Transistors by Le Croissette

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Transistors by
Dennis Le Croissette
Jet Propulsion Laboratory

California Institute of Technology
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
1963
PRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL, INC., London
PRENTICE-HALL OF AUSTRALIA, PTY., LTD., Sydney
PRENTICE-HALL OF FRANCE, S.A.R.L., Paris
PRENTICE-HALL OF JAPAN, INC., Tokyo
PRENTICE-HALL DE MEXICO, S.A., MeXlCO City
PRENTICE-HALL OF CANADA, LTD., Toronto
Prentice-Hall Electrical Engineering Series
William L. Everitt, Editor
© 1963 by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

All rights reserved. No book may be re-
part of this
produced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-7561
Printed in the United States of America 93017-C

Preface The aim of this book is to present and explain the
basic principles of semiconductor electronics as
they apply to junction transistors. The introduc-
tory approach makes it an un-
suitable for use as
dergraduate text in electrical engineering. It will
also be helpful to engineers in industry who require
a knowledge of transistors.
The fundamentals of semiconductor devices
are introduced here from a physical viewpoint. In
my opinion, this is the best preparation for later
work in electronic circuitrywhere device limita-
tions must be considered. Moreover, vacuum tube
electronics is relatively easy to understand after
these concepts have been developed. This opinion
issupported by experience at Drexel Institute of
Technology where part of this material was used
as the first course in electronics.
Part 1 of this book is concerned with the flow
of electrons and holes in semiconducting materials,
leading to an understanding of current flow in p-n
junctions and transistors.
In Part 2, the "black box" concept of the tran-
sistor is developed. Analysis is restricted to low
frequency operation of the device, and hybrid (or

h) parameter representation is used. Direct-current
operation of the transistor is also considered.
Part 3 consists mainly of an analysis of the
high frequency and pulse operation of the tran-
sistor. The hybrid-jt circuit is derived and used to
determine the high frequency response of the com-
mon emitter stage. Pulse operation is described
from the charge storage point of view. In conclu-
sion, the tunnel diode is discussed.
It is apparent that this book, designed pri-
marily for engineers, cannot derive all the physical

relationships necessary for an analysis of the tran-
sistor. The references at the end of each chapter
assist the reader to find the derivations he requires.
I feel strongly that this textbook is not suitable
for a course oriented towards solving numerical

problems. Therefore, many descriptive questions
have been given to encourage students to review
and rephrase the material.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance of
John Yarwood of London, England and Eugene J.

Rosenbaum of Philadelphia, Pa. who read part of
the manuscript while it was in preparation. My
former colleagues at Drexel Institute of Technol-
ogy have made a number of helpful comments. I
am also grateful to Albert F. Fuchs for contribut-
ing many of the problems and to Mrs. Noreen J.
Reyes for typing most of the manuscript.
DENNIS LE CROISSETTE
Contents PART ONE: the motion of electrons and holes
IN SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
1 Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors 3
1-1 Introduction,
4. 1-2 Simple theory of the hydrogen
atom, 4. Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom, 5.
1-3
1-4 Energy of the electron orbits of the hydrogen atom, 7.
1-5 Transitions between the orbits, 9. 1-6 Energy level
representation, 10. 1-7 Limitations of the Bohr theory,
11. 1-8 The wave nature of matter, 11. 1-9 Wave-
mechanical theory of atomic structure, 14. 1-10 The
atomic table, 15. 1-11 Chemical valence and atomic
binding, 17. 1-12 Crystals, 18. 1-13 Electron energy
levels in crystals: band theory, 20. 1-14 Insulators, 24.
1-15 Conductors, 25. 1-16 Semiconductors, 25. 1-17
Electrons and positive holes, 26. 1-18 Mobility, 28. 1-19
p- and n-type semiconductors, 29. 1-20 Generation and
recombination, 35.
A Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors 43
2-1 The density of states in an energy band, 44. 2-2 En-

ergy state densities in semiconductors and the effect of
temperature, 47. 2-3 Intrinsic semiconductor, 51. 2-4
rc-type semiconductor, 54. 2-5 p-type semiconductor, 55.
2-6 Variation of the Fermi level with temperature, 56.
2-7 The law of mass action, 57. 2-8 Mobile and im-
mobile charges, 58. 2-9 The Hall effect, 61.
J Junctions between Materials 67
3-1 Work function in a metal, 68. 3-2 Junctions between

metals, 70. 3-3 Semiconductor junctions with no applied
voltage, 72. 3-4 Semiconductor junction with applied
voltage: junction capacitance, 79. 3-5 Flow of current
across a p-n junction: the rectifier equation, 82. 3-6 The
breakdown region of a p-n junction, 86.
4 The Continuity Equation 89
4-1 Derivation of the continuity equation, 90. 4-2 Ap-

plication of the continuity equations to the abrupt p-n
junction operating with a constant current, 94. 4-3 Cal-
culation of the charge densities at the edge of the deple-
tion regions, 99. 4-4 Solution of the continuity equations
for a reverse-biased abrupt p-n junction, 101. 4-5 Solu-
tion of the continuity equations for a forward-biased
abrupt p-n junction, 104. 4-6 A
brief discussion of the
p-n junction, 107. 4-7 The incremental resistance of a
forward-biased p-n junction, 108. 4-8 Einstein equation,
108.
J The Junction Transistor 112
5-1 The npn transistor, 113. 5-2 The pnp transistor, 116.
5-3 Characteristics of the current flow across the base
region, 117. 5-4 The transistor as a device: common
base circuit, 123. 5-5 The transistor as a device: com-
mon emitter circuit, 126. 5-6 The manufacture of tran-
sistors, 128.
PART TWO: TRANSISTORS AT LOW FREQUENCIES

AND UNDER D-C CONDITIONS
The Transistor as a Two Port Network 135
6-1 General considerations of electronic devices as am-

plifiers, 136. 6-2
Alternating-current operation of the
transistor, 139. z, y, and h parameters: general com-
6-3
ments, 142. 6-4 Equivalent circuit using z parameters:
the T circuit, 144. 6-5 Equivalent circuit using y param-
eters: the ji circuit, 148. 6-6 Equivalent circuit using h
parameters: a two generator representation, 149. 6-7
Low frequency measurements on transistors, 150.
Low Frequency h Parameter Representation 154
7-1 The small-signal h parameters, 155. 7-2 Analysis of

the general h parameter equivalent circuit, 156. 7-3 Re-
lationship of the three sets of h parameters, 159. 7-4
Comparison of the three configurations, 161. 7-5 Varia-
tion in h parameters with I E and Vcss, 163.
Single and Multistage a-c Amplifiers 167
8-1 The characteristic curves, 168. 8-2 The load line,

