MODULE 2

Most engineering designs can be classified as inventions-devices or systems that are created
byhuman effort and did not exist before or are improvements over existing devices or
systems.Inventions, or designs, do not suddenly appear from nowhere. They are the result of
bringingtogether technologies to meet human needs or to solve problems. Sometimes a design is
the resultof someone trying to do a task more quickly or efficiently. Design activity occurs over a
period oftime and requires a step-by-step methodology.We described engineers primarily as
problem solvers. What distinguishes design from other types of problem solving is the nature of
both the problem and the solution. Design problems are open ended in nature, which means they
have more than one correct solution. The result or solution to a design problem is a system that
possesses specified properties.Design problems are usually more vaguely defined than analysis
problems. Suppose that you are asked to determine the maximum height of a snowball given an
initial velocity and release height.This is an analysis problem because it has only one answer. If
you change the problem statement to read, "Design a device to launch a 1-pound snowball to a
height of at least 160 feet," this analysis problem becomes a design problem. The solution to the
design problem is a system having specified properties (able to launch a snowball 160 feet),
whereas the solution to the analysis problem consisted of the properties of a given system (the
height of the snowball). The solution to a design problem is therefore open ended, since there are
many possible devices that can launch a Snow ball to a given height. The original problem had a
single solution: the maximum height of the snowball, determined from the specified initial
conditions.

Solving design problems is often an iterative process:

As the solution to a design problem evolves, you find yourself continually refining the
design.While implementing the solution to a design problem, you may discover that the solution
you've developed is unsafe, too expensive, or will not work. You then "go back to the drawing
board" and modify the solution until it meets your requirements. For example, the Wright
brothers' airplane did not fly perfectly the first time. They began a program for building an
airplane by first conducting tests with kites and then gliders. Before attempting powered flight,
they solved the essential problems of controlling a plane's motion in rising, descending, and
turning. They didn't construct a powered plane until after making more than 700 successful
glider flights. Design activity is therefore cyclic or iterative in nature, whereas analysis problem
solving is primarily sequential. The solution to a design problem does not suddenly appear in a
vacuum. A good solution requires a methodology or process. There are probably as many
processes of design as there are engineers.Therefore, this lesson does not present a rigid
"cookbook" approach to design but presents a general application of the five-step problem-
solving methodology associated with the design process. The process described here is general,
and you can adapt it to the particular problem you are trying to solve.
THE DESIGN PROCESS

The basic five-step process usually used in a problem-solving works for design problems as well.
Since design problems are usually defined more vaguely and have a multitude of correct
answers,the process may require backtracking and iteration. Solving a design problem is a
contingentrocess and the solution is subject to unforeseen complications and changes as it
develops. Untilthe Wright brothers actually built and tested their early gliders, they did not know
the problems
and difficulties they would face controlling a powered plane.The five steps used for solving
design problems are:
1. Define the problem
2. Generate concepts and gather pertinent information
3. Develop the solutions
4. Construct and test prototype
5. Evaluate and implement the solution
6. Present the solution

