in the Olympic programme. These sports are not considered Olympic sports, but
they can be promoted to this status during a programme revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a
celebration of the Olympic Games.[165][166] During such revisions, sports can be excluded or included in the
programme on the basis of a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC.[167] There are recognised
sports that have never been on an Olympic programme in any capacity, for example, squash.[168]
In October and November 2004, the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission, which was tasked
with reviewing the sports on the Olympic programme and all non-Olympic recognised sports. The goal was to
apply a systematic approach to establishing the Olympic programme for each celebration of the Games.[169]
The commission formulated seven criteria to judge whether a sport should be included on the Olympic
programme.[169] These criteria are history and tradition of the sport, universality, popularity of the sport, image,
athletes' health, development of the International Federation that governs the sport, and costs of holding the
sport.[169] From this study five recognised sports emerged as candidates for inclusion at the 2012 Summer
Olympics: golf, karate, rugby sevens, roller sports and squash.[169] These sports were reviewed by the IOC
Executive Board and then referred to the General Session in Singapore in July 2005. Of the five sports
recommended for inclusion only two were selected as finalists: karate and squash.[169] Neither sport attained
the required two-thirds vote and consequently they were not promoted to the Olympic programme.[169] In
October 2009 the IOC voted to instate golf and rugby sevens as Olympic sports for the 2016 and 2020 Summer
Olympic Games.[170]
The 114th IOC Session, in 2002, limited the Summer Games programme to a maximum of 28 sports, 301
events, and 10,500 athletes.[169] Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major programme revision
was performed, which resulted in the exclusion of baseball and softball from the official programme of the
2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 programme
featured just 26 sports.[169] The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the
addition of rugby and golf.[170]
Amateurism and professionalism
The ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public school

greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin.[171] The public schools
subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of
education, an attitude summed up in the saying mens sana in corpore
sano, a sound mind in a sound body. In this ethos, a gentleman was one
who became an all-rounder, not the best at one specific thing. There
was also a prevailing concept of fairness, in which practising or training
was considered tantamount to cheating.[171] Those who practised a
sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over
Professional NHL players were those who practised it merely as a hobby.[171]
allowed to participate in ice hockey
starting in 1998 (1998 Gold medal The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout
game between Russia and the the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and
Czech Republic pictured). decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was
discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the
Olympics. His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983
on compassionate grounds.[172] Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of
their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were
thus considered professionals.[173]
The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries eroded the ideology
of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet
Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but all of
whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.[174][175][171] The situation greatly
disadvantaged American and Western European athletes, and was a major factor in the decline of American
medal hauls in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, the Olympics shifted away from amateurism, as envisioned by
Pierre de Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes,[176] but only in the 1990s, after the
collapse of the Soviet Union and its influence within the International Olympic Committee.[177][178][179]
Team Canada ice hockey dispute
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could
no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving
European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from
the IIHF and IOC. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL
professional hockey players[180] at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada.[181] The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an
Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made.[180] In response, Canada withdrew from
international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition"
was instituted.[180][182] Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the
dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World
Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics until 1988, because of
the IOC's amateur-only policy.[183]
Controversies
Boycotts
Greece, Australia, France, and United Kingdom are the only

countries to be represented at every Olympic Games since their
inception in 1896. While countries sometimes miss an Olympics
due to a lack of qualified athletes, some choose to boycott a
celebration of the Games for various reasons. The Olympic
Council of Ireland boycotted the 1936 Berlin Games, because the
IOC insisted its team needed to be restricted to the Irish Free Countries that boycotted the 1956 Summer
State rather than representing the entire island of Ireland.[184] Olympics (shaded blue)
There were three boycotts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics: the

Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian uprising by
the Soviet Union, but did send an equestrian delegation to Stockholm; Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon
boycotted the Games because of the Suez Crisis; and the People's Republic of China boycotted the Games due
to the participation of the Republic of China, composed of athletes coming from Taiwan.[185]
In 1972 and 1976 a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott to force them to ban
South Africa and Rhodesia, because of their segregationist rule. New Zealand was also one of the African
boycott targets, because its national rugby union team had toured apartheid-ruled South Africa. The IOC
conceded in the first two cases, but refused to ban New Zealand on the grounds that rugby was not an Olympic
sport.[186] Fulfilling their threat, twenty African countries were

joined by Guyana and Iraq in a withdrawal from the Montreal
Games, after a few of their athletes had already
competed.[186][187]
The Republic of China (Taiwan) was excluded from the 1976

Games by order of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, the prime minister of
Canada. Trudeau's action was widely condemned as having
brought shame on Canada for having succumbed to political
pressure to keep the Chinese delegation from competing under its
name.[188] The ROC refused a proposed compromise that would
have still allowed them to use the ROC flag and anthem as long Countries that boycotted the 1964 Summer
as the name was changed.[189] Athletes from Taiwan did not Olympics (shaded red)
participate again until 1984, when they returned under the name
of Chinese Taipei and with a special flag and anthem.[190]
In 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's
Games. The United States and sixty-five other countries
boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan. This boycott reduced the number of
nations participating to 80, the lowest number since 1956.[191]
The Soviet Union and 15 other nations countered by boycotting
the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984. Although a boycott led by the Countries that boycotted the 1976 Summer
Olympics (shaded blue)
Soviet Union depleted the field in certain sports, 140 National
Olympic Committees took part, which was a record at the time.[4]
The fact that Romania, a Warsaw Pact country, opted to compete
despite Soviet demands led to a warm reception of the Romanian
team by the United States. When the Romanian athletes entered
during the opening ceremonies, they received a standing ovation
from the spectators, which comprised mostly U.S. citizens. The
boycotting nations of the Eastern Bloc staged their own alternate
event, the Friendship Games, in July and August.[192][193]
There had been growing calls for boycotts of Chinese goods and Countries that boycotted the 1980 Summer
the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China's human rights Olympics (shaded blue)
record, and in response to Tibetan disturbances. Ultimately, no
nation supported a boycott.[194][195] In August 2008, the
government of Georgia called for a boycott of the 2014 Winter
Olympics, set to be held in Sochi, Russia, in response to Russia's
participation in the 2008 South Ossetia war.[196][197]
Politics
Countries that boycotted the 1984 Summer
The Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote Olympics (shaded blue)
political ideologies almost from its inception. Nazi Germany
wished to portray the National Socialist Party as benevolent and
peace-loving when they hosted the 1936 Games, though they used the Games to display Aryan superiority.[198]
Germany was the most successful nation at the Games, which did much to support their allegations of Aryan
supremacy, but notable victories by African American Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals, and Hungarian
Jew Ibolya Csák, blunted the message.[199] The Soviet Union did not participate until the 1952 Summer
Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, starting in 1928, the Soviets organised an international sports event called
Spartakiads. During the interwar period of the 1920s and 1930s, communist and socialist organisations in
several countries, including the United States, attempted to counter what they called the "bourgeois" Olympics
with the Workers Olympics.[200][201] It was not until the 1956 Summer Games that the Soviets emerged as a
sporting superpower and, in doing so, took full advantage of the

publicity that came with winning at the Olympics.[202] Soviet
Union's success might be attributed to a heavy state's investment
in sports to fulfill its political agenda on an international
stage.[203][175]
Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote

their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Countries that boycotted the 1988 Summer
Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Olympics (shaded blue)
Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the
200 metres, performed the Black Power salute on the victory
stand. The second-place finisher, Peter Norman of Australia, wore an
Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and
Carlos. In response to the protest, IOC president Avery Brundage
ordered Smith and Carlos suspended from the US team and banned
from the Olympic Village. When the US Olympic Committee refused,
Brundage threatened to ban the entire US track team. This threat led to
the expulsion of the two athletes from the Games.[204] In another
notable incident in the gymnastics competition, while standing on the
medal podium after the balance beam event final, in which Natalia Jesse Owens on the podium after
Kuchinskaya of the Soviet Union had controversially taken the gold, winning the long jump at the 1936
Czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská quietly turned her head Summer Olympics
down and away during the playing of the Soviet national anthem. The
action was Čáslavská's silent protest against the recent Soviet invasion
of Czechoslovakia. Her protest was repeated when she accepted her medal for her floor exercise routine when
the judges changed the preliminary scores of the Soviet Larisa Petrik to allow her to tie with Čáslavská for the
gold. While Čáslavská's countrymen supported her actions and her outspoken opposition to Communism (she
had publicly signed and supported Ludvik Vaculik's "Two Thousand Words" manifesto), the new regime
responded by banning her from both sporting events and international travel for many years and made her an
outcast from society until the fall of communism.
Currently, the government of Iran has taken steps to avoid any competition between its athletes and those from
Israel. An Iranian judoka, Arash Miresmaeili, did not compete in a match against an Israeli during the 2004
Summer Olympics. Although he was officially disqualified for being overweight, Miresmaeli was awarded
US$125,000 in prize money by the Iranian government, an amount paid to all Iranian gold medal winners. He
was officially cleared of intentionally avoiding the bout, but his receipt of the prize money raised suspicion.[205]
Use of performance-enhancing drugs
In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to
improve their athletic abilities. For example, in 1904, Thomas Hicks, a
gold medallist in the marathon, was given strychnine by his coach (at
the time, taking different substances was allowed, as there was no data
regarding the effect of these substances on a body of an athlete).[206]
The only Olympic death linked to performance enhancing occurred at
the 1960 Rome games. A Danish cyclist, Knud Enemark Jensen, fell
Thomas Hicks running the marathon
from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was at the 1904 Olympics
under the influence of amphetamines.[207] By the mid-1960s, sports
federations started to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs; in
1967 the IOC followed suit.[208]
According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as
anti-doping authorities from the International Olympic Committee to undermine doping tests and that Soviet
athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts".[209] On the topic of the 1980 Summer Olympics, a
1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal
winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well
have been called the Chemists' Games."[209]
Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field
in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott
the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for
further enhancements.[210] The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was
prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main
figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping programme prior to the 2016 Summer
Olympics.[210]
The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance-enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar
Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol
use.[211] One of the most publicised doping-related disqualifications occurred after the 1988 Summer Olympics
where Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson (who won the 100-metre dash) tested positive for stanozolol.[212]
In 1999, the IOC formed the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in an effort to systematise the research and
detection of performance-enhancing drugs. There was a sharp increase in positive drug tests at the 2000
Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics due to improved testing conditions. Several medallists in
weightlifting and cross-country skiing from post-Soviet states were disqualified because of doping offences.
The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide
benchmark that other sporting federations attempt to emulate.[213] During the Beijing games, 3,667 athletes
were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood tests were