170. 8-3 Operating point stability, 172. 8-4 Practical
biasing circuits, 178. 8-5 Power amplifiers, 182. 8-6
Power amplifiers: practical limitations, 187. 8-7 Thermal
runaway, 189. 8-8 Multistage amplifier, 191. 8-9 Fre-
quency response of the multistage amplifier, 194.
PART THREE: FURTHER THEORY OF THE TRANSISTOR,

AND THE TUNNEL DIODE
y Physical Characteristics of the Transistor 199
9-1 Solution of the continuity equation in the base region

for direct currents, 200. 9-2 Components of alpha, 202.
9-3 The intrinsic transistor, 203. 9-4 The continuity
equation base region for small alternating signals,
in the
204. 9-5 Base width modulation: transmission line
analogy, 208. 9-6 The hybrid-jt representation, 211.
9-7 Variation of alpha with emitter current, 217. 9-8
The drift transistor, 220. 9-9 Transistor noise, 223.
9-10 Surface effects in transistors, 225. 9-11 Punch-
through, 226. 9-12 Epitaxial films, 226.
iU High Frequency and Pulse Operation of the Transistor 229
10-1 The hybrid-jt circuit, 230. 10-2 The Miller effect,

231. Frequency response of the transistor in the
10-3
common emitter connection: hybrid-ji model, 233. 10-4
Frequency response of the iterative common emitter
stage: hybrid-jt model, 235. 10-5 Frequency response of
the transistor in the common base connection: simple
model, 236. 10-6 Comparison of the hybrid-ji circuit
with the actual transistor, 238. 10-7 Saturation, 242.
10-8 Switching the transistor on: use of the hybrid-jt
model, 244. 10-9 Definition of switching times for the
transistor: saturation case, 247. 10-10 Charge control of
the transistor, 249. 10-11 Switching times for a saturated
transistor, 254.
11 The Tunnel Diode 260
11-1 Quantum mechanical tunneling, 261. 11-2 Energy

bands of the tunnel diode, 263. 11-3 Forward and re-
verse characteristics, 265. 11-4 The tunnel diode as a
circuit element, 268.
APPENDIX 274
INDEX 275
PART 1
The
Motion of
Electrons and
Holes in
Semiconducting
Materials
1
Electrical When the vacuum tube was the only practicable
electronic amplifier, the subject of electronics was
Conduction in predominantly concerned with the flow of electrons
in a vacuum or in a gas at low pressure. In the past
Semiconductors
twenty years, however, considerable attention has
been focused on the conduction of electricity in
solid materials. Research in solid-state electronics
was accelerated by the development of the transistor
in 1948. Since that date, a study of the processes
governing current flow in semiconductors has been
essential for an understanding of electronics.
4 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS CHAP. I
This chapter begins with a review of the basic atomic properties of matter
leading to the energy band representation of insulators, conductors, and
semiconductors. Later in this chapter, the fundamental concept of hole and
electron conduction in a semiconductor is developed, and recombination
between holes and electrons is briefly discussed.
1-1 Introduction
In the past, solid materials were divided into two main groups according to
their electrical resistivity: conductors and insulators. Conductors were
3
loosely defined as having resistivities less than about 10~ ohm cm, and this
group of materials included all the metals. Insulators were considered to

include substances with resistivities higher than 10 8 ohm cm and in this
category were ebonite, glass, mica, etc. Materials having a resistivity between
these two values were known, but it was often difficult to measure their
resistivity accurately since different specimens of the same substance gave
different results. Such materials are and an explana-
called semiconductors,
tion of their electrical properties will be given later in this chapter. The
elements germanium and silicon are the two most used semiconductors, and
the electrical properties of these materials are responsible for the operation of
transistorsand other semiconducting devices.
The is the most important of the solid-state devices. In a solid,
transistor
the passage of current is determined by the binding forces which act between
electrons and the positively charged atomic nuclei. Therefore, the emphasis
in beginning this study of modern electronic theory will be placed upon an
understanding of the physical properties of the atom.
1-2 Simple Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
Rutherford first proposed an atomic model of the type shown in Fig. 1-1.
In this diagram, an electron is shown revolving in a circular orbit around a
positively charged nucleus. In the case of hydrogen, it is known that the
positive charge in the nucleus is numerically equal to the charge on the
Circular electron orbit

of unrestricted
diameter (charge - e)
Central, positively charged

nucleus (charge +e)
FIG. 1-1. Simple picture of the hydrogen atom.

SEC. 1-2 SIMPLE THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM 5
electron (e). Coulomb's law states that the force of attraction between these
two charges is
4-77£ r
where r is the radius of the orbit in meters, and s is the permittivity of a

vacuum.
If the electron is revolving with velocity v in meters per second, the radial
force necessary to restrain it in a circular orbit of radius r is mv 2/r. Hence,
(1-1)
47T£ r
Equation (1-1) is seen to be a result of the application of the classical laws

of mechanics and electrostatics. It does not place any restriction on the
radius of the electron orbit, and it is inadequate to explain why the electron
remains in equilibrium in its path around the nucleus. Any change in the
radius of the orbit will be accompanied by a change in the energy of the
system [see Eq. (1-10)]. According to this theory, if the electron moves to a
new orbit closer to the central nucleus, the energy of the system falls, and the
excess energy is radiated out into space. This process will be repeated as
time goes on and eventually the electron will fall into the nucleus. It is clear
that Eq. (1-1) alone is incapable of explaining the motion of the electron
around the nucleus.
An additional discrepancy between this simple theory and experiment is
that thismodel does not explain the mechanism of the emission and absorp-
tion of radiation which takes place in a gas. Studies of the emission and
absorption spectra of various gases show that certain frequencies appear
which are characteristic of the gas. It is concluded, therefore, that definite
energy levels are possible in the atom and that emission or absorption of
radiation occurs when electrons move from one energy level to another.
Classical theory is unable to explain this phenomenon since it does not
indicate the presence of definite electron energy levels in the atom.
1-3 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
In 1913, Bohr suggested that these difficulties could be overcome by a direct

application of Planck's quantum theory. The idea of a quantum of energy is
fundamental to modern electronic theory since it is concerned with the
emission and absorption of energy on an atomic scale. This was one of the
first of many successful applications of quantum theory in the solution of
atomic problems and led to the later and more exact theory of the atom.
The quantum theory states that all energy is emitted and absorbed in the
form of multiples of a unit called the quantum. Unlike the more familiar
units of energy, the energy in each quantum is a function of frequency and is
given by
E= hv (1-2)
where E is the energy of one quantum, in joules; h is Planck's constant,