1. Define Problem

The first step in the design process is the problem definition. This definition usually contains
alisting of the product or customer requirements and specially information about product
functionsand features among other things. In the next step, relevant information for the design of
the product and its functional specifications is obtained. A survey regarding the availability of
similar productsin the market should be performed at this stage. Once the details of the design
are clearly identified,the design team with inputs from test, manufacturing, and marketing teams
generates multiple alternatives to achieve the goals and the requirements of the design.
Considering cost, safety, and other criteria for selection, the more promising alternatives are
selected for further analysis. Detail design and analysis step enables a complete study of the
solutions and result in identification of the final design that best fits the product requirements.
Following this step, a prototype of the design is constructed and functional tests are performed to
verify and possibly modify the design.When solving a design problem, you may find at any point
in the process that you need to go back to a previous step. The solution you chose may prove
unworkable for any number of reasons and may require redefining the problem, collecting more
information, orgenerating different solutions. This continuous iterative process isrepresented in
the Figure.This document intends to clarify some of the details involved inimplementing the
design process. Therefore a description of thedetails involved in each step of the design process
is listed below.Although the descriptions of the activities within each step may givethe
impression that the steps are sequential and independent fromeach other, the iterative nature of
the application of the processshould be kept in mind throughout the document.You need to begin
the solution to a design problem with a clear, unambiguous definition of theproblem. Unlike an
analysis problem, a design problem often begins as a vague, abstract idea inthe mind of the
designer. Creating a clear definition of a design problem is more difficult than,defining an
analysis problem. The definition of a design problem may evolve through a series ofsteps or
processes as you develop a more complete understanding of the problem. Identify andEstablish
the Need Engineering design activity always occurs in response to a human need. Beforeyou can
develop a problem definition statement for a design problem, you need to recognize theneed for a
new product, system, or machine. Thomas Newcomen saw the need for a machine topump the
water from the bottom of coal mines in England. Recognizing this human need providedhim the
stimulus for designing the first steam engine in 1712. Before engineers can clearly definea
design problem, they must see and understand this need.Although engineers are generally
involved in defining the problem, they may not be the ones whoinitially recognize the need. In
private industry, market forces generally establish the need for anew design. A company's
survival depends on producing a product that people will buy and can be manufactured and sold
at a profit. Ultimately, consumers establish a need, because they will purchase and use a product
that they perceive as meeting a need for comfort, health, recreation,transportation, shelter, and so
on. Likewise, the citizens of a government decide whether they needsafe drinking water, roads
and highways, libraries, schools, fire protection, and so on. The perceived need, however, may
not be the real need. Before you delve into the details of producinga solution, you need to make
sure you have enough information to generate a clear, unambiguousproblem definition that
addresses the real need. The following example illustrates the importanceof understanding the
need before attempting a solution.

Example: Automobile Airbag Inflation - How Not to Solve a Problem

A company that manufactures automobile airbags has a problem with an unacceptably high rate
of failure in the inflation of the bag. During testing, 10 percent of the bags do not fully inflate.
An engineer is assigned the job of solving the problem. At first the engineer defines the problem
as afailure in the materials and construction of the inflation device. The engineer begins to solve
thisproblem by producing a more robust inflation device. After considerable effort, the
engineerdiscovers that improving the inflation device does not change the failure rate in the
bags.Eventually, this engineer re-examines the initial definition of the problem. The
companyinvestigates the airbag inflation problem further and discovers that a high degree of
variability inthe tightness of folds is responsible for the failure of some bags to inflate. At the
time the bagswere folded and packed by people on an assembly line. With a more complete
understanding ofthe need, the engineer redefined the problem as one of increasing the
consistency in tightness of the folds in the bags. The final solution to this problem is a machine
that automatically folds the bags. Often the apparent need is not the real need. A common
tendency is to begin generating asolution to an apparent problem without understanding the
problem. This approach is exactly thewrong way to begin solving a problem such as this. You
would be generating solutions to aproblem that has never been defined.People have a natural
tendency to attack the current solution to a problem rather than the problemitself. Attacking a
current solution may eliminate inadequacies but will not produce a creative andinnovative
solution. For example, the engineer at the airbag company could have only looked atthe current
method for folding airbags-using humans on an assembly line. The engineer might havesolved
the problem with inconsistent tightness by modifying the assembly line procedure.However, the
final solution to the problem proved to be more cost effective and reliable, in additionto
producing a superior consistency in the tightness of the folds.