used to detect banned substances.[207][214] In London over 6,000 Olympic and Paralympic athletes were tested.
Prior to the Games 107 athletes tested positive for banned substances and were not allowed to
compete.[215][216][217]
Russian doping scandal
Doping in Russian sports has a systemic nature. Russia has had 44 Olympic medals stripped for doping
violations – the most of any country, more than three times the number of the runner-up, and more than a
quarter of the global total. From 2011 to 2015, more than a thousand Russian competitors in various sports,
including summer, winter, and Paralympic sports, benefited from a cover-up.[218][219][220][221] Russia was
partially banned from the 2016 Summer Olympics and was banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics (while
being allowed to participate as the Olympic Athletes from Russia) due to the state-sponsored doping
programme.[222][223]
In December 2019, Russia was banned for four years from all major sporting events for systematic doping and
lying to WADA.[224] The ban was issued by WADA on 9 December 2019, and the Russian anti-doping agency
RUSADA had 21 days to make an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). The ban meant that
Russian athletes would only be allowed to compete under the Olympic flag after passing anti-doping tests.[225]
Russia appealed the decision to the CAS.[226] The CAS, on review of Russia's appeal of its case from WADA,
ruled on December 17, 2020 to reduce the penalty that WADA had placed. Instead of banning Russia from
sporting events, the ruling allowed Russia to participate at the Olympics and other international events, but for
a period of two years, the team cannot use the Russian name, flag, or anthem and must present themselves as
"Neutral Athlete" or "Neutral Team". The ruling does allow for team uniforms to display "Russia" on the
uniform as well as the use of the Russian flag colors within the uniform's design, although the name should be
up to equal predominance as the "Neutral Athlete/Team" designation.[227]
Sex discrimination
Women were first allowed to compete at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris,
but at the 1992 Summer Olympics 35 countries were still only fielding all-male
delegations.[228] This number dropped rapidly over the following years. In
2000, Bahrain sent two women competitors for the first time: Fatema Hameed
Gerashi and Mariam Mohamed Hadi Al Hilli.[229] In 2004, Robina Muqimyar
and Fariba Rezayee became the first women to compete for Afghanistan at the
Olympics.[230] In 2008, the United Arab Emirates sent female athletes (Maitha
Al Maktoum competed in taekwondo, and Latifa Al Maktoum in equestrian) to
the Olympic Games for the first time. Both athletes were from Dubai's ruling
family.[231]
By 2010, only three countries had never sent female athletes to the Games:
Brunei, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. Brunei had taken part in only three
celebrations of the Games, sending a single athlete on each occasion, but Saudi Charlotte Cooper of the
Arabia and Qatar had been competing regularly with all-male teams. In 2010, United Kingdom was the
the International Olympic Committee announced it would "press" these first female Olympic
countries to enable and facilitate the participation of women for the 2012 champion, in the 1900
Summer Olympics in London. Anita DeFrantz, chair of the IOC's Women and Games.
Sports Commission, suggested that countries be barred if they prevented
women from competing. Shortly thereafter, the Qatar Olympic Committee
announced that it "hoped to send up to four female athletes in shooting and fencing" to the 2012 Summer
Games.[232]
In 2008, Ali Al-Ahmed, director of the Institute for Gulf Affairs, likewise called for Saudi Arabia to be barred
from the Games, describing its ban on women athletes as a violation of the International Olympic Committee
charter. He noted: "For the last 15 years, many international nongovernmental organisations worldwide have
been trying to lobby the IOC for better enforcement of its own laws banning gender discrimination. ... While
their efforts did result in increasing numbers of women Olympians, the IOC has been reluctant to take a strong
position and threaten the discriminating countries with suspension or expulsion."[228] In July 2010, The
Independent reported: "Pressure is growing on the International Olympic Committee to kick out Saudi Arabia,
who are likely to be the only major nation not to include women in their Olympic team for 2012. ... Should
Saudi Arabia ... send a male-only team to London, we understand they will face protests from equal rights and
women's groups which threaten to disrupt the Games".[233]
At the 2012 Summer Olympics, every participating nation included female athletes for the first time in Olympic
history.[234] Saudi Arabia included two female athletes in its delegation; Qatar, four; and Brunei, one (Maziah
Mahusin, in the 400 m hurdles). Qatar made one of its first female Olympians, Bahiya al-Hamad (shooting), its
flagbearer at the 2012 Games,[235] and runner Maryam Yusuf Jamal of Bahrain became the first Gulf female