~ 34
6.62 x 10 joule sec; and v is the frequency of radiation, in cycles per
second. The amount of energy in a quantum is very small so that the emission
and absorption of energy in experiments in ordinary mechanics are not
affected. However, many atomic phenomena are governed by laws which
may be deduced from the quantum theory.
Bohr applied this theory to show that it was possible to restrict the orbital
radii to certain discrete values. He imposed a quantum condition on the value
of the angular momentum in an orbit and showed that this was necessary for
the establishment of equations which fitted the experimental facts. When the
magnitude of any quantity is restricted to multiples of a small unit (such as a
quantum of energy), the quantity is said to be "quantized." The quantization
carried out by Bohr [Eq. (1-5)] was later shown to be the restriction of angular
momentum to multiples of a small unit.
Bohr's model of the atom is based upon two assumptions.
1. The radius of the orbit is limited to certain fixed values, and no

emission or absorption of energy takes place while the electron remains
in one of the permitted orbits.
2. When the electron jumps from an orbit of one allowed radius to

another, emission or absorption of a quantum of energy occurs. The
frequency of radiation can be found from
hv = E2 - E 1 (1-3)
where E2 and E 1 are the energy levels of the two electron orbits.
Assuming that the electron revolves in a circle around the nucleus, its
angular momentum is
mvr (1-4)
The quantum condition imposed by Bohr on the angular momentum was that
nh .
mvr = x— (1-5)
lm
where n is a positive integer known as the principal quantum number. This

number determines the energy of the orbit.
Eliminating v from Eqs. (1-1) and (1-5) gives
rn = 2" (
1_6 )
where r„ is the radius of the «th orbit.

SEC. 1-3 BOHR'S THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
Inserting the known values of the physical constants, //, £ , m, and e (see
Appendix) in Eq. (1-6) and taking // = 1
" 10
i\ = 0.529 x 10 meter
= 0.529 A (Angstrom units) (1-7)
The value of r l for the hydrogen atom is known as the Bohr radius, r B . It
is of the same order as the effective radius of the atom found from kinetic
theory. From Eq. (1-6),
fi = rB
9r B
7*4 \6r B etc. (1-8)
In this way, Bohr suggested that the allowed radii that the electron orbits
could take were in the ratio l
2
, 22 3 2 42
, , , . . .. This is shown in Fig. 1-2.
n=3
FIG. 1-2. Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom showing the first
three electron orbits.
1-4 Energy of the Electron Orbits of the Hydrogen Atom
The kinetic energy of an electron revolving in an orbit with velocity v is
%mv 2 From
. Eq. (1-1),
«2
K.E. = (1-9)
87T£ r n
The potential energy of this electron is the product of the electric potential
at the point and the charge on the electron.
—e
P.E. (-«) = (1-10)
47re r n 47r£ r 7
Note that the potential energy is negative and numerically is twice the
value of the kinetic energy. In electrical systems, the potential energy at a
point may be negative without any special significance being attached to the
fact. Electrical potential is defined as the work done against the field in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity up to the point; the electrical
Distance Distance
from nucleus from nucleus
Total energy of
electron
Position of
nucleus
FIG. 1-3. Plot of the total energy of an electron close to the

hydrogen nucleus.
potential at a point near a negative charge is, therefore, negative in sign. This
definition means that the potential energy of the ionized atom is taken to be
zero (see Fig. 1-3).
The total energy of the electron in orbit of radius r n is
K.E. + P.E. (1-11)

877£ r n
Substituting for rn from Eq. (1-6),
me
Total energy, En = — 2 2 2
(1-12)
8n h e
where En is the energy of the nth orbital state (radius r n ).

SEC. ENERGY OF THE ELECTRON ORBITS OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
The inner orbit where n — 1 has the lowest (i.e., the most negative)
energy and is known as the ground state. In the hydrogen atom, the electron
will remain in this state unless it is disturbed by outside influences.
1-5 Transitions between the Orbits
The simple case of hydrogen serves as a useful starting point towards under-
standing the way in which the absorption and emission of energy take place
Ionized state (electron free from the atom)

-
i
-1- n=4
n=S
-2-
-3-
Excited state
n=2
-4-
-5-
-6-
n = 2to
n=l
-7-
71= 1 to
n=oo
-8- n = l to
n=2
-9-
-10-
A B C
-11-
-12-
-13-
Ground state
n= l
-14-
FIG. 1-4. Energy level representation for the Bohr theory of the
hydrogen atom.
in an atomic system. The single orbital electron of a hydrogen atom can be

removed from the ground state n = 1 and brought into the state n = 2 if
electromagnetic radiation of a certain frequency is incident on the atom. To
move the electron from one orbit to another requires a quantum of energy
equal to the energy difference of the two orbits. A quantum of electro-

magnetic energy such as is absorbed by one atom in this process is referred to
as a photon of radiation and the frequency of the photon may be calculated as
before from
hv = E2 - E, (1-3)
It is found that a photon of energy of this wavelength is absorbed by only
one atom causing the electron to move from n — 1 to n = 2. In this sense,