Develop a Problem Statement

The first step in the problem-solving process, therefore, is to formulate the problem in clear
andunambiguous terms. Defining the problem is not the same as recognizing a need. The
problemdefinition statement results from first identifying a need. The engineer at the airbag
companyresponded to a need to reduce the number of airbag inflation failures. He made a
mistake, however,in not formulating a clear definition of the problem before generating a
solution. Once a need hasbeen established, engineers define that need in terms of an engineering
design problem statement.To reach a clear definition, they collect data, run experiments, and
perform computations that allowthat need to be expressed as part of an engineering problem-
solving process.Consider for example the statement "Design a better mousetrap." This statement
is not an adequateproblem definition for an engineering design problem. It expresses a vague
dissatisfaction withexisting mousetraps and therefore establishes a need. An engineer would take
this statement ofneed and conduct further research to identify what was lacking in existing
mousetrap designs.After further investigation the engineer may discover that existing mousetraps
are inadequatebecause they don't provide protection from the deadly Hantavirus carried by mice.
Therefore, abetter mousetrap may be one that is sanitary and does not expose human beings to
the Hantavirus.From this need, the problem definition is modified to read, "Design a mousetrap
that allows forthe sanitary disposal of the trapped mouse, minimizing human exposure to the
Hantavirus."The problem statement should specifically address the real need yet be broad
enough not topreclude certain solutions. A broad definition of the problem allows you to look at
a wide rangeof alternative solutions before you focus on a specific solution. The temptation at
this point in thedesign process is to develop a preconceived mental "picture" of the problem
solution. For example,you could define the better mousetrap problem as "Design a mousetrap
that sprays the trappedmouse with disinfectant." This statement is clear and specific, but it is also
too narrow. It excludesmany potentially innovative solutions. If you focus on a specific picture
or idea for solving theproblem at this stage of the design process, you may never discover the
truly innovative solutionsto the problem. A problem statement should be concise and flexible
enough to allow or creativesolutions.

Here is one possible problem definition statement for our better mousetrap problem:
A Better Mousetrap: Certain rodents such as the common mouse are carriers and transmitters
ofan often fatal virus, the Hantavirus. Conventional mousetraps expose people to this virus as
theyhandle the trap and dispose of the mouse. Design a mousetrap that allows a person to trap
anddispose of a mouse without being exposed to any bacterial or viral agents being carried on
themouse.

2. Generate concepts

Before you can go further in the design process, you need to collect all the information
availablethat relates to the problem. Novice designers will quickly skip over this step and
proceed to thegeneration of alternative solutions. You will find, however, that effort spent
searching forinformation about your problem will pay big dividends later in the design process.
Gatheringpertinent information can reveal facts about the problem that result in a redefinition of
the problem.

You may discover mistakes and false starts made by other designers. Information gathering
formost design problems begins with asking the following questions. If the problem addresses a
needthat is new, then there are no existing solutions to the problems, so obviously some of the
questionswould not be asked.
 Is the problem real and its statement accurate?
 Is there really a need for a new solution or has the problem already been solved?
 What are the existing solutions to the problem?
 What is wrong with the way the problem is currently being solved?
 What is right about the way the problem is currently being solved?
 What companies manufacture the existing solution to the problem?
 What are the economic factors governing the solution?

 How much will people pay for a solution to the problem?

 What other factors are important to the problem solution (such as safety, aesthetics and
environmental issues)?
By answering above questions designer can develop new idea to solve any design problems.
Designer may use scientific methodologies such as brain storming, decision matrix etc. Solutions
to engineering design problems do not magically appear. Ideas are generated when people are
free to take risks and make mistakes. Brainstorming at this stage is often a team effort in which
people from different disciplines are involved in generating multiple solutions to the problem.

3. Develop the solution

The next step in the design process begins with creativity in generating new ideas that may
solvethe problem. Creativity is much more than just a systematic application of rules and theory
to solvea technical problem. You start with existing solutions to the problem and then tear them
apart-findout what's wrong with those solutions and focus on how to improve their weaknesses.
ConsciouslyCombine new ideas, tools, and methods to produce a totally uniquesolution to the
problem. This process is called synthesis.Detailed designs should be generated in this step by
representing designsthrough technical drawings which consisting of relevant information’s
tomanufacture the product.
If a solution is found to be invalid or cannot be justified, the designer must
return to a previous step in the design process.

