TUTORIAL SHEET- PHYSICS-II: UNIT 4

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Short Answer Questions. (The answers are expected to be in 50-75 words)

1. Define mobility of electrons.

2. Define electrical conductivity. Write the expression for electrical conductivity of an

intrinsic semiconductor.

3. What are the merits of the classical free electron theory?

4. Define mean free path. Also define relaxation time of an electron.

5. Define drift velocity of an electron. How it is different from its thermal velocity?

6. Write down the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. How does Fermi function vary
with temperature?

7. Define Fermi level and state its significance. Also define Fermi energy.

8. Define density of states. What is its significance?

9. What is meant by doping?

10. Explain the concept of hole in a semiconductor.

11. Write an expression for carrier concentration of electrons in conduction band in

an n-type semiconductor.

12. Write an expression for carrier concentration of holes in the valence band of a p-
type semiconductor.

13. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductors at 0K.

14. Define Hall Effect and Hall voltage.

15. Mention any four applications of Hall Effect.

16. What is effective mass of electron?

17. Write main features of n-type semiconductors.

18. Write main features of p-type semiconductors.

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19. What do you understand by p-n junction diode?

20. Describe the I-V characteristics of p-n junction Diode

Medium Answer Questions. (The answers are expected to be in 100-200 words)

1. Briefly discuss the salient features of free electron theory.

2. Write the limitations of free electron theory.

3. Write the classification of energy bands in solids.

4. Electrons in a metal have a Fermi velocity of 1x10 6 m/s. Calculate the Fermi
energy in the metal. (170)

5. The Fermi energy of copper at 0K is 7.04 eV. Calculate the Fermi energy at
300K. (170)

6. Calculate the conductivity of Al at 25C using the following data. Density of Al is

2.7 g/cm3, atomic weight of Al is 27, and the relaxation time of electrons is 10 -14 s. (171)

7. The density and atomic weight of Cu are 8900 kg/m 3 and 63.5. The relaxation
time of electrons in Cu at 300 K is 10 -14 s. Calculate the electrical conductivity of copper.
(172)

8. In an n-type semiconductor the Fermi level lies 0.3 eV below the conduction
band at 300K. If the temperature is increased to 330K, find the new position of the
Fermi level. (214)

9. The energy gap of Si is 1.1 eV. The average electron effective mass is 0.31 m e,
where me is the free electron mass. Calculate the concentration in the conduction band
of Si at room temperature, T = 300K. Assume that EF = Eg/2. (214)

10. The Hall coefficient and conductivity of Cu at 300K have been measured to be
0.55x10-10 m3/A s and 5.9x107 -1m-1 respectively. Calculate the drift mobility of the
electrons in Cu. (214)

11. An n-type semiconductor specimen has a Hall coefficient R H = 3.66x10-11 m3/A s.

The conductivity of the specimen is found to be 112x10 7 /m. Calculate the charge
carrier density n and the electron mobility at room temperature. (215)

Long Answer Questions. (The answers are expected to be in 300-500 words)

1. Describe salient features of band theory of solids
 3

2. Describe significant and important properties of semiconductors.

3. Discuss free electron theory. Classify conductors, insulators and semiconductors

on the basis of free electron theory.

4. What is band theory of solids? Classify conductors, insulators and

semiconductors on the basis of band theory of solids.

5. Define n-type and p-type semiconductors. Explain the mechanism of current flow
in these semiconductors.

6. Write the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and explain. Also, explain how the
Fermi function varies with temperature in intrinsic semiconductors.

7. Explain with the sketch the variation of the Fermi level and the carrier
concentration with temperature in the case of p-type and n-type semiconductors for high
and low doping level.

8. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for the Hall coefficient. Describe an
experimental set-up for the measurement of Hall coefficient.

9. Describe photovoltaic effect. Discuss as to how it is different than photoelectric

effect. Also, describe the functioning of solar cells.

10. Discuss the working of a solar cell on the basis of band diagrams and write
applications.
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 4

TUTORIAL SHEET- PHYSICS-II: UNIT 4: MODEL ANSWERS

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Short Answer Questions. (The answers are expected to be in 50-75 words)

1. Define mobility of electrons.

The magnitude of the draft velocity per unit electric field is known as the mobility of
electrons and is given by
μ=v d / E .