the photon of radiation acts as if it were concentrated at a point in apparent
contradiction to the usual concept of wave motion. This particle-like nature
of a photon is a concept which has been extended and developed to provide
the basis for more advanced work on quantum mechanics which will be
briefly discussed later.
The atom is said to be excited when the electron is raised to a new orbit.
If the electron is given sufficient energy to remove it completely from the
influence of the nucleus, the atom
and the energy necessary to
is ionized,
release an electron in this way is Eh The ioniza-
called the ionization energy,
tion energy may be calculated in the case of hydrogen by considering the
difference in the energy between orbits n = 1 and n = oo. The quantum
number oo means that the electron is completely removed from the nucleus
From Eq. (1-12),
Ei = Ex — Ei
= -jn^
2 2
[1 _ II = »*L
2 2
(i_i3)}
K
Sh e Loo lj Sh e
Putting in the known values of the physical constants,
E= 13.60 ev (electron volts) (1-14)
where one electron volt is the energy which an electron acquires in moving
through a potential difference of one volt and equals 1.6 x 10" 19 joule.
Equation (1-14) is in agreement with the experimentally measured values.
1-6 Energy Level Representation
Figure 1-4 shows a representation of the energy levels of the first four orbits
in the hydrogen atom as predicted by the Bohr theory. The energy of the
electron states is plotted vertically with the positively increasing direction
upwards and with zero energy at the top. The horizontal axis has no signifi-
cance here, but in diagrams of this nature which will be used later, it will
indicate distance in a material if the energy of the states varies for any reason
through the substance.
The ground state for which n = 1 is normally occupied. If radiation of
frequency given by Eq. (1-3) is incident on the atom, the electron will move
into orbit n = 2. This transition is indicated by the line A. After remaining
SEC. 1-6 ENERGY LEVEL REPRESENTATION I I
in the excited state for about 10" 8 second, the reverse transition B will occur,
and energy in the form of a photon of frequency v will be emitted from the
atom. The transition C indicates ionization of the atom.
This method of indicating the energy levels of the various possible electron
orbits is a most important one and will be used later not only for gases but
also for solid-state materials.
1-7 Limitations of the Bohr Theory
The Bohr theory was the first step towards understanding the structure of
the atom as it was able to explain the presence of certain frequencies in the
emission and absorption spectrum of hydrogen which spectroscopists had
already observed. The theory also predicted that other frequencies would be
found in the spectrum corresponding to the transitions between various
orbits as indicatedby Eq. (1-3); these spectral lines were later detected.
However, Bohr's theory of the atom was found to be limited to the hydrogen
atom and to other atoms which contained only one electron, such as singly
ionized helium and doubly ionized lithium. All attempts to apply the theory
to many-electron atoms failed to predict the atomic energy levels which were
known to exist.
Between 1913 and 1925, many attempts were made by Bohr, Sommerfeld,
and others to revise the simple theory so that it more accurately predicted the
results of experiments. The principal modification was to assume that the
electrons were traveling in elliptical orbits; extra quantum numbers were
assigned to limit the value of the eccentricity of each orbit. These attempts,
although partially successful, were completely superseded in 1925 by the
wave-mechanical approach.
In spite of these difficulties, the Bohr theory was an outstanding step
forward in understanding energy levels, and the ideas which have been
presented here are fundamental to an understanding of the mechanism of
electrical conduction and electronic phenomena in both gases and solids.
1-8 The Wave Nature of Matter
The problem of a more accurate calculation of the energy levels in atoms

was effectively solved between 1925 and 1930 as a result of a growing aware-
ness of the duality between radiation and matter. The "particle-like" nature
of a photon of radiation has been mentioned previously in connection with
the absorption of a photon by an atom. The relatively successful theory of the
atom due to Bohr, and other theories of the photoelectric effect, can only
be explained by considering the photon to be localized over a small region.
Thus the photon was considered to be of the nature of a particle, even though
itwas difficult to reconcile the conflicting properties of wave motion and
those of a particle.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS CHAP.
In 1922, de Broglie suggested that the converse of this effect also applies,
that is, that a small particle (such as an electron) can be represented by a
wave motion. He calculated that the wavelength, A, associated with a particle

of mass m traveling at a velocity v is given by h/mv. Davisson and Germer,
and also G. P. Thomson, performed experiments in 1927 to verify this and
showed that there were diffraction phenomena associated with the passage of
an electron beam into matter. Following their work, the wavelike properties
of matter were generally accepted. The wavelength of the radiation varies
with the velocity (or energy) of the beam. As an example, substitution of the
Electron
"N > Velocity v
(a)
•s a .2
£
M «
« S &
Â/iA/v^
(b)
•S x s
In
!!«
O <D +a
Distance
FIG. 1-5. Simplified picture of the solution of the wave equation

for a moving electron.
known values of the physical constants shows that A = 1.22 A for electrons of
energy 100 ev.
Between 1926 and 1930, Schrodinger, Dirac, Heisenberg, and others

developed the theoretical implications of the wave properties of matter and
produced the mathematical analysis known as quantum (or wave) mechanics.
As one of the first steps in this theory, Schrodinger developed the wave
equation which now bears his name and which is an important tool in
the analysis of atomic systems. In its simplest form, Schrodinger's wave
equation may be written as
d 2 i/j &7T
2
m - =
2 + (E U)i/> (1-15)
8x
where E is the total energy, and U is the potential energy as a function of
SEC. 1-8 THE WAVE NATURE OF MATTER 13
distance. The solution of this equation gives the wave function, in the x i/j,
direction. The normalized value of 2 represents the probability of finding

</»
the particle at a given point.

A simple example of the solution of Schrodinger's wave equation for the
case of an electron moving freely in space is given in Fig. 1-5. The classical
picture of a particle moving from left to right with velocity v is shown in
Fig. l-5(a). Part (b) of the figure shows the solution of the wave equation and
gives a plot of the wave function, 0, versus distance. The electron is repre-
sented by a group of waves as opposed to a continuous wave train, and this
group of waves is often known as a "wave packet." Comparison of parts (a)
and (b) of Fig. 1-5 shows that the solution of the wave equation spreads the
effect of the electron over a region whereas the classical model limits the
electron to a point. It is found that the best description of the position of the
electron can be given by specifying the probability of finding the electron at
any point. This probability is plotted as a function of distance in Fig. l-5(c).
Although this probability reaches a maximum, it is not possible to locate the
electron precisely since there is some probability of finding the electron at
any point in the region covered by the wave function of part (b).
When only one electron is concerned in a problem, the concept of the

probability of finding it at a given position is a difficult one. However, the
concept becomes more understandable when many particles are present since
the probability factor is then the fraction of the total number of particles
involved. In this case, the probability (which may be calculated directly
from quantum mechanics) gives statistical information. In the analysis of
atomic systems, such statistical information is of great importance in deter-
mining the properties of the system since, even though the probability for a
processmay be small, the total number of particles may be so high that the
number involved in the process is considerable. In addition, it was noted that
the quantum mechanical solution for a particle in free space spreads the
effect of the particle over a wider region than can be predicted by using
classical mechanics (Fig. 1-5). It is also found that certain processes, although
become statistically possible using quantum mechanics.
classically impossible,
In other words, using quantum mechanics, a finite (but perhaps small)
probability may be predicted for some phenomena or processes that are
completely impossible according to the classical laws of physics. Electrical
conduction in semiconductors is based upon such processes.
One of the most interesting and fundamental ideas that has been developed
from this approach is the relationship known as Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle. It is found that there is a limit to the accuracy with which we can
determine the position and the momentum of a particle by measuring these