Analyse and select suitable solution:

Once you've conceived alternative solutions to your design problem, you need to analyze those
solutions and then decide which solution is best suited for implementation. Analysis is the
evaluation of the proposed designs. You apply your technical knowledge to the proposed
solutions and use the results to decide which solution to carry out. You will cover design analysis
in more depth when you get into upper-level engineering courses. At this step in the design
process, you must consider the results of your design analysis. This is a highly subjective step
and should be made by a group of experienced people. This section introduces a systematic
methodology you can use to evaluate alternative designs and assist in making a decision.
Analysis of Design Solutions: Before deciding which design solution to implement, you need to
analyze each alternative solution against the selection criteria defined in step l. You should
perform several types of analysis on each design. Every design problem is unique and requires
different types of analysis. The following is a list of analysis that may need to be considered;
bear in mind that the importance of each varies depending on the nature of the problem and the
solution.
 Functional analysis
 Industrial design/Ergonomics
 Mechanical/Strength analysis
 Electrical/Electromagnetic
 Manufacturability/Testability
 Product safety and liability
 Economic and market analysis
 Regulatory and Compliance

4. Construct and test prototype

The final phase of the design process is implementation, which refers to the testing, construction,
and manufacturing of the solution to the design problem. You must consider several methods of
implementation, such as prototyping and concurrent engineering, as well as distinct activities that
occur during implementation, such as documenting the design solution and applying for patents.

Prototyping:
The first stage of testing and implementation of a new product, called prototyping, consists of
building a prototype of the product-the first fully operational production of the complete design
solution. A prototype is not fully tested and may not work or operate as intended. The purpose of
the prototype is to test the design solution under real conditions. For example, a new aircraft
design would first be tested as a scale model in a wind tunnel. Wind tunnel tests would generate
information to be used in constructing a full-size prototype of the aircraft. Test pilots then fly the
prototype extensively under real conditions. Only after testing under all expected and unusual
operating conditions are the prototypes brought into full production.

5. Evaluate and implement solution

Testing and verification are important parts of the design process. At all steps in the process,
you may find that your potential solution is flawed and have to back up to a previous step to get a
workable solution. Without proper testing at all stages in the process, you may find yourself
making costly mistakes later.

6. Present solutions

Communicating the solution to a design problem through language, both written and oral, is a
vital part of the implementation phase. Many people you will be communicating with do not
have technical training and competence. They may be the general public, government officials,
or business leaders. Successful engineers must possess more than just technical skills. The ability
to communicate and sell a design solution to others is also a critical skill. You can use graphs,
charts, and other visual materials to summarize the solution process and present your work to
others. Multimedia techniques, including Power Point presentations, slides, sounds, videos, and
computer-generated animations, are often used to clearly communicate the solution to a design
problem. Documentation: One of the most important activities in design is documenting your
work, clearly communicating the solution to your design problem so someone else can
understand what you have created. Usually this consists of a design or technical report.

Conceptual Design & Embodiment Design

1. Conceptual Design
Conceptual design is the process by which the design is initiated, carried to the point of creating
a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down to a single best concept. It is sometimes
called the feasibility study. Conceptual design is the phase that requires the greatest creativity,
involves the most uncertainty, and requires coordination among many functions in the business
organization. The following are the discrete activities that we consider under conceptual design
Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely understand the
customers’ needs and to communicate them to the design team.
● Problem definition: The goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes what has to
be accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer. This involves analysis of competitive
products, the establishment of target specifications, and the listing of constraints and trade-offs.
● Gathering information: Engineering design presents special requirements over engineering
research in the need to acquire a broad spectrum of information.
● Conceptualization: Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts that
potentially satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods, combined with effi
cient information gathering, are the key activities.
● Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving into a single
preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually requires several iterations.
● Refinement of the PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the concept has
been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain critical values of design
parameters, usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ) parameters, and to living with trade-offs
between cost and performance.
● Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a design review
will be held. The design review will assure that the design is physically realizable and that it is
economically worthwhile. It will also look at a detailed product development schedule. This is
needed to devise a strategy to minimize product cycle time and to identify the resources in
people, equipment, and money needed to complete the project.