2. Define electrical conductivity. Write the expression for electrical conductivity of an

intrinsic semiconductor.
The amount of electric charges flowing per unit cross-sectional area per unit time per
unit applied electric field is known as the electrical conductivity. It is mathematically
expressed as σ =q/eAE . Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given
by σ =ni e (μ n +μ p ) .
Where, ni is no of electron concentration in equilibrium in an intrinsic semiconductor, e is
the charge of electron, n & p are mobility of electrons and holes.

3. What are the merits of the classical free electron theory?

The classical free electron theory can successfully explain the following:-
(a) Ohm’s law.
(b) The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
(c) Wiedmann-Franz law.
(d) The optical properties of metals.

4. Define mean free path. Also define relaxation time of an electron.

The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive collisions
in the presence of an external field is known as the mean free path.
The average time taken by a free electron to make two successive collisions in the
presence of an external field is known as the relaxation time.

5. Define drift velocity of an electron. How it is different from its thermal velocity?
The velocity acquired by a free electron due to the application of an external electric
field is known as its draft velocity. Thermal velocity is the average velocity of free
electrons at a given temperature in the absence of any applied field.

6. Write down the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. How does Fermi function vary
with temperature?
The probability F(E) of an electron occupying a given energy level at temperature T is
known as the Fermi distribution function. It is given by
1
F( E )=
E−EF
[
exp
kT ]
+1
 5

At T = 0, F(E) = 0 for E > EF

At T > 0, F(E) = ½ for E = EF.

7. Define Fermi level and state its significance. Also define Fermi energy.
Fermi level at a given temperature (T>0K) is the energy level in which the probability of
electron occupation is ½. Fermi level E F represents that energy state which has a 50%
probability of being occupied by an electron. It represents the level of maximum energy
of the filled states at 0K. The energy corresponding to the Fermi level is called Fermi
energy.

8. Define density of states. What is its significance?

Density of states is the number of available electron states per unit volume in an energy
interval of E and E+dE. It is dented by D(E). It is used to determine the Fermi energy at
any temperature.

9. What is meant by doping?

The process of adding trivalent atoms such as Al, In or pentavalent atoms such as P,
As, Sn to pure semiconductors in order to increase their conductivity is known as
doping.

10. Explain the concept of hole in a semiconductor.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, charge carriers are created by breaking the covalent
bonds. During this process, the bonded electron goes to the conduction band from the
bonding site. Due to this a vacancy is created at the bonding site. This absence of
electron is known as a hole and is given positive charge in semiconductor studies.

11. Write an expression for carrier concentration of electrons in conduction band in

an n-type semiconductor.
The carrier concentration in an n-type semiconductor is given by
3/ 4
2 πm¿e kT ΔE
1/2
n=(2 N d ) ( h 2 ) exp−
2 kT , where
E = Ec - Ed = ionization energy of donor atom
Nd = Number of donor atoms per unit volume of material
me* = effective mass of electron

12. Write an expression for carrier concentration of holes in the valence band of a p-
type semiconductor.
The carrier concentration in a p-type semiconductor is given by
3/4
2 πm¿h kT ΔE
p=(2 N a ) 1/2
( h 2 ) exp−
2 kT , where
E = Ev – Ea = ionization energy of acceptor atoms
Na = Number of acceptor atoms per unit volume of material
mh* = effective mass of hole
 6

13. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductors at 0K.
Fermi level EF represents that energy state which has a 50% probability of being
occupied by an electron. Fermi level is situated at the centre of the band gap. In an
intrinsic semiconductor at 0K, it lies exactly between the valence band and the
conduction band. In the case of an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level at 0K is
situated halfway between the donor level and conduction band, whereas for a p-type
semiconductor, the Fermi level at 0K is situated halfway between the valence band and
the acceptor level.

14. Define Hall Effect and Hall voltage.

When a conductor or a semiconductor carrying current is placed in a transverse
magnetic field, a potential difference is developed inside the conductor or
semiconductor in a direction perpendicular to the current as well as the magnetic field.
This effect is known as Hall Effect and the voltage developed is known as Hall voltage.

15. Mention any four applications of Hall Effect.

Hall Effect is used for the following:-
(a) To find the type of semiconductor, whether n-type or p-type.
(b) To measure carrier concentrations.
(c) To find the mobility of charge carriers.
(d) To measure the magnetic flux density.