quantities simultaneously. If x represents the position and/? the momentum
of a particle, and Ax and Ap represent the accuracy with which these quantities
can be specified,
ApAx~h (1-16)
This relationship introduces the concept of uncertainty or indeterminancy into

atomic physics. It means that for experiments which are conducted on an
atomic scale, it is not possible to assign a definite position and momentum to
a particle at the same time. The more accurately one of these quantities is
determined, the less accurately the other one is known. Because of the small
size of Planck's constant, h, this effect is important only in atomic phenomena
and not in large-scale experiments in the laboratory. In this book, Heisen-

berg's uncertainty principle is used to determine the properties of the conduc-
tion electrons of a metal in Sec. 2-1. It is of great significance in any experi-
ment or analysis where the energy and position of small particles are con-
cerned.
1-9 Wave-mechanical Theory of Atomic Structure
One of the first applications of quantum mechanics was to provide a solution
to theproblem of the structure of the atom. It was found that the electron
energy states require four quantum numbers to describe them.
1. The principal quantum number, n, is an integer 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . which

mainly determines the energy of the electron state. It corresponds to the
quantum number n in the Bohr theory, but the radius of the electron orbit can
no longer be stated with accuracy since the probability of finding the electron
is finite over a considerable region around the nucleus. The principal quan-
tum number specifies the radial variation of this probability.
2. The angular momentum quantum number, I, has a much smaller effect

upon the total energy of the electron state. It determines the angular varia-
tion of this probability. / can take the values 0, 1, 2, 3, ...,(«— 1).
3. The magnetic quantum number, m, has, at most, only a small effect on

the electron state energy. It is so named because it determines the component
of angular momentum along a particular direction which is of importance
when atom is in a magnetic field. The values of
the m are restricted to
/,(/- l),(/-2),...,-(/- 1),-/.
4. The spin quantum number, s, was first suggested empirically by Uhlen-
beck and Goudsmit in 1925. This number can only take the values +£ or
— J, and it was introduced to explain certain features in atomic spectra by
assuming that the electron rotates on its axis about its own center of mass.
Later work by Dirac showed that the quantum number s could be introduced
as the solution to a particular type of wave equation. The two values ± \
denote that the electron can rotate in either direction with \ quantum unit of
angular momentum.
It is not possible to fit the idea of four quantum numbers into an accurate
mechanical model of the atom. However, the mechanical model is often
retained in mind to give some picture (however inaccurate) of the atom. In
SEC. 1-9 WAVE-MECHANICAL THEORY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 15
this case, n may be thought of as specifying the major axis of an elliptical

orbit; / specifies the minor axis of this orbit; m determines the position of the
orbit in space; and s determines the direction in which the electron is spinning
on its own axis.
The energy level of the orbit is mainly decided by the principal quantum
number, n, and the other quantum numbers have a relatively small influence
on the level. However, for many-electron atoms, there are now small differ-
ences in energy among electrons having the same value of n, and this explains
the presence of many frequencies in the absorption and emission spectra that
the Bohr theory was unable to predict.
Figure 1-6 shows diagrammatically the first
ten states which can be computed from the _ (i- o o o o o o
solution of the wave equation. The values of the \i, o o
quantum numbers for each of these states can be
found by applying the algebraic rules given at
For example, with
the beginning of this section.
n = and m are restricted to zero. The spin
1, / n = i, z=o o o
quantum number, s, can then take the two values
± J, and so there are two states corresponding to ~ b Diagrammatic rep-
FIG
n = 1. For n = 2, there are eight possible states, : ' '
- reservation of the first ten

and six with / = 1.
. .
two with / = energy states

All electrons which have the same value of n
are said to be in the same shell. A shell may be further divided into subshells
where each subshell has a different value of /. Thus, in Fig. 1-6, there are
two subshells in the n = 2 shell. For the hydrogen atom, the levels shown
in the first and second shells are the first ten allowed states where the electron
may be found. When the atom is not excited or ionized, the electron is in the
n = 1 shell. Transitions between the various states correspond to known
emission and absorption frequencies.
1-10 The Atomic Table
Unlike the Bohr theory, the quantum mechanical solution of the atom is not
limited to hydrogen but can be applied to all atoms. It is possible to compute
the electron energy states of the atoms successively from hydrogen up through
the atomic table. The element that has two electrons in its atom is helium.
Lithium, berylium, boron, and carbon follow with three, four, five, and six
electrons respectively. By considering the solution of the Schrddinger wave
equation, it is possible to build up an atomic table of the elements as in Table
1-1. Here, the values of n and / are given for the first 36 atoms. The column
labeled atomic number is the positive charge on the nucleus and is equal to
the number of electrons outside the nucleus since the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.
TABLE I -I. The atomic table for the first 36 elements.
Atomic Element First Second 77uW Fourth

number shell shell j/re// shell
n = 1 n == 2 « = 3 n = 4
Z / = I = /= 1 / = /= 1 / = 2 / = / = 1
1 H ,
2 He 2
3 Li 2 ,
4 Be 2 2
5 B 2 2 1
6 C 2 2 2
7 N 2 2 3
8 O 2 2 4
9 F 2 2 5
10 Ne 2 2 6
11 Na 2 2 6 1
12 Mg 2 2 6 2
13 Al 2 2 6 2 1
14 Si 2 2 6 2 2
15 P 2 2 6 2 3
16 S 2 2 6 2 4
17 CI 2 2 6 2 5
18 A 2 2 6 2 6
19 K 2 2 6 2 6 1
20 Ca 2 2 6 2 6 2
21 Sc 2 2 6 2 6 1 2
22 Ti 2 2 6 2 6 2 2
23 V 2 2 6 2 6 3 2
24 Cr 2 2 6 2 6 5 1
25 Mn 2 2 6 2 6 5 2
26 Fe 2 2 6 2 6 6 2
27 Co 2 2 6 2 6 7 2
28 Ni 2 2 6 2 6 8 2
29 Cu 2 2 6 2 6 10 1
30 Zn 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
31 Ga 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1
32 Ge 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 2
33 As 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 3
34 Se 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 4
35 Br 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 5
36 Kr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
SEC. I
— 10 THE ATOMIC TABLE 17
There are two rules which govern how the atomic table is built up. First,
in any atom, the electrons will normally occupy the states having the lowest
energy. Secondly, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. This second factor was first enunciated by Pauli in 1925
and is known as the exclusion principle.
The first ten elements, which have electrons only in the first or second
shells, are arranged manner shown. Only values of
in the table in the regular
n and / are given and the numbers in each column show how many electrons
have that value of / (although they will have different values of m and s).
From the table it is seen that both levels in the first shell are occupied for
helium. Lithium has the and an additional electron in an
first shell filled
n = 2, / = state. Berylium has the same filled first shell and two electrons
in the n = 2, / = subshell. This sequence continues up the table until

