EDS 103 Theories of Learning

Module 6. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES

Module 6
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES

Constructivist learning theory asserts that

learning is an active process of creating
meaning out of experiences within the
broader context of the environmental.
Knowledge is personally constructed rather
than acquired or transferred from another
individual.
Constructivism versus Direct Instruction.
Descriptions of the constructivist approach in
teaching are often juxtaposed with direct
instruction. Constructivism is learner-
centered—learning is an active construction
of knowledge by the learners, while teachers Source: http://www.sddu.leeds.ac.uk/sddu-breaking-the-ice-
accessible-version.html
“merely” facilitate and guide learning.
In contrast, the more familiar and commonly-practiced direct instruction is a highly
structured teacher-centered approach; the teacher directs and controls most of the learning
activities, which are laid out in a clear scope-and sequence program, driven by the purpose of
maximizing time utilization (Santrock, 2011). Typically, the teacher performs the role of “a
sage on the stage,” and learners learn by rote.

Marilou R. Juachon-Panlilio, PhD | University of the Philippines Open University 1

 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
Module 6. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. discuss the basic assumptions, concepts, and principles that underlie constructivist
theories of learning (information processing theories);
2. explain the concepts of knowledge and learning from a constructivist learning
theory perspective;
3. use constructivist learning theory to explain and/or predict various learning
processes and outcomes;
4. apply understanding of constructivist learning theories to recognize problems in
education practice and propose solutions.

TOPICS

A. Major Assumptions and Principles

B. Comparing Social and Cognitive Constructivism
C. Cognitive Constructivism: A closer look
D. Social Constructivism: A closer look

Essential Questions
 What is constructivism?
What are the core concepts and principles in constructivist learning
theories?
 What do cognitive constructivism and social constructivism have in
common and how do they differ?
 How can constructivist theories be applied to improve individual learning
experiences and, more broadly, education practices, and instructional
design, and education policies?

Marilou R. Juachon-Panlilio, PhD | University of the Philippines Open University 2

 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
Module 6. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES

A. MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES

Guide Question
What is constructivism?
How is learning explained by constructivist theory?
What are the core concepts and principles in constructivist learning theories?
Constructivists fundamentally assume that the acquisition of knowledge and
skills is a process of gradual progression that is characterized by the
construction of knowledge rather than recording information.

Two key constructivist principles

 Learning is an active rather than passive process. Experience, including the errors
made therein, enables the construction of new knowledge, which involves two
complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation, described above. In
cognitive constructivist theory, information is valued as tools for problem solving
rather than as plain facts isolated from real contexts. The Piagetian concept about
knowing argues that knowledge cannot be “told”, “spoon-fed”, “given” or
“poured”. Rather, teachers ought to provide opportunities for students to develop
understanding through exploration and co-construction of knowledge.
 Learning, to be effective, should be whole, authentic, and "real". In connection to
the first principle, learning must be meaningful. Meaning is constructed by way of
mindful interactions and engagement with the
world; the construction of meaning requires the SITUATED COGNITION
learner to be actively involved with his Thinking and knowledge cannot
environment. There is great emphasis on whole be separated from the social and
(integrated across disciplines) and authentic physical contexts in which they
(real-world) activities in contrast to “skills occur… Hence, authentic (real-
through drills” methods that tend to be confined world) tasks make one of the best
learning situations.
to specific subject areas. Santrock, 2011, p. 335
SOURCE: Santrock (2011), p. 334

Learning resources:
 OVERVIEW. Choose at least ONE:
o Constructivism Learning Theory (Teachnology)
Briefly describes the idea of knowledge construction in constructivist theory.
Elaborates on the role of teachers as facilitators of learning rather than
sources of knowledge, and of learners as makers of meaning rather than
accumulators of information.
o Constructivist Learning Theory: The Museum and the Needs of People (Hein, 1991)
Explains the idea of constructivism, its philosophical (epistemological)
assumptions, and its implications to the concepts of learning and teaching.
“...there is no such thing as knowledge "out there" independent of the knower,
4
but only knowledge we construct for ourselves as we learn. Learning is not
understanding the "true" nature of things, nor is it (as Plato suggested)
remembering dimly perceived perfect ideas, but rather a personal and social
construction of meaning...”