athlete to win a medal when she won a bronze for her showing in the 1500 m race.[236]
The only sport on the Olympic programme that features men and women competing together is the equestrian
disciplines. There is no "Women's Eventing", or "Men's Dressage". As of 2008, there were still more medal
events for men than women. With the addition of women's boxing to the programme in the 2012 Summer
Olympics, however, female athletes were able to compete in all the same sports as men.[237] In the winter
Olympics, women are still unable to compete in the Nordic combined.[238] There are currently two Olympic
events in which male athletes may not compete: synchronised swimming and rhythmic gymnastics.[239]
War and terrorism
The world wars caused three Olympiads to pass without a celebration of the Games: the 1916 Games were
cancelled because of World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because
of World War II. The Russo-Georgian War between Georgia and Russia erupted on the opening day of the 2008
Summer Olympics in Beijing. Both President Bush and Prime Minister Putin were attending the Olympics at
that time and spoke together about the conflict at a luncheon hosted by the Chinese president Hu
Jintao.[240][241]
Terrorism most directly affected the Olympic Games in 1972. When the Summer Games were held in Munich,
Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the Palestinian terrorist group
Black September in what is now known as the Munich massacre. The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon
after taking them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed liberation attempt. A German police officer
and five of the terrorists also died.[242] Following the selection of Barcelona, Spain, to host the 1992 Summer
Olympics, the separatist ETA terrorist organisation launched attacks in the region, including the 1991 bombing
in the Catalonian city of Vic that killed ten people.[243][244]
Terrorism affected two Olympic Games held in the United States. During the 1996 Summer Olympics in
Atlanta, a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, killing two people and injuring 111 others. The
bomb was set by Eric Rudolph, an American domestic terrorist, who is serving a life sentence for the
bombing.[245] The 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City took place just five months after the September 11
attacks, which meant a higher level of security than ever before provided for an Olympic Games. The opening
ceremonies of the Games featured symbols relating to 9/11, including the flag that flew at Ground Zero and
honour guards of NYPD and FDNY members.[246]
Citizenship
IOC rules for citizenship
The Olympic Charter requires that an athlete be a national of the country for which they compete. Dual
nationals may compete for either country, as long as three years have passed since the competitor competed for
the former country. However, if the NOCs and IF involved agree, then the IOC Executive Board may reduce or
cancel this period.[247] This waiting period exists only for athletes who previously competed for one nation and
want to compete for another. If an athlete gains a new or second nationality, then they do not need to wait any
designated amount of time before participating for the new or second nation. The IOC is only concerned with
issues of citizenship and nationality after individual nations have granted citizenship to athletes.[248]
Reasons for changing citizenship
Occasionally, an athlete will become a citizen of a different country to enable them to compete in the Olympics.
This is often because they are attracted to sponsorship deals or training facilities in the other country, or the
athlete might be unable to qualify from within their country of birth. In preparation for the 2014 Winter
Olympics in Sochi, the Russian Olympic Committee naturalised a Korean-born short-track speed-skater, Ahn
Hyun-soo, and an American-born snowboarder, Vic Wild. The two athletes won five gold medals and one
bronze medal between them at the 2014 Games.[249]
Citizenship changes and disputes
One of the most famous cases of changing nationality for the Olympics was Zola Budd, a South African runner
who emigrated to the United Kingdom because there was an apartheid-era ban on the Olympics in South
Africa. Budd was eligible for British citizenship because her grandfather was born in Britain, but British
citizens accused the government of expediting the citizenship process for her.[250]
Other notable examples include Kenyan runner Bernard Lagat, who became a United States citizen in May
2004. The Kenyan constitution required that one renounce their Kenyan citizenship when they became a citizen
of another nation. Lagat competed for Kenya in the 2004 Athens Olympics even though he had already become
a United States citizen. According to Kenya, he was no longer a Kenyan citizen, jeopardising his silver medal.
Lagat said he started the citizenship process in late 2003 and did not expect to become an American citizen
until after the Athens games. He was allowed to keep his medal by the IOC.[251]
Champions and medallists