2. Embodiment Design

Structured development of the design concept occurs in this engineering design phase. It is the
place where flesh is placed on the skeleton of the design concept. An embodiment of all the main
functions that must be performed by the product must be undertaken. It is in this design phase
that decisions are made on strength, material selection, size, shape, and spatial compatibility.
Beyond this design phase, major changes become very expensive. This design phase is
sometimes called preliminary design. Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks—
product architecture, configuration design, and parametric design.
● Product architecture:
Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall design system into subsystems or
modules. In this step we decide how the physical components of the design are to be arranged
and combined to carry out the functional duties of the design.
● Configuration design of parts and components: Parts are made up of features like holes, ribs,
splines, and curves. Configuring a part means to determine what features will be present and how
those features are to be arranged in space relative to each other. While modeling and simulation
may be performed in this stage to check out function and spatial constraints, only approximate
sizes are determined to assure that the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specificity about
materials and manufacturing is given here. The generation of a physical model of the part with
rapid prototyping processes may be appropriate.
● Parametric design of parts: Parametric design starts with information on the configuration of
the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions on the material
and manufacturing processes are also established if this has not been done previously. An
important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design
robustness. Robustness refers to how consistently a component performs under variable
conditions in its service environment.

3. Detailed Design

In this phase the design is brought to the stage of a complete engineering description of a tested
and producible product. Missing information is added on the arrangement, form, dimensions, and
tolerances, surface properties, materials, and manufacturing processes of each part. This results
in a specification for each special-purpose part and for each standard part to be purchased from
suppliers. In the detail design phase the following activities are completed and documents are
prepared:

● Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are computer-
generated drawings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD models.

● Verification testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted.

All critical-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under control. Usually the building and
testing of several preproduction versions of the product will be accomplished.
● Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed. The bill of materials for
all assemblies will be completed.
● A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the conceptual
design phase, will be prepared.
● Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy from an external supplier will be
made.
● With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the product will be carried out.
● Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made to pass the
design information on to manufacturing. Phases I, II, and III take the design from the realm of
possibility to the real world of practicality. However, the design process is not finished with the
delivery of a set of detailed engineering drawings and specifications to the manufacturing
organization. Many other technical and business decisions must be made that are really part of
the design process. A great deal of thought and planning must go into how the design will be
manufactured, how it will be marketed, how it will be maintained during use, and finally, how it
will be retired from service and replaced by a new, improved design. Generally these phases of
design are carried out elsewhere in the organization than in the engineering department or
product development department. As the project proceeds into the new phases, the expenditure
of money and personnel time increases greatly.

Design Communication
It must always be kept in mind that the purpose of the design is to satisfy the needs of a
customer or client. Therefore, the finalized design must be properly communicated, or it may
lose much of its impact or significance. The communication is usually by oral presentation to the
sponsor as well as by a written design report. Surveys typically show that design engineers spend
60 percent of their time in discussing designs and preparing written documentation of designs,
while only 40 percent of the time is spent in analyzing and testing designs and doing the
designing. Detailed engineering drawings, computer programs, 3-D computer models, and
working models are frequently among the “deliverables” to the customer.

Material Selection

Materials and the manufacturing processes that convert them into useful parts underlie all
ofengineering design. There are over 100,000 engineering materials to choose from. The
typicaldesign engineer should have ready access to information on 30 to 60 materials, depending
on therange of applications he or she deals with. The recognition of the importance of materials
selectionin design has increased in recent years. Concurrent engineering practices have brought
materialsspecialists into the design process at an earlier stage. The importance given to quality
and costaspects of manufacturing in present-day product design has emphasized the fact that
materials andmanufacturing are closely linked in determining final product
performance.Moreover, the pressures of worldwide competition have increasedthe level of
automation in manufacturing to the point where materialcosts comprise 60 percent or more of the
cost for most products.Finally, the extensive activity in materials science worldwide hascreated a
variety of new materials and focused our attention on thecompetition between six broad classes
of materials: metals,polymers, elastomers, ceramics, glasses, and composites. Thus, therange of
materials available to the engineer is much broader than ever before. This presents the
opportunity for innovation in design by utilizing these materials to provide greater performance
at lower cost. Achieving these benefits requires a rational process for materials selection.
Material Selection & Design

An incorrectly chosen material can lead not only to failure of the part but also to excessive life-
cycle cost. Selecting the best material for a part involves more than choosing both a material that
has the properties to provide the necessary performance in service and the processing methods
used to create the finished part. A poorly chosen material can add to manufacturing cost.
Properties of the material can be enhanced or diminished by processing, and that may affect the
service performance of the part. Faced with the large number of combinations of materials and
processes from which to choose, the materials selection task can only be done effectively by
applying simplification and systemization. As design proceeds from concept design, to
configuration and parametric design (embodiment design), and to detail design, the material and
process selection becomes more detailed. Figure below compares the design methods and tools
used at each design stage with materials and processes selection.