Marilou R. Juachon-Panlilio, PhD | University of the Philippines Open University 3

 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
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o How People Learn (Novak & Cañas)

Briefly compares meaningful (constructivist) and rote learning.
Promotes the use of concept maps to facilitate building of cognitive structures,
as proposed by David Ausubel.

doesn‟t build

(Source: http://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/howpeoplelearn.html)

Fig. 1. Processes of meaningful (constructivist) and rote learning compared

 MUST STUDY at least one:

o The Practice Implications of Constructivism (Hoover, 1996)
Discusses the implications of constructivism to practice, particularly with
reference to the ideas that teaching is not transmission of knowledge, the
importance of prior knowledge, student engagement, and active construction.
o VIDEO OPTION: Constructivist Approaches. [YouTube, 19:04 min]
This presentation provides a brief overview of constructivism, discusses
constructivist learning conditions, and offers applications for medical
educators. Transcript is available at https://goo.gl/JCYnPA.
 OPTIONAL (Useful to know but may be skipped):
Is It Constructivism? (Mayer, 1996)

Marilou R. Juachon-Panlilio, PhD | University of the Philippines Open University 4

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B. QUICK COMPARISONS: SOCIAL VS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM

Guide Question: How do cognitive constructivism and social constructivism differ?

Social constructivism and cognitive constructivism represent two major strands in

constructivist learning theory (although there are other minor strands). Both strands share
the fundamental assumption that people construct their own understanding and
knowledge of the world; hence, teachers facilitate and guide (rather than direct and mold)
learning. In this section, we look into the distinctions between them and how each
impacts on pedagogy.
The cognitive constructivist approach,
grounded primarily on the works of Jean
Piaget, emphasize learners‟ cognitive
construction of knowledge and
understanding. In contrast, the social
constructivist approach, grounded on the Source: Santrock, 2011, p. 219
works of Lev Vygotsky, emphasize
collaboration in the production of knowledge and understanding (Santrock, 2011).

Learning resources:
 Constructivism (Clark, 2010)
Briefly describes the main tenets behind the two schools of thought in
constructivist theory of learning.
 Constructivism (Piaget and Vygotsky) [YouTube video, 3:11 min]
Defines constructivism and the tenets that distinguish social and cognitive schools
of thought.

Comparing constructivist theories of Piaget (cognitive) and Vygotsky (social)

Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/Vygotsky-vs-Piaget.jpg?escpb=185-
21&ezimgfmt=rs:536x312/rscb21/ng:webp/ngcb21

Think-Time: How are cognitive and social constructivism alike?

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C. COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM: A CLOSER LOOK

Jean Piaget proposed a comprehensive stage theory regarding human development. In

this section, we focus on the aspect of his works that served as a major foundation for
cognitive constructivism.

Guide Questions
The following questions should help us understand Piaget's theory:
 What is schema? How does it describe knowledge and learning?
 What are the key concepts behind Piaget‟s constructivist theory?
 How does Piaget describe cognitive development?

Concepts/ Terminologies to Note

schema, accommodation, assimilation, and equilibration

Schema
What is schema? How does it describe knowledge and learning?
Piaget posits that information as initially perceived by man
Schema – building blocks
is not in a form that is immediately understood and usable.
of knowledge
Instead, he capitalizes on prior experiences to create mental (http://www.simplypsychology.org)
models—schemas. These mental models or schemas are Knowledge – an elaborate
gradually changed and modified, enlarged and made more network of abstract mental
sophisticated, as the individual acquires more experience. structures which represent
Learners “construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, one's understanding of the
and reorganizing previous knowledge and information” world
(http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/lite
(Santrock, 2011, p. 334). racy/implementaliteracyprogram/sc
hematheoryoflearning.htm)

Fig. 2. A schema of “egg” (Davis, 1991).

SOURCE: http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/schematheoryoflearning.htm

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 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
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Characteristics of schemata
 Schemata are always organized meaningfully, can be added to, and, as an individual
gains experience, develop to include more variables and more specificity.
 Each schema is embedded in other schemata and itself contains subschema.
 Schemata change moment by moment as information is received.
 They may also be reorganized when incoming data reveals a need to restructure the
concept.
 The mental representations used during perception and comprehension, and which
evolve as a result of these processes, combine to form a whole which is greater than
the sum of its parts.
SOURCE: "The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: General discussion of the conference".
(Anderson, 1977). In Cognition and Learning (pdf file), page 24.

Assumptions supported by the schema theory of

learning
 It is important to present all the necessary
lower-level facts before proceeding to teach at
higher levels of the knowledge hierarchy.
 People can reason with higher-level concepts
if they have learned all of the prerequisite Source: Hamilton, et al, 2014
lower-level information.
 It is important to use teaching steps which correspond to the internal sequence in
which the brain processes information.
SOURCE: Spaeth & Walter.

Assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration

In addition to schema, which we have discussed in the previous section, the key concepts
behind Piaget‟s theory that apply to learning include assimilation, accommodation, and
equilibration.
 Assimilation - the incorporation of information into existing knowledge structures,
without the necessity of making changes to old ones—i.e., merely “adding”
 Accommodation - the construction of new knowledge that requires a restructuring
(adjustment, slight alteration) of old concepts so that new ones fit in
 Equilibration - the individual‟s reconstruction of understanding to resolve a cognitive
conflict created by new experience and reach a balance or equilibrium

More resources to learn from:

 The Role of a Schema in Psychology (Cherry, 2019)
Describes different types of schema
Explains how assimilation and accommodation modify schema
 Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (McLeod, 2018).
o In what ways does Piaget’s theory differ from others?
o What are the components of Piaget’s theory?
 Schemas
 equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation
 Stages of Cognitive Development
 Video Development: Schemas, Assimilation, & Accommodation [1:44 min]

Marilou R. Juachon-Panlilio, PhD | University of the Philippines Open University 7

 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
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 Piaget's Theory of Constructivism (Teachnology)

Briefly explains assimilation and accommodation.
Constructivists put “...emphasis on the significant role that experiences” play in
logical and conceptual growth... “Instead of telling, the teacher must begin
asking... so that the student comes to the conclusions on their own instead of being
told.”

 VIDEO OPTIONS
o Schemas, assimilation, and accommodation (Khan Academy, 2015) [5:23 min]
Discusses schema, accommodation, assimilation, and equilibrium
o OR
Cognitive Learning Theory (Youtility, 2017) [YouTube Video, 3:59 min]
Briefly introduces the concepts of schema, accommodation, assimilation, and
equilibration; cites some benefits to cognitive constructivism.

Think-Time
 Differentiate assimilation from accommodation. Give examples to clarify the
distinctions.
 When/ How is equilibrium attained?
How does disequilibrium contribute to learning?

D. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM: A CLOSER LOOK

“Social constructivist (or social development) theory was originated by Russian

psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who lived during Russian Revolution.
Vygotsky‟s work was largely unkown to the West until it was published in 1962… [The
theory] argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition
are the end-products of socialization and social behavior.” (In contrast, Piaget argues
that development precedes learning.)
(Source: http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html)

Social constructivism emphasizes that knowledge is first

constructed in a social environment and is then appropriated
by individuals. According to social constructivists,
knowledge grows directly out of the interaction. Social
interactions and involvement with others are very important
aspects in the process of knowledge building and
construction. In particular, exposure to the thoughts of
others provides opportunities to evaluate and refine their
own. In the process, the participants develop not only
personal knowledge but shared understandings as well. If
Piaget focused on individual cognition, Vygotsky focused on
the “child embedded in a sociocultural context”, which
values collaboration, social interaction, and sociocultural activity. In addition, culture
defines what the society values and considers important. Thus, culture—including the
language, beliefs, and skills of that culture—strongly shapes the nature of the knowledge
and understandings created by the learners (Santrock, 2011, pp. 333-334; McLeod, 2007).

Marilou R. Juachon-Panlilio, PhD | University of the Philippines Open University 8

 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
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Concepts/ Terminologies to Note

ZPD (zone of proximal development, MKO (more knowledgeable other), scaffolding,
socio-cultural context, language
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in
which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to
Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to
mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as
social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization
of these tools lead to higher thinking skills.

Major themes behind Vygotsky’s constructivist theory

a) Social Interaction
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development.
In contrast to Jean Piaget‟s understanding of child development (in which
development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes
development. He states: “Every function in the child‟s cultural development appears
twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)” (Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky emphasizes the construction of knowledge first in a social environment
from which individuals construct their own. Through social processes, the exchange
of thoughts allows individuals to assess and refine what they know, while also
building up shared understandings, which are culturally bound.
b) Psychological tools
Psychological tools mediate our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, such as language,
counting systems, symbol systems, art, writings, maps, technology, etc. Among
these, Vygotsky specifically highlights the value of language as the most important,
which Nicholl concisely explains:
It is through language that we construct reality. With words we define, shape, and
experience. Without the words to think, communicate, experience, or understand our
lives would be very different from what they are. Words expand our consciousness but
also limit us as we can only fully experience those things that we have the words for.
Language provides the framework through which we perceive, experience, and act.
Source: Trish Nicholl http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/trishvyg.htm

c) The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky associates learning with the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), which denotes the zone where the
actualization of learning is at its highest potential. The
ZPD refers to the range of potentials that a person has
for learning; it is the gap between what a person can do
on his own and what he can do after some assistance.
The actualization of potentials is attained when innovativelearning.com
facilitation (“scaffolding”) is provided by another
person with greater expertise. In classrooms, it is common to see how students rely
on guidance from an adult or seek the assistance of more capable peers before they