16. What is effective mass of electron?

Effective mass of electron has a special importance in solid state electronics because
the results of free electron theory can be applied in band theory of solids by replacing
the rest mass m of electron by effective mass of electron. The effective mass is used in
transport calculations, such as transport of electrons under the influence of fields or
carrier gradients in different semiconductors. It is also used to calculate the density of
states.

17. Write main features of n-type semiconductors.

The main features of n-type semiconductor are as follows:-
(a) The donors are positively charged.
(b) There are a large number of free electrons.
(c) A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
(d) Doping gives positively charged donors and negatively charged free electrons.
(e) Supply of energy gives negatively charged free electrons and positively charged
holes.

18. Write main features of p-type semiconductors.

The main features of p-type semiconductor are as follows:-
(a) The donors are negatively charged.
 7

(b) There are a large number of holes.

(c) A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.
(d) Doping gives negatively charged acceptors and positively charged holes.
(e) Supply of energy gives positively charged holes and negatively charged free
electrons.

19. What do you understand by p-n junction diode?

A p-n junction diode is a device which conducts significant electric current under forward
biasing (from p-side to n-side) but a negligible electric current under reverse biasing
(from the n-side to the p-diode). The electric current flowing under forward biasing is
known as forward current and it is usually denoted by I F. The electric current flowing
under reverse biasing is known as reverse or leakage current and it is usually denoted
by IR.

20. Describe the I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode

The current-voltage or I-V characteristics curve of a p-n
junction diode is shown in figure. The important features
of this curve are as follows:-
(a) The forward current starts after a small value of
forwards voltage which is known as threshold voltage.
For Ge and Si, its values are 0.3 volt and 0.7 volt
respectively.
(b) The forwards current increases exponentially
with the operating voltage.
(c) The leakage current is comparatively small in magnitude and it is almost
independent of voltage. After a particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increase
sharply. This particular voltage is known as breakdown voltage.

Medium Answer Questions. (The answers are expected to be in 100-200 words)

1. Briefly discuss the salient features of free electron theory.

The free electron theory can explain the following physical properties of metals:-
(a) Metallic conductors obey Ohm’ slaw according to which the current density J is
proportional to the electric field strength E, i.e., J  E i.e. J = E; Here  is the electrical
conductivity.
(b) The metals have a positive temperature coefficient, i.e. their resistance increases
or conductivity decreases with rise of temperature.
(c) For pure metals, electrical conductivity  is inversely proportional to the square of
absolute temperature.
(d) At low temperatures, the resistivity  is proportional to fifth power of absolute
temperature T, i.e.   T5.
(e) For metals, the resistivity  is inversely proportional to pressure P, i.e.   1/P.
(f) Metals obey Wiedmann-Franz law according to which the ratio of thermal
conductivity T to electrical conductivity  is proportional to absolute temperature T, i.e.
(T/)  T i.e. (T/)T = constant.
 8

2. Write the limitations of free electron theory.

The short comings of free electron theory are listed below:-
(a) The temperature dependence of resistivity could not be established accurately by
this theory.
(b) This theory failed to explain the heat capacity and paramagnetic susceptibility of
free electrons.
(c) This theory is also unable to explain large variations in mean free paths at low
temperatures.
(d) Since electrons are Fermi particles so Maxwell-Boltzmann classical statistics
cannot be applied to free electrons in a metal.
(e) According to this theory, law of equi-partition of energy can be applied to free
electrons of metals. But experiments show that law of equi-partition of energy cannot be
applied to free electrons of metal.

3. Write the classification of energy bands in solids.

There are three important energy bands in solids:-
(a) Valence Band. The electrons in the outermost orbits are called valence
electrons. The range of energies possessed by the valence electron is known as
valence band. In a normal atom, valence band has the electrons of highest energy. This
band may be completely or partially filled.
(b) Conduction Band. In some solids, the valence
electrons are loosely attracted to the nucleus. At room
temperature these valence electrons may become free
electrons, thus electrons are called conduction
electrons. The range of energies possessed by
conduction band electrons is known as conduction
band. For insulators, this band is completely empty
and for conductors this band is partially filled.
(c) Forbidden Energy Band (Gap). The separation between conduction band and
valence band on the energy level; diagram is called forbidden energy gap E g. To push
an electron from valence band to conduction band internal energy equal to forbidden
energy must be required. These three bands are shown in figure.

4. Electrons in a metal have a Fermi velocity of 1x10 6 m/s. Calculate the Fermi
energy in the metal.(170)
Solution. Assuming the electrons to have only kinetic energy, the Fermi energy
1 2 1 9 . 1×10−31×1012
E F = mv F = × eV =2 .8 eV
2 2 1 .6×10−19 .

