1 Introduction

1.1 Concrete as a Composite

Concrete is a well-known term among public. To a layman, it is just a mixture of Portland cement,
sand, crushed rock and water. But to a specialist in the field, it is much more than that.
In a general way, concrete is a particulate composite. Matrix of this composite is called the binder,
and the particles are called the aggregate. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Matrix (Binder)

Particles (Aggregate)

Figure 1.1 – Illustration of a particulate composite

The term, cement has its roots in French. ciment, and Latin cæmenta, “stone chips used for making
mortar”. Cement, in broad sense, means a binder. Binders or cements may be of different materials;
Portland cement paste, bitumen, sulphur, and polymers are some examples. Aggregate may be such
as crushed rock, gravel, sand, crushed slag, crushed glass, and pieces of metal.
The term, concrete, is derived from the Latin word concretus, meaning condensed, hardened, and
clotted.

1.2 Different Types of Binders in Concrete

Depending on the material of binder and aggregate, concrete is assigned its generic classification.
Table 1.1 contains a few examples.
Table 1.1 - Generic classifications of concrete
Identification Binder
Lime concrete Slaked lime
Gypsum concrete Gypsum
Hydraulic cement concrete Hydraulic cement paste
Asphalt Bitumen
Sulphur concrete Sulphur
Polymer concrete Epoxy / Polyester
Geopolymer concrete Geopolymer

1.3 Historical Progression

The development of concrete has taken place over centuries in many parts of the world. Some
countries or regions where notable historical use of concrete found are: Egypt, Rome, Greece, and
China. In spite of the lack of references in many textbooks, there has been written evidence of the
use of concrete, better than Roman products, for ancient irrigation works in Sri Lanka.
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A timeline of some important events related to cement and concrete are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 – Timeline of some important events related to cement and concrete
Era Development
12,000,000 Reactions between limestone and oil shale during spontaneous combustion
BC occurred in Israel forming natural deposits of cement compounds. The deposits
were characterized by Israeli geologists in the 1960s and 70s.
3000 BC Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to bind dried bricks. They also used gypsum
mortar in the pyramids. Chinese used cement like materials to hold bamboo
together in their boats and in the Great Wall.
800 BC Greeks, Cretans and Cypriots used lime mortar, which were much harder than some
later Roman mortar.
300 BC Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind stones and bricks. People lived in
northern Arabia begin to build cisterns with waterproof cement.
200 BC - Romans used pozzolana cement from Pozzuoli, in Italy near Mt. Vesuvius to build
476 AD the Appian Way, Roman baths, the Coliseum and Pantheon in Rome, and the Pont
du Gard aqueduct in south France. They used lime as a cementitious material. Pliny
reported a mortar mixture of 1 part lime to 4 parts sand. Vitruvius reported a 2
parts pozzolana to 1 part lime. Animal fat, milk, and blood were used as admixtures
(substances added to lime to improve the properties.) These structures still exist
today!
1200 - The quality of cementing materials deteriorated. The use of burning lime and
1500 pozzolan (admixture) was lost, but reintroduced in the 1300s.
Mid. ages
1793 John Smeaton found that the calcination of limestone containing clay gave a lime
which hardened under water (hydraulic lime). He used hydraulic lime to rebuild
Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall, England which he had been commissioned to
build in 1756, but had to first invent a material that would not be affected by water.
He wrote a book about his work.
1796 James Parker from England patented a natural hydraulic cement by calcining
nodules of impure limestone containing clay, called Parker's Cement or Roman
Cement.
1822 James Frost of England prepared artificial hydraulic lime like Vicat's and called it
British Cement
1824 Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England invented material which he called “Portland
cement” by burning finely ground chalk with finely divided clay in a lime kiln until
carbon dioxide was driven off. The sintered product was then ground to a powder.
The name “Portland” was given because the colour of the product was similar to
that of the high quality building stones quarried at Portland, England.
1828 I. K. Brunel is credited with the first engineering application of Portland cement,
which was used to fill a breach in the Thames Tunnel.
1836 The first systematic tests of tensile and compressive strength took place in
Germany.
1860 The beginning of the era of Portland cements of modern composition.
1867 Joseph Monier of France reinforced William Wand's (USA) flowerpots with wire
implementing the idea of iron reinforcing bars (re-bar).
1871 David Saylor was issued the first American patent for Portland cement. He showed
the importance of true clinkering.
1886 The first rotary kiln was introduced in England to replace the vertical shaft kilns.
3 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