Criteria for Material Selection

Materials are selected on the basis of four general criteria:

 Performance characteristics (properties)
 Processing (manufacturing) characteristics
 Environmental profile
 Business considerations
Materials selection, like other aspects of engineering design, is a decision-making process. The
steps in the process are as follows: 1. Analysis of the materials requirements. Determine the
conditions of service and environment that the product must withstand. Translate them into
material properties. 2. Screening for candidate materials. Compare the needed properties with a
large materials property database to select a few materials that look promising for the
application. Usually, steps 1 and 2 are performed in the conceptual phase of design. 3. Analysis
of candidate materials in terms of trade-offs of product performance, cost, manufacturability, and
availability to select the best material for the application. This is done in the embodiment phase
of design. 4. Development of design data for critical systems or components. Determine
experimentally the key material properties for the selected material to obtain statistically reliable
measures of the material performance under the specific conditions expected to be encountered
in service. It is not always necessary to carry out this step, but when it is, it is usually part of the
detail design phase.

Classification of Materials

We can divide materials into metals, ceramics, and polymers. Further division leads to the
categories of elastomers, glasses, and composites. Finally, there are the technologically
important classes of optical, magnetic, and semiconductor materials. An engineering material is a
material that is used to fulfill some technical functional requirement, as opposed to being just
used for decoration. Those materials that are typically used to resist forces or deformations in
engineering structures are called structural materials.
Properties of Materials

The performance or functional requirements of a material are usually given by a definable and
measurable set of material properties. The first task in materials selection is to determine which
material properties are relevant to the application. We look for material properties that are easy
and inexpensive to measure, are reproducible, and are associated with a material behavior that is
well defined and related to the way the material performs in service. For reasons of technological
convenience we often measure something other than the most fundamental material property. For
example, the elastic limit measures the first significant deviation from elastic behavior, but it is
tedious to measure, so we substitute the easier and more reproducible 0.2 % offset yield strength.
That, however, requires a carefully machined test specimen, so the yield stress may be
approximated by the exceedingly inexpensive and rapid hardness test.

The Material Selection Process

In design we considered the important issue in materials selection of identifying the appropriate
material properties that allow the prediction of failure-free functioning of the component. The
equally important task of identifying a process to manufacture the part with the material is
discussed in Chap. 13. While these are important considerations, they are not the only issues in
materials selection. The following business issues must also be considered. Failure to get a
positive response in any of these areas can disqualify a material from selection.
1. Availability
Are there multiple sources of supply?
What is the likelihood of availability in the future?
Is the material available in the forms needed (tubes, wide sheet, etc.)?
2. Size limitations and tolerances on available material shapes and forms, e.g., sheet
thickness or tube wall concentricity
3. Excessive variability in properties
4. Environmental impact, including ability to recycle the material
5. Cost. Materials selection comes down to buying properties at the best available price.

A Material Selection Example

Consider the question of materials selection for an automotive exhaust system. The product
design
specification states that it must provide the following functions:
 Conduct engine exhaust gases away from the engine
 Prevent noxious fumes from entering the car
 Cool the exhaust gases
 Reduce the engine noise
 Reduce the exposure of automobile body parts to exhaust gases
 Affect the engine performance as little as possible
 Help control unwanted exhaust emissions
 Have an acceptably long service life