5. The Fermi energy of copper at 0K is 7.04 eV. Calculate the Fermi energy at
300K. (170)
Solution. The Fermi energy is given by the following formula
π 2 kT 2

[ ( )]
E F =E F 0 1−
12 E F 0
Putting appropriate values in the expression, we get
 9

π 2 kT 2
(3 . 14 )2 1. 38×10−23×300 2
E F =E F 0
[ ( )] [
1−
12 E F 0
=7 . 04 1−
12 ( 7 . 04×1 .6×10
−19 )] =7 . 0399 eV

6. Calculate the conductivity of Al at 25C using the following data. Density of Al is

2.7 g/cm3, atomic weight of Al is 27, and the relaxation time of electrons is 10 -14 s. (171)
Solution. Density of Al, d = 2.7x103 kg/m3
Atomic weight of Al = 27
Relaxation time  = 10-14 s
dN A
n= ×no . of free electrons per atom
M at ; where Avogadro constant NA = 6.022x1023
and no. of free electrons/atom = 3;
3 23 3
(2. 7×10 )(6 . 022×10 )×3×10
n= =18 . 066×1028 m−3
Hence, 27
28 −19 2
ne 2 τ (18 . 066×10 )(1. 6×10 ) (10 )
−14
σ= = =5 .082×107 Ω. m
Conductivity of Al, me 9 . 1×10 −31

7. The density and atomic weight of Cu are 8900 kg/m 3 and 63.5. The relaxation
time of electrons in cu at 300 K is 10 -14 s. Calculate the electrical conductivity of copper.
(172)
Solution. We have Density of Cu, d = 8900 kg/m3
Atomic weight of Cu = 63.5
Relaxation time  = 10-14 s
Avogadro' scons tan t×Density×Number of free electrons per atom
n=
Atomic Weight
6 . 022×1023 ×8900×1×103
n= =8. 44×10 28 m−3
Hence, 63. 5
28 −19 2
ne 2 τ (8 . 44×10 )(1 . 6×10 ) (10 )
−14
σ= = =2. 374×107 Ω. m
Conductivity of Cu, m e 9. 1×10 −31

8. In an n-type semiconductor the Fermi level lies 0.3 eV below the conduction
band at 300K. If the temperature is increased to 330K, find the new position of the
Fermi level. (214)
Solution. The carrier concentration at 300K is given by
−19
ni300 =N e exp[−( Ec −E F 300 )/kT ]=N e exp[−(0 .3×1 .6×10 )/k×300 ]
ni330 =N e exp[−( Ec −E F 330 )/kT ]=N e exp[−( Ec −E F 330 )/k×330 ]
Taking Ne300 = Ne330 from above equation we get
0.3/300 = Ec – EF330/330 or Ec – EF330 = 0.333 eV
At 330K, the Fermi energy level lies 0.33 eV below the conduction band.
 10

9. The energy gap of Si is 1.1 eV. The average electron effective mass is 0.31 m e,
where me is the free electron mass. Calculate the concentration in the conduction band
of Si at room temperature, T = 300K. assume that EF = Eg/2. (214)
Solution. For Si the intrinsic concentration is given by
¿ 3 /2
2 π kTme ( E c−E v ) 2×22 1. 38×10−23×300×0 .31×0. 91×10−30 −( Ec −E v )
ni =( h2 ) [
exp −
2kT ][ =
7
×
(6 .63×10−34 )2 ] [ exp
2 kT ]
1 .1×1. 6×10−19
ni =4 . 32×10 24 exp
[ −23
2×1. 38×10 ×300 ]
=2 .54×1015 m−3

The intrinsic electron concentration of Si at 300K is 2.54x1015 m-3.

10. The Hall coefficient and conductivity of Cu at 300K have been measured to be
0.55x10-10 m3/A s and 5.9x107 -1m-1 respectively. Calculate the drift mobility of the
electrons in Cu. (214)
Solution. Draft mobility = IRHI = 0.55x10-10x5.9x107 = 3.2x10-3 m2/V s.