Medals are awarded to the athletes or teams who place first, second, and third
in each event. The winners receive gold medals, which were solid gold until
1912, later made of gilded silver, and now gold-plated silver. Every gold medal
must contain at least six grams of pure gold.[252] The runners-up are awarded
silver medals and the third-place athletes receive bronze medals. In events
contested by a single-elimination tournament (most notably boxing), third place
might not be determined and the losers of both semi-finals each receive a
bronze medal.
At the 1896 Olympics, only the winner and runner-up of each event received
medals—silver for first and bronze for second, with no gold medals awarded.
The current three-medal format was introduced at the 1904 Olympics.[253]
From 1948 onward, athletes placing fourth, fifth, and sixth have received
certificates, which came to be known officially as Olympic diplomas; from
1984, these have also been awarded to the seventh- and eighth-place finishers. Paavo Nurmi (1897–1973),
a Finnish middle-distance
At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the gold, silver, and bronze medal
and long-distance runner,
winners were also presented with olive wreaths.[254] The IOC does not keep
nicknamed the "Flying Finn"
statistics of medals won on a national level (except for team sports), but the
or the "Phantom Finn", set
NOCs and the media record medal statistics and use them as a measure of each 22 official world records at
nation's success.[255] distances between 1500 m
and 20 km, winning nine
Nations golds and three silvers in
his 12 events at the
Olympic Games.
Nations at the Summer Olympics
As of the 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro, all of the current 206 NOCs and 19 obsolete NOCs have participated
in at least one edition of the Summer Olympics. Competitors from five nations—Australia, France,[b] Great
Britain,[c] Greece, and Switzerland[d]—have competed in all 28 Summer Olympics. Athletes competing under
the Olympic flag, Mixed Teams and the Refugee Team have competed at six Summer Games.
Nations at the Winter Olympics
A total of 119 NOCs (110 of the current 206 NOCs and nine obsolete NOCs) have participated in at least one
edition of the Winter Olympics. Competitors from 14 nations—Austria, Canada, Czech Republic,[e] Finland,
France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Slovakia,[e] Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States
—have participated in all 23 Winter Games to date.
Host nations and cities
The host city for an Olympic Games had historically been chosen seven to eight years ahead of their
celebration. Beginning with the 2024 and 2028 Olympics selection process in 2017, the IOC has proceeded to
announce the winning bid with a longer lead-in time in order to provide time for the winning cities/regions to
prepare.[262][263] The process of selection is carried out in two phases that span a two-year period. The
prospective host city applies to its country's National Olympic Committee; if more than one city from the same
country submits a proposal to its NOC, the national