Table 1.2 – Timeline of some important events related to cement and concrete (continued)
Era Development
1887 Henri Le Chatelier of France established oxide ratios to prepare the proper amount
of lime to produce Portland cement. He named the components: Alite (tricalcium
silicate), Belite (dicalcium silicate), and Celite (tetracalciumaluminoferrite). He
proposed that hardening is caused by the formation of crystalline products of the
reaction between cement and water.
1900 Basic cement tests were standardized.
1903 The first concrete high-rise, 16-storey “Ingalls Building”, was built in Cincinnati, USA.
1929 Linus Pauling of the USA formulated a set of principles for the structures of complex
silicates.
1930 Air entraining agents were introduced to improve concrete's resistance to
freeze/thaw damage.
1936 The first major concrete dams, Hoover Dam and Grand Coulee Dam, were built.
They still exist today!
1964 Superplasticizers were introduced as admixtures.
1970s Steel fibre reinforcement was introduced in concrete.
1985 Silica fume was introduced as a pozzolanic additive. The "highest strength" concrete
then was used in building the Union Plaza constructed in Seattle, Washington.
1988 Development of self-compacting concrete (SCC)
1990 Use of synthetic fibres with structural benefits
2009 The tallest reinforced concrete building in this timeline, “Burj Khalifa” (829.8 m) was
completed.

Out of many types of binders, hydraulic cement paste is the one that is most commonly used in
engineering construction. Hydraulic cement is a material which is capable of hardening even under
water. There are different types of hydraulic cements. Among those, the most common type is
Portland cement.

1.4 Concrete for Sustainable Development

In order to keep the process of development sustainable, it has been recognized that resources
should be utilized with care by present generation without affecting the development by future
generations.
This strategy is outlined by statement proposed by the Bruntdland Commission. It defines
sustainable development in the mostly quoted form as:
“Development seeking to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
In achieving the said goal, there are three aspects to be considered. They are: social, environmental
and economic aspects. In fact, these aspects are interrelated. This is called triple bottom line (TBL)
concept.
Use of material resources can be restricted by following 3R principle. That is: Reduce, Re-use and
Recycle. Therefore, one has to see whether concrete is the most appropriate material for the
particular application. In designing structures, keep the option of reusing components in a different
construction in future. Recycle unusable concrete to produce new concrete.
When properly used, concrete is a green or environmentally friendly and energy efficient material.
Its carbon footprint and the embodied energy are much lower than those of its common
competitors (Table 1.3).
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Table 1.3 - Comparison of approximate embodied energy and carbon in some materials
Material Embodied Energy Embodied Carbon
(MJ/kg) (kg CO2/kg)
Concrete 0.95 0.13
Burnt clay bricks 3.0 0.22
Steel 24.0 1.8
Aluminium 155.0 8.2

Generally, in detailed description there are three levels at which embodied energy and carbon are
expressed: cradle-to-grave; cradle-to-gate; and cradle-to-site. Cradle-to-gate is the most commonly
used boundary condition. This covers processes from extraction of raw materials to leaving the
product at the factory gate.
In concrete, cement is the ingredient having the highest embodied energy and carbon footprint.
Carbon dioxide is one of the gasses responsible for global warming. Therefore, the cement content
in concrete mixes is planned to be minimized without compromising the quality of concrete.
Another sustainability measure of materials is embodied water. Embodied water is the water
needed to create and deliver a product through all stages of production. In an example reported in
the literature (Treloar and Crawford, 2004), the approximate embodied water of 32 MPa concrete is
7.15 kL/m3.

1.5 Occupational Health and Safety Issues

When cement comes in contact with water, alkalis are released. Exposure to cement dust causes
eye, skin and respiratory tract irritation. Therefore, precautions are needed to avoid dry cement
entering the eyes, mouth and nose. Minimize cement dust in the working environment, and the use
of safety wear are considered as effective measures.
Skin contact with wet cement or concrete shall be prevented by wearing suitable protective clothing.
If cement or concrete enters the eyes, immediately wash it out thoroughly with clean water and
seek medical treatment without delay. Wash wet concrete off the skin immediately and avoid
wearing garments soaked with cement slurry.
Chromium in cement in hexavalent form Cr(VI) is also causing allergic reactions leading to skin
diseases.
Therefore, safety precautions are vital in the industry. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the
ingredients, list the safety issues and the action to be followed to minimize health hazards (Refer a
sample sheet for Portland cement at https://semspub.epa.gov/work/10/500015618.pdf)
In handling dry aggregate containing minerals such as quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite, crystalline
silica dust is formed. Crystalline silica dust has been classified as a human lung cancer-causing
material. Additionally, long-term breathing of this material can cause silicosis, which in severe cases
can be disabling, or even fatal. The silica dust particles finer than 5 μm enter the gas exchange
regions of lungs and cause scar tissue, thus reducing the lungs’ ability to take in oxygen. There is no
cure for silicosis. Action is required to minimize dust, and to wear proper dust-masks.
In addition, general safety measures relevant to the construction site are also to be observed.