element number ten, neon, is found to have a completely filled second shell.
The third and later shells do not possess the simple regularity shown in the
table for the first two shells. It is seen that argon (Z = 18) has a closed / = 1
subshell but has no electrons corresponding to / = 2. Other irregularities
occur in the fourth shell. In all cases, however, the lowest empty energy state
is filled by the extra electron of the succeeding element.
Inspection of the atomic table shows that the substances having the
maximum number of electrons in a shell or subshell are helium (n = 1), neon
(n = 2), argon (n = 3), and krypton (n = 4). These substances are said to
have closed electron shells (or subshells) and they are chemically inert.
Their behavior gives a clue to the way in which elements combine together.
The closed outer shell indicates chemical stability, and the number of electrons
which an electron has missing from a closed shell, or in excess of a closed shell,
determines the chemical properties of the material.
I — 1 1 Chemical Valence and Atomic Binding
The number of electrons which an element has in excess of the nearest closed
shell is known as a positive valence. The number of electrons below the
nearest closed shell is a negative valence. When two substances combine,

they do so in such a manner that the combination approaches chemical
stability. In a simple way, it may be said that compounds will be built up
between elements which complement each other to form closed shells. How-
ever, when substances combine, the electron energy levels of both substances
are altered, and the energies of the electrons in the outer shells are the most
affected.So the simple picture of valence is only approximate, and recourse
must be made to the mathematical approach of quantum mechanics to
determine the exchange of electrons between the atoms in the general case.
The elements fluorine (Z = 9) and chlorine (Z = 17) have one electron
missing from the closed shell n = 2 and n = 3 respectively (see Table 1-1)
and so they have similar chemical properties. When they combine in chemical
18 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS CHAP, I
compounds, they an electron from another substance to com-

try to acquire
plete the electron shell. Upon consulting the atomic table,
it can be seen that
lithium (Z = 3) and sodium (Z = 11), etc., are elements which have an

electron in excess of the closed shell that can be used in this process. This
class of binding between two atoms is known as ionic since one atom of the
pair gains an electron and becomes negative and the other one loses an
electron and becomes positive. The resulting bond between the two elements
is due to the coulomb attractive force between the positive and negative ion.
The two semiconducting elements germanium and silicon take part in a
binding process which is different in nature from the ionic mechanism
described above. These elements have a valence of ±4 meaning that four
electrons are required to close the shell and also that there are four electrons
present in the outer shell (or subshell in the case of germanium). The element
carbon (Z = 6) also has this property, and all three substances take part in
covalent binding and, in their solid phases, can exist in the same structural
form. This form is characterized by each atom having four near neighbors.
The four outer (valence) electrons of each atom require four more electrons
to produce a closed shell (or subshell). These four electrons are obtained
from the four neighbors. Every valence electron, therefore, may be considered
to be shared between two atoms its parent and one of the neighbors. Thus,
:
everyatom shares the eight valence electrons it requires with its neighbors.
The way in which atoms of any one of these substances combine together to
form a solid crystal is important in semiconductor theory, and covalent
binding will be described in the next section in terms of the crystal structure
of germanium and silicon.
1-12 Crystals
A crystal is a solid piece of material in which atoms are arranged in a regular

pattern. The structure of the crystal is determined by the way in which the
individual atoms are chemically one another. A perfect crystal
bound to
consists of the repetition of a unit pattern or cell of atoms where all the units
are oriented in the same direction with no irregularities. The nearest approach
to this, in practice, is a single crystal where all the unit cells are arranged in
the same direction but some structural discontinuities (defects) are present in
the material. These discontinuities may be associated with the presence of a
foreignatom or may result from temperature variations when the crystal was
being formed. The imperfections in a crystal are extremely important in de-
termining the mechanical and electrical properties of the material. Semi-
conducting devices are constructed from single crystals which are grown with
deliberate additions of chemical impurities (imperfections). Single crystals
are rarely found in nature but they may be produced using careful crystal
growing techniques. Single crystals of germanium or silicon with minute
amounts of impurities are used in the manufacture of transistors, and these
'
SEC. 1-12 CRYSTALS 19
crystals possess particular electrical properties which are discussed later in

this chapter. In nature, most crystalline substances occur in polycrystalline
form where different crystal orientation is found in different parts of the
material. Such crystals are generally unsuitable for semiconducting devices.
\
6 /^
Xl2
9*
/V
10X
~A-~-
fa) (c)
FIG. 1-7. Three types of crystal unit cells.
The germanium and silicon crystal structure is similar to the diamond

structure of carbon in that atoms are arranged with covalent bonds to their
four nearest neighbors. The unit cell of this type of structure is not simple to
understand at first sight as a glance at Fig. 1-8 will show. Before discussing
the diamond crystal, consider the three unit cubic cells drawn in Fig. 1-7.
In Fig. l-7(a), the simple cell has atoms at each corner. By considering a
diamond, silicon, and germanium.