committee typically holds an internal selection, since only
one city per NOC can be presented to the International
Olympic Committee for consideration. Once the deadline
for submission of proposals by the NOCs is reached, the
first phase (Application) begins with the applicant cities
asked to complete a questionnaire regarding several key
criteria related to the organisation of the Olympic
Games.[264] In this form, the applicants must give
Map of Summer Olympics locations. Countries
assurances that they will comply with the Olympic Charter
that have hosted one Summer Olympics are
and with any other regulations established by the IOC shaded green, while countries that have hosted
Executive Committee.[262] The evaluation of the filled two or more are shaded blue.
questionnaires by a specialised group provides the IOC
with an overview of each applicant's project and their
potential to host the Games. On the basis of this technical
evaluation, the IOC Executive Board selects the applicants
that will proceed to the candidature stage.[264]
Once the candidate cities are selected, they must submit to

the IOC a bigger and more detailed presentation of their
project as part of a candidature file. Each city is thoroughly
analysed by an evaluation commission. This commission
will also visit the candidate cities, interviewing local
Map of Winter Olympics locations. Countries that
officials and inspecting prospective venue sites, and submit
have hosted one Winter Olympics are shaded
a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC's final
green, while countries that have hosted two or
decision. During the interview process the candidate city
more are shaded blue.
must also guarantee that it will be able to fund the
Games.[262] After the work of the evaluation commission, a
list of candidates is presented to the General Session of the IOC, which must assemble in a country that does
not have a candidate city in the running. The IOC members gathered in the Session have the final vote on the
host city. Once elected, the host city bid committee (together with the NOC of the respective country) signs a
Host City Contract with the IOC, officially becoming an Olympic host nation and host city.[262]
By 2032, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 47 cities in 23 countries. As of 2021, since the 1988
Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the Olympics have been held in Asia or Oceania four times, a sharp
increase compared to the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history. The 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro
were the first Olympics for a South American country. No bids from countries in Africa have succeeded.
The United States hosted four Summer Games, more than any other nation. The British capital London holds
the distinction of hosting three Olympic Games, all Summer, more than any other city. Paris, which previously
hosted in 1900 and 1924, is due to host the Summer Games for a third time in 2024, and Los Angeles, which
previously hosted in 1932 and 1984, is due to host the Summer Games for a third time in 2028. The other
nations hosting the Summer Games at least twice are Germany, Australia, France and Greece. The other cities
hosting the Summer Games at least twice are Los Angeles, Paris and Athens. The 2020 Summer Olympics is
due to be held in Tokyo, which will be the first Asian city to host the Olympics for the second time.
The United States hosted four Winter Games, more than any other nation. The other nations hosting multiple
Winter Games are France with three, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, Canada and Italy have hosted
twice. Among host cities, Lake Placid, Innsbruck and St. Moritz have played host to the Winter Olympic
Games more than once, each holding that honour twice. The most recent Winter Games were held in
Pyeongchang in 2018, South Korea's first Winter Olympics and second Olympics overall (after the 1988
Summer Olympics in Seoul).
Beijing is due to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, which will make it the first city to host both the Summer and
Winter Games.
See also
All-time Olympic Games medal table
Art competitions at the Summer Olympics
List of multi-sport events
Olympic Cup and Olympic Order
Olympic Day Run
Pierre de Coubertin medal
Global Association of International Sports Federations
Notes
a. The 1988 Winter Olympics were in Calgary, Canada, and the 1988 Winter Paralympics were in
Innsbruck, Austria.[52]
b. The IOC lists a French immigrant to the United States Albert Corey as a United States competitor
for his marathon silver medal, but (together with four undisputed Americans) as part of a mixed
team for the team race silver medal.[256][257]
c. All three of Great Britain's athletes in 1904 were from Ireland, which at the time was part of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Despite the team being called Great Britain or Team
GB, inhabitants of Northern Ireland (and formerly the whole of Ireland) are (or were) eligible to
join.[258]
d. Switzerland participated in the equestrian events of the 1956 Games held in Stockholm in
June,[259] but did not attend the Games in Melbourne later that year.[260]
e. Both Slovakia and the Czech Republic previously competed as Czechoslovakia prior to the
dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, and Bohemia before 1918.[261]
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Further reading
Boykoff, Jules (2016). Power Games: A Political History of the Olympics. New York and London:
Verso. ISBN 978-1-784-78072-2.
Buchanan, Ian (2001). Historical dictionary of the Olympic movement (https://archive.org/details/h
istoricaldictio00buch_0). Lanham: Scarecrow Presz. ISBN 978-0-8108-4054-6.
Kamper, Erich; Mallon, Bill (1992). The Golden Book of the Olympic Games. Milan: Vallardi &
Associati. ISBN 978-88-85202-35-1.
Preuss, Holger; Marcia Semitiel García (2005). The Economics of Staging the Olympics: A
Comparison of the Games 1972–2008. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84376-893-7.
Simson, Vyv; Jennings, Andrew (1992). Dishonored Games: Corruption, Money, and Greed at the
Olympics. New York: S.P.I. Books. ISBN 978-1-56171-199-4.
Wallechinsky, David (2004). The Complete Book of the Summer Olympics, Athens 2004 Edition.
SportClassic Books. ISBN 978-1-894963-32-9.
Wallechinsky, David (2005). The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics, Turin 2006 Edition.
SportClassic Books. ISBN 978-1-894963-45-9.
External links
Official website (https://olympics.com/en/)
"Olympic Games" (https://www.britannica.com/sports/Olympic-Games). Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
Olympic Games (https://curlie.org/Sports/Events/Olympics/) at Curlie
New York Times Interactive of all the medals in the Modern Olympics (https://www.nytimes.com/in
teractive/2008/08/04/sports/olympics/20080804_MEDALCOUNT_MAP.html)
insidethegames – the latest and most up to date news and interviews from the world of Olympic,
Commonwealth and Paralympic Games (http://www.insidethegames.biz/)
ATR – Around the Rings – the Business Surrounding the Olympics (http://www.aroundtherings.co
m/)
GamesBids.com – An Authoritative Review of Olympic Bid Business (home of the BidIndex™) (ht
tp://www.gamesbids.com/eng/)
Database Olympics (https://web.archive.org/web/20070318010246/http://www.databaseolympics.
com/index.htm)
History of Olympics to the Present Day (https://web.archive.org/web/20130313013906/http://ezin