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are able to independently perform a task or solve a problem on their own. Social
interactions, particularly with more knowledgeable others (MKO), is crucial for
abilities in the zone of proximal development to become reality. In the ZPD, people
learn to use the “psychological tools” available in order to achieve cognitive growth.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where
the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the
child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher
mental functions.
Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing
skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning
exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful
peers - within the zone of proximal development.
[ZPD versus Discovery learning]
Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which
items of furniture should be placed in particular houses of a dolls
house. Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar
situation before they attempted it alone (zone of proximal development)
whilst others were allowed to work on this by themselves (Piaget's discovery
learning).
Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother
(ZPD) showed greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the
task. The conclusion being that guided learning within the ZPD led to
greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery
learning).

d) The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level
than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept and acts as the
facilitator that will guide the learner towards a higher cognitive state. The MKO is
normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also
be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
“Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is
not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may
be the individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example, who is
more likely to know more about the newest teen-age music groups, how to win at
the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance
craze - a child or their parents?
“In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support
employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance
support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings
to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs
is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic
being learned than the learner does.”
Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

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 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
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e) Scaffolding.
Scaffolding, a concept closely linked with zone of proximal allies-in-elearning.blogspot.com
development, refers to the guidance provided by a more
knowledgeable other that is adjusted to fit the current skill
level of the learner. Scaffolds facilitate the movement of the
individual to higher levels and hasten the transformation of
learning potentials towards mastery. Scaffolding is provided
according to the needs and is gradually removed as the
learner acquires competence. Note that scaffolding involves
providing suitable assistance and in no way suggests doing
the task for the learner (e.g., giving away answers or solutions).
Tutoring
Tutoring takes place when a more skilled person (a teacher, a more
knowledgeable peer, classroom aide, or even a volunteer) assists someone
who is less skilled and needs more individual help to cope with a task or
lesson to be learned.

Applications of Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in
which a teacher or lecturer „transmits‟ information to students. In contrast,
Vygotsky‟s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in
learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should
collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in
students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and
teacher.
Source: http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html

More learning resources:

 Lev Vygotsky (McLeod, 2018)
Discusses assumptions and essential concepts in social constructivism (MKO,
ZPD, scaffolding, role of language).
Compares the social and cognitive strands of constructivist learning theory.
Embedded – Piaget & Vygotsky in 90 seconds. (Burrus, 2009) [Video, 2 min]
 What Is the Zone of Proximal Development? (McLeod, 2019)
Elaborates on Vygotsky’s concepts of ZPD, MKO, scaffolding and how they
operate together
 Vygotsky sociocultural development (Khan, 2014) , 2014)
Uses concepts of ZPD, MKO, language, social interactions to explain the
development of higher mental functions
 Vygotsky's Theory on Constructivism (Teachnology)
Explains the role of mediation and the concept of ZPD
 Zone of Proximal Development (Rodriguez, 2014) [YouTube video, 5:20 min].
Explains how learning occurs in the ZPD and how the teacher, scaffolds and
social interactions facilitate learning

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Optional resources (useful to know but may be skipped)

 Constructivism and Social Constructivism in the Classroom (UCD, 2015)
Key assumptions, roles of the teacher and students, models of teaching-learning
 Constructivism and Social Constructivism (UCD Teaching and Learning, 2012)
Underlying assumptions, epistemology, main theorists (Dewey, Bruner, Piaget &
Vygotsky), models of learning
 Play: A Vygotskian Approach (Davidson Films, 2010| 3:50 min)
 Teaching Matters: Scaffolding (eMedia Workshop, 2012| 5:13 5 min)

Think-Time
 How does ZPD account for students’ boredom in the classroom? Why do some
students fail? How can students learn best?
 Describe how applying the concepts of ZPD and scaffolding can optimize
learning. What makes scaffolding a powerful tool in teaching-learning
processes?
 If Vygotsky were alive and active today, what would his thoughts be about
learning in the present-day context?