11. An n-type semiconductor specimen has a Hall coefficient R H = 3.66x10-11 m3/A s.

The conductivity of the specimen is found to be 112x10 7 /m. Calculate the charge
carrier density n and the electron mobility at room temperature. (215)
Solution. The Hall coefficient is given by RH = 1/ne
Therefore, n = 1/RH = 1/[1.6x10-19x3.66x10-11] = 2x1029 m-3
For n-type semiconductor,  = nen
i.e., n = /ne = (112x107)/(2x1029x1.6x10-19) = 0.035 m2/A s.

Long Answer Questions. (The answers are expected to be in 300-500 words)

1. Describe salient features of band theory of solids

The free electron theory of metals assumes that a free
electron in a metal experiences a constant (zero)
potential due to iron cores and so completely free to
move about in the metal restrained only by the metallic
surface. In fact, the potential due to iron cares is not
constant and may change with the position of electrons
in metal. The actual nature of potential under which an
electron moves in a metal is very complicated. A more reasonable approximation of the
potential experienced by an electron in passing through a metal is one which is perfectly
periodic with the period equal to the lattice constant or one-dimensional cases as shown
in figure.
In a case of a single isolated atom, the electron in any orbit has definite amount of
energy. A solid consists of a large number of atoms. Each atom has interaction effect on
the other atom. Due to this effect, the electrons in any orbit have a range of energies.
When atoms combine to form substances, the outermost shells, and orbitals merge,
providing a greater number of available energy levels for electrons to assume. When a
 11

large number of atoms are close to each other, these available energy levels form a
nearly continuous band wherein electrons may move as in
figure for metals
The range of energies possessed by an electron in a solid is
known as energy band as shown in figure. A useful way to
visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and
semiconductors is to plot the available energies for electrons
in the materials. Instead of having discrete energies as in the case of free atoms,
available energy states form bands. Crucial to the conduction process is whether or not
there are electrons in the conduction band. In insulators, the electrons in the valence
band are separated by a large gap from the conduction band, in conductors like metals
the valence band overlaps the conduction band, and in
semiconductors there is a small enough gap between the
valence and conduction band that thermal or other excitations
can bridge the gap. With such a small gap, the presence of a
small percentage of a doping material can increase conductivity
dramatically.

2. Describe significant and important properties of semiconductors.

Semiconductors form the heart of modern electronics. Devices made from
semiconductor materials are the basic elements of modern electronics, including radio,
computers, telephones, and many other devices. Semiconductors devices include the
transistor, many kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode, the silicon controlled
rectifier, and digital and analog integrated circuited.
These materials are insulators in normal condition. Their resistivity lies between
conductors and insulators. The range of resistivity for semiconductors is 10 -4 .m to 0.5
.m. In other words, a semiconductor is a substance, which has resistivity in between
conductors and insulators. Examples of semiconductors include germanium (Ge),
silicon (Si), selenium, carbon, etc. These solids have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. When some metallic impurity (like trivalent or pentavalent) is added to a
pure semiconductor, then its conductivity increases.
In solids, each atom has a tendency to complete its outermost orbits. To achieve this,
an atom may transfer or share electrons with other atoms. In this process, bonds are
formed. In semiconductors, bonds are formed by sharing of electrons, i.e. covalent
bond.
There are many semiconductors in nature, but germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are
most commonly used semiconductors. It is because the energy require to break the
covalent bond (i.e. forbidden energy gap) is very small in these materials. It is 0.7 eV for
Ge and 1.1 eV for Si. The semiconductors have almost filled valence band and nearly
empty conduction band. There is a small forbidden energy gap ( 1 eV).

3. Discuss free electron theory. Classify conductors, insulators and semiconductors

on the basis of free electron theory. As per class room teaching.

4. What is band theory of solids? Classify conductors, insulators and

semiconductors on the basis of band theory of solids. As per class room teaching.
 12

5. Define n-type and p-type semiconductors. Explain the mechanism of current flow
in these semiconductors. As per class room teaching.

6. Write the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and explain. Also, explain how the
Fermi function varies with temperature in intrinsic semiconductors. As per class room
teaching.

7. Explain with the sketch the variation of the Fermi level and the carrier
concentration with temperature in the case of p-type and n-type semiconductors for high
and low doping level. As per class room teaching.

8. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for the Hall coefficient. Describe an
experimental set-up for the measurement of Hall coefficient. As per class room
teaching.

9. Describe photovoltaic effect. Discuss as to how it is different than photoelectric

effect. Also, describe the functioning of solar cells. As per class room teaching.

10. Discuss the working of a solar cell on the basis of band diagrams and write
applications. As per class room teaching.
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