FIG. 1-8. Crystal structure of
A model of the diamond lattice. Each sphere represents a
nucleus surrounded by its inner shells. The spokes represent
covalent bonds.
number of these cells placed together, it will be seen that every atom has six
nearest neighbors spaced apart by the side of the cube. Figure 1— 7(b) shows
a more complex arrangement which is known as a body-centered cubic cell.
Here there is one additional atom in the middle of the cube, and this atom
has eight nearest neighbors. Finally, the face-centered cube is shown in Fig.
l-7(c). This structure will be shown to be a component of the diamond

crystal. For the same size of unit cell, there are more atoms in the face-
centered cube than in the body-centered cell and every atom in the face-
centered cell will be seen to have twelve nearest neighbors.
The atoms on diamond structure in Fig. 1-8 have been numbered for
the
identification purposes. Atoms 1 through 8 are at the corners of a face-
centered cube. Atoms 9 through 14 are on the six faces of the cube. Four
atoms, numbers 15, 16, 17, and 18 remain. These are the atoms of another,
similar, face-centered cubic cell which is spaced one quarter of the cube
diagonal away from the first is formed by a line from 1
unit cell (the diagonal
to 7). Atoms 15, 16, 17, and atoms of this new cell which are
18 are the only
contained within the limits of the first cube, and they correspond to numbers
1, 13, 9, and 12 of the first cell. The remaining ten atoms are outside the first
cell and are not shown on the diagram. As an aid in picturing the three-
dimensional structure, consider the five horizontal layers of atoms in the

cube. The bottom layer consists of atoms 1, 2, 3, 4, and 13 on the base of the
cube. The second layer which is one quarter of the way up the cube contains
the added atoms numbers 15 and 16. Halfway up the cell are the four original
face atoms 9, 10, 11, and 12, and three quarters of the way up are added atoms
17 and 18. The top face contains numbers 5, 6, 7, 8, and 14. The distance
between atoms 3 and 7 is known as the lattice constant for the crystal. The
lattice constants for the three materials are: diamond, 3.56 A; silicon, 5.43 A;
germanium, 5.66 A.
Consider now atom 17 in relation to its nearest neighbors, atoms 9, 10, 6,
and 14 (shown shaded). These five atoms share electrons in covalent bonds.
Any other atom in the cell can be shown to have four nearest neighbors
although not all of these neighbors are on the diagram.
1-13 Electron Energy Levels in Crystals: Band Theory
The electron energy level diagrams that have been given for single, free atoms
will no longer apply to the same atom in a crystal. The energy levels of the
inner electrons will be changed only a small amount since the inner (closed
shell) electrons are not affected very much by the presence of neighboring
atoms. However, the levels of the outer (valence) electrons are greatly
affected since these are the electrons which are participating in chemical bonds.
Once more, recourse must be made to quantum mechanics in order to de-
termine the new energy levels since classical theory is inadequate to explain
the binding process.
There is a simple analogy which may be drawn between the energy of an
electron in an outer orbit and the frequency of a tuned LC circuit. In an
atom that is isolated from its neighbors, an electron has been shown to possess
a certain discrete energy level. Similarly, an isolated tuned circuit possesses a
SEC. 1-13 ELECTRON ENERGY LEVELS IN CRYSTALS: BAND THEORY 21
single resonant frequency of value
fo =
iWlc
when is neglected. The analogy between the energy of
the circuit resistance
the electron stateand the frequency of the resonant circuit may be extended
by considering the effects of coupling in both cases. Figure 1-9 illustrates the
effect of coupling several identical tuned circuits together. A sharply tuned
resonance curve is obtained for the isolated tuned circuit of Fig. l-9(a).
When two similar circuits are coupled together, a resonance curve having two
peaks as in Fig. 1— 9(b) is obtained. The introduction of further coupled
circuits results in the broad resonance curve as shown in Fig. l-9(c). The
width of the resonance curve depends only on the degree of coupling between
the circuits and is independent of the number of circuits which are coupled
together.
Coupled i Coupled
&
JL fo
Frequency —
S\
Frequency
fo
J~X fo
Frequency —
(a) (b) (c)
FIG. 1-9. The effect of coupling upon the resonance curve of

tuned circuits.
Coupling between the outer electrons of neighboring atoms in a crystal

has an effect upon the electron energy levels that is analogous to the broaden-
ing of the resonance curve of coupled tuned circuits. It is found that there is
now a band of energies instead of a discrete energy level as in the single atom.
The energy of the outer electrons of any particular atom in the crystal must
lie within this band, and it is not possible to specify an individual level any
more than it is possible to specify the individual resonant frequency of one of

a large number of coupled circuits. The width of the energy band depends
upon the coupling between the outer electrons of the atom, that is, upon the
distance between atoms in the crystal. If the interatomic distance is decreased,
the coupling increases, and the band width increases as shown in Fig. 1-10.
This is a theoretical curve as it is not possible to vary continuously the
interatomic distance in a crystal, but it is introduced here as an aid to the

understanding of the band theory of electron energies in crystals.
In carbon, there are two electrons in the n= 1 shell and four in the n = 2
shell. However, there are eight energy states in the complete n = 2 shell. In
the isolated, free atom which is shown on the right-hand side of Fig. 1-10,
six electron states have been shown filled, and the remaining four states in the
n = 2 shell are empty. As the interatomic distance is decreased, the discrete

levels broaden out into bands, and eventually the bands corresponding to the
two subshells of n = 2 overlap as shown in the center of the diagram. As the
interatomic distance is further decreased, a split occurs between the upper
• Occupied state
o States per atom
Interatomic distance
FIG. 1-10. The energy bands in carbon as a function of the inter-

atomic distance (theoretical and not to scale).
four states and the lower four states, and at the point marked "diamond
crystal," the two bands are widely separated. The electron level correspond-
ing to n — 1 hardly changes as the interatomic distance is decreased.
Figure 1-11 shows an energy band diagram for a diamond crystal plotted
in the same way as the energy level diagrams that have been discussed pre-
viously. This diagram is a section through the curve of Fig. 1-10 on the line
marked "diamond crystal" where the energy band for n = 2 has split into
two parts. The upper part is known as the conduction band, and the lower
part is the valence band. In between the two, there is a region where no
electron energy levels are permitted, and this region is known as the forbidden
gap. At the bottom of the diagram is shown the very narrow band corre-
sponding to n = 1. All the bands are shown bounded by straight horizontal
lines since the crystal is assumed to be uniform.
SEC. 1-13 ELECTRON ENERGY LEVELS IN CRYSTALS: BAND THEORY 23
An atom of carbon has six electronsand so the lowest six levels per atom
will be filled. Thus in Fig. 1-11, the two levels corresponding to n = 1 and
the four levels per atom in the valence band are filled, leaving the conduction
band completely empty. In practice, this is only approximately correct since
we have neglected the effect of any heat energy which will be imparted to the
electrons in the crystal at any given temperature. If this energy is so small that
it has no effect on the distribution of electrons in the levels, conditions are
exactly as shown in Fig. 1-11.
The reason for the names of the valence and conduction bands now be-
comes clear. The four outer electrons per atom, which are in the valence band,
are the four electrons that determine the valence of carbon and that are
participating in covalent bonds. These electrons, which are being shared with
neighboring atoms, are closely bound to the nuclei and so their energy is lower
Four levels per atom