e.pk/?Olympic-Games--From-History-of-Olympics-to-the-Present-Day&id=820)
Reference book about all Olympic Medalists of all times (http://www.olympicgameswinners.com/)
Days left until the next Olympic Games | The Olympic Games Countdown | 2012 | Sochi 2014 |
Rio 2016 | PyeongChang 2018 | Tokyo 2020 (http://www.theolympicgamescountdown.com)
Olympic and Asian games records (http://www.olympics-records.com/)
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8/9/2021 Olympic Games - Wikipedia

In 1850, an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much

Changes and adaptations

In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the

Cost of the Games

Economic and social impact on host cities and countries

International Olympic Committee

The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:

Under national organising committees

Under IOC control

the 2032 Games.[124] NBC also acquired the American

Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s

The Olympic motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning

Didon OP, for a Paris youth gathering of 1891.[143]

Coubertin's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed:

As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the

The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place on a Sunday

A medal ceremony is held after the conclusion of each Olympic event.

Amateurism and professionalism

The ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public school

Team Canada ice hockey dispute

Greece, Australia, France, and United Kingdom are the only

There were three boycotts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics: the

sport.[186] Fulfilling their threat, twenty African countries were

The Republic of China (Taiwan) was excluded from the 1976

sporting superpower and, in doing so, took full advantage of the

Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote

Use of performance-enhancing drugs

Russian doping scandal

War and terrorism

IOC rules for citizenship

Reasons for changing citizenship

Citizenship changes and disputes

Champions and medallists

Nations at the Summer Olympics

Nations at the Winter Olympics

Host nations and cities

country submits a proposal to its NOC, the national

Once the candidate cities are selected, they must submit to

13. Pausanias, "Elis 1", VII, p. 9 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3

60. "IOC session: A "go" for Youth Olympic Games" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080821232940/ht

89. "National Olympic Committees" (https://www.olympic.org/national-olympic-committees).

61. "Wrestling" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090226194816/http://en.beijing2008.cn/sports/wrestlin

82. "Summit Series '72 Summary" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080807130920/http://www.hhof.co

00. "Spartakiads". Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya. 24 (part 1). Moscow. 1976. p. 286.

17. "IOC Orders Belarus to Return Gold" (http://espn.go.com/olympics/summer/2012/trackandfield/st

46. "IOC on bin Laden killing: no bearing on Olympic security" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110927

64. "Choice of the Host City" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090402120408/https://www.olympic.org/

"Vancouver 2010 Mascots Introduced to the World" (https://web.archive.org/web/2014041314494

History of Olympics to the Present Day (https://web.archive.org/web/20130313013906/http://ezin

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympic_Games&oldid=1037805898"

This page was last edited on 8 August 2021, at 20:36 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

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