E. CONSTRUCTIVISM IN ACTION

 Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

A workshop on the concept of constructivism comprised of the following:
o Explanation
o Demonstration
o Exploration
o Implementation

 OPTIONAL: Resources from Teachnology:

o Classroom Applications of Constructivism
o Applying Constructivism
o Classroom Compass: Constructivism
o Constructivism in Math
o Constructivist Teaching Strategies
o How we teach and how students learn- A mismatch?
o The Practice Implications of Constructivism

Think-Time
 How are constructivist teaching-learning processes fundamentally different from
“traditional” settings?
 How would a constructivist educator design curriculum, instruction, and/or
assessment?
 Describe the teacher‟s and students‟ respective roles in a constructivist classroom.

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 EDS 103 Theories of Learning
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Investigate: Scaffolding in Tutorial Sessions

Observe how some tutors try to help students learn.
 Do tutors utilize the concept of scaffolding as a technique to facilitate learning?
 What other theoretical concepts or principles provide sound basis for their
strategies?
 Considering social (and cognitive) constructivist theories, what “unsound”
practices were you able to observe?

EJOURNAL PROMPTS

 Reflect on how you were assisted in your learning when you were a much younger
student.
 Identify situations that exemplified scaffolding as a very young learner, and also in
your more recent experiences as a young adult.
 Cite personally observed or experienced instances of inappropriate assistance.
Using learning theory, why do you consider such events “inappropriate”?
 What aspects of your experiences as a learner or as a professional could have been
better had constructivist principles been at play?
 Now armed with constructivist tools, how can you be a proactive agent of change?
What will you do differently? How will you influence others?

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REFERENCES

Anderson, (1977). The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: General
discussion of the conference. In Cognition and Learning [PDF file]
http://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/13/38/77/1338774478810622235693137
54811095416736/e_Book_49_Davis_Cognition_and_Learning.pdf
BlueSofaMedia. (2012). Use a Learning Theory: Constructivism.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xa59prZC5gA [YouTube video, 4:22 min]
Burrus, J. (2009). Piaget & Vygotsky in 90 seconds.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yY-SXM8f0gU
ByPass Publishing. (2013). Development: Schemas, Assimilation, & Accommodation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xj0CUeyucJw
Cherry, K. (2019). The Role of a Schema in Psychology.
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schema-2795873
Clark, D. (2010). Constructivism.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html
Davidson Films. (2010). Play: A Vygotskian Approach
eMedia Workshop. (2012). Teaching Matters: Scaffolding
Educational Broadcasting (2004). Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching
and Learning
https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html
Ferguson, J. (2015). Constructivism (Piaget and Vygotsky).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yi8S4YkZI04
Grosneth, S. (2015). Constructivist Approaches.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=krqjqGIuC-A [YouTube, 19:04 min]
Hein, G. (1991). Constructivist Learning Theory: The Museum and the Needs of People.
https://www.exploratorium.edu/education/ifi/constructivist-learning
Hoover, W. (1996).The Practice Implications of Constructivism. SEDL. Volume IX,
Number 3. http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/practice.html
Khan Academy. (2014). Vygotsky sociocultural development.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-p_-0n2f35o&t=6s
Khan Academy. (2015). Schemas, assimilation, and accommodation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xoAUMmZ0pzc&feature=youtu.be
[YouTube]
Mayer, M. (1996).Is It Constructivism? SEDL. Volume IX, Number 3.
http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/construct.html
McLeod, S. (2018). Lev Vygotsky. https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
McLeod, S. (2018). Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

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McLeod, S. (2019). What Is the Zone of Proximal Development?

https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
Rodriguez, M. (2014). Zone of Proximal Development.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Du6vqSOj7UU
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http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/
Collection of resources on classroom applications of constructivism from
Teachnology:
o Classroom Applications of Constructivism
o Applying Constructivism
o Classroom Compass: Constructivism
o Constructivism in Math
o Constructivist Teaching Strategies
o How we teach and how students learn- A mismatch?
o The Practice Implications of Constructivism
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http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php?title=Education_Theory/Constructivism_and_Soc
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UCD Teaching and Learning (2015). Constructivism and Social Constructivism in the
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http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php?title=Education_Theory/Constructivism_and_Soc
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Youtility. (2017). Cognitive Learning Theory.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lvxraaGYWuc

Marilou R. Juachon-Panlilio, PhD | University of the Philippines Open University 2