Conduction band
(empty)
Forbidden gap
r
6 ev
Four levels per atom

(filled)
ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ Two levels per atom

(filled)
Distance —
FIG. I -I I. Energy band diagram for a diamond crystal.
(more negative) than the energy of the corresponding states of free atoms
(Fig. 1-10). If one electron is removed from a covalent bond in a diamond
crystal, it will have acquired sufficient energy to move into an energy state
above that of the bound electron. This may be represented on Fig. 1-11 as
the passage of an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
The minimum energy that must be imparted to the electron to remove it from
the covalent bond is the energy difference between the top of the valence
band and the bottom of the conduction band, that is, the width of the for-
bidden gap (6 ev in a diamond crystal). When the electron is in the conduc-
tion band (removed from a covalent bond) it can move from atom to atom
since the conduction band is empty. An electron, once removed from the
valence band to the conduction band, is available to move in any electric
field that may be applied across the material.
1-14 Insulators
Figure 1-11, although applying specifically to the diamond crystal, is also a

typical energy band diagram of an insulator. The requirements for a crys-
talline substance to be an insulator at room temperature are that the valence
band must be full, band must be normally empty, and the
the conduction
forbidden gap must be greater than about one electron volt. Under these
conditions, only a minute fraction of the total number of electrons in the
material can gain enough energy to cross the forbidden gap and reach the
conduction band. It will be shown later that the average energy possessed by
an electron at room temperature (300° K) is only 26 millielectron volts
o = o = o - o Conduction band
II II II
1
Electron moving
Forbidden
o = o=o o 6ev
l
gap
from valence to
conduction band
4
II II II II
t
o o =v o = o ////// Valence band <//%//;
ii ii
V ii ii
o=o=o=o
Distance
(a) (b)
FIG. 1-12. Simplified picture of an electron breaking from a

covalent bond in a diamond crystal.
whereas it requires 6 ev of energy to move an electron from the valence to the

conduction band in diamond. When an electric field is applied across a
crystal, there is a flow of electrons in the conduction band. Diamond, with
very few electrons in the conduction band, is therefore an extremely good in-
sulator. If the temperature of the material is increased, the average energy of
the electrons rises, and the number of electrons with enough energy to cross
the gap also increases. So the conductivity of a good insulator, such as
diamond, increases with temperature.
Figure 1-1 2(a) shows a two-dimensional, simplified picture of a diamond
crystal where the electrons that are held in covalent bonds are indicated by
short lines. The arrow on this diagram indicates that one electron is about to
break away from its bond, and it will then be free to move about in the crystal.
In the energy band diagram of Fig. 1-1 2(b), this process is indicated by the
arrow from the valence band to the conduction band. Once in the conduction
band, the electron is free from the covalent binding force and can move
freely in the crystal. In Fig. 1-1 2(a), the two inner electrons are not shown
since they play no part in the conduction process; the energy band corre-
sponding to these two electrons also has been omitted in Fig. 1-1 2(b).
SEC. 1-15 CONDUCTORS 25
1-15 Conductors
In a conductor, the outer electrons are only loosely bound to the parent
nucleus, and the permissible electron levels are as indicated in Fig. 1-13.
In this diagram, only the highest energy band is shown. This may be a single
band, or it may be the result of the overlapping of two energy bands. How-
ever it is formed, it has more permitted electron levels than there are available
electrons, and so there are empty levels immediately above the highest filled
levels. Consider an electron which has an energy corresponding to the top

of the filled portion of the band. If this electron gains a small amount of
energy from any source, it can move up into the empty part of the band. It is
then free to move about in the crystal because the energy states at this level
Total band width

Band only partially full
Distance —>
FIG. 1-13. Band structure of a metal.
are not occupied. Since there is no forbidden gap in the energy band just
above the filled levels, electrons are always free to move through the crystal
under the influence of an electric field. A material of this type is a conductor.
1-16 Semiconductors
A semiconductor has the energy band structure of an insulator. However, an

insulator has a forbidden gap which is so wide that very few electrons can
cross room temperature, whereas a semiconductor possesses a narrow
it at
gap which allows a considerable amount of conduction at room temperature.
Germanium and silicon are the two most used semiconducting elements, and
the widths of the forbidden gap in these materials are 0.76 and 1.1 ev respec-
tively. These two materials have a resistivity intermediate between a conduc-
tor (such as copper) and an insulator (such as diamond).
When the conductivity in a crystalline semiconductor is due solely to the
breaking of covalent bonds, the substance is said to be an intrinsic semi-
conductor. The intrinsic effect is often masked by conduction because of the
presence of impurity atoms in the crystal. As explained later in this chapter,
certain atoms introduced into the crystal produce localized energy states
which are in the forbidden energy gap, and these may result in electrical
conduction. A material where this latter mechanism is dominant is known as
an extrinsic semiconductor.
1-17 Electrons and Positive Holes
When an electron moves from the valence band into the conduction band of a
semiconductor, it leaves behind an unfilled electron state. The absence of an
electron in the valence band is called a positive hole. This expressive name
indicates that a negatively charged electron is missing from the otherwise full
band. There are several effects in the crystal that can be attributed to the
absence of an electron in the valence band. The positive hole is, therefore,
Direction of electric field
- Electrons
+ Positive holes
Distance —
FIG. 1-14. Electrical conduction by electrons and positive holes.
endowed with properties that lead to these effects occurring in the crystal.
For convenience, the positive hole is regarded as the active particle in the
valence band in the same way that the electron is considered to be active in
the conduction band. As shown later, this leads to the concept that conduc-
tion in semiconductorsis caused not only by the motion of electrons in the
conduction band but also by positive holes in the valence band.

Before proceeding further, it should be stated that the properties of an
electron in a crystal are differentfrom those of a free electron. Forces of
attraction and repulsion upon an