Have a reasonable cost, both as original equipment and as a replacement part. The basic system
configuration is a series of tubes that collect the gases at the engine and convey them to the rear
of
the automobile. The size of the tubes is determined by the volume of gases to be carried away
and the extent to which the exhaust system can be permitted to impede the flow of gases from the
engine (back pressure). In addition, a muffler is required for noise reduction and a catalytic
converter to change polluting gases to less harmful emissions.Material Requirements for an
Automotive Exhaust System
 Mechanical property requirements not overly severe.
 Suitable rigidity to prevent excessive vibration
 Moderate fatigue resistance
 Good creep resistance in hot parts
Limiting property: corrosion resistance, especially in the cold end where gases condense to
form corrosive liquids.
Properties of unique interest: The requirements are so special that only a few materials meet
them regardless of cost.
 Pt-base catalysts in catalytic converter
 Special ceramic carrier that supports the catalyst
Previous materials used: Low-carbon steel with corrosion-resistant coatings.
Material is relatively inexpensive, readily formed and welded. Life of tailpipe and muffler is
limited.
Newer materials used: With greater emphasis on automotive quality, many producers have
moved to specially developed stainless steels with improved corrosion and creep properties.
Ferritic 11% Cr alloys are used in the cold end components

Tolerance

A tolerance is the permissible variation from the specified dimension. The designer must decide
how much variation is allowable from the basic dimension of the component to accomplish the
desired function. The design objective is to make the tolerance no tighter than necessary, since
smaller tolerances increase manufacturing cost and make assembly more difficult.
1. Bilateral tolerance
The variation occurs in both directions from the basic dimension. That is, the upper limit
exceeds the basic value and the lower limit falls below it.
2.500 ± 0.005 (This is the most common way of specifying tolerances)
2. Unilateral tolerance:
The basic dimension is taken as one of the limits, and variation is in only one direction Each
manufacturing process has an inherent ability to maintain a certain range of tolerances, and to
produce a certain surface roughness (finish).To achieve tolerances outside of the normal range
requires special processing that typically results in an exponential increase in the manufacturing
cost. Thus, the establishment of the needed tolerances in embodiment design has an important
influence on the choice of manufacturing processes and the cost. Fortunately, not all dimensions
of a part require tight tolerances. Typically those related to critical-to quality functions require
tight tolerances. The tolerances for the noncritical dimensions should be set at values typical for
the process used to make the part.

Design Standards and Codes

While we have often talked about design being a creative process, the fact is that much of design
is not very different from what has been done in the past. There are obvious benefits in cost and
time saved if the best practices are captured and made available for all to use. Designing with
codes and standards has two chief aspects:
 It makes the best practice available to everyone, thereby ensuring efficiency and safety,
and
 It promotes interchangeability and compatibility. With respect to the second point, anyone who
has traveled widely in other countries will understand the compatibility problems with
connecting plugs and electrical voltage and frequency when trying to use small appliances. A
code is a collection of laws and rules that assists a government agency in meeting its obligation
to protect the general welfare by preventing damage to property or injury or loss of life to
persons. A standard is a generally agreed-upon set of procedures, criteria, dimensions, materials,
or parts. Engineering standards may describe the dimensions and sizes of small parts like screws
and bearings, the minimum properties of materials, or an agreed-upon procedure to measure a
property like fracture toughness. The terms standards and specifications are sometimes used
interchangeably. The distinction is that standards refer to generalized situations, while
specifications refer to specialized situations. Codes tell the engineer what to do and when and
under what circumstances to do it. Codes usually are legal requirements, as in the building code
or the fi re code. Standards tell the engineer how to do it and are usually regarded as
recommendations that do not have the force of law. Codes often incorporate national standards
into them by reference, and in this way standards become legally enforceable. Standards are
often prepared by individual companies for their own proprietary use. They address such things
as dimensions, tolerances, forms, manufacturing processes, and finishes. In-house standards are
often used by the company purchasing department when outsourcing. The next level of standard
preparation involves groups of companies in the same industry arriving at industry consensus
standards. Often these are sponsored through an industry trade association, such as the American
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) or the Door and Hardware Institute. Industry standards of
this type are usually submitted to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for a formal
review process, approval, and publication. A similar function is played by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in Geneva, Switzerland.

Applications and benefits of design standards

 Standards are a “COMMUNICATION” tool that allows all users to speak the same language
when reacting to products or processes

 They provide a “Legal,” or at least enforceable, means to evaluate acceptability and sale-
ability of products and/or services

 They can be taught and applied globally!

 They, ultimately, are designed to protect the public from questionable designs, products and
practices
 They teach us, as engineers, how we can best meet environmental, health, safety and societal
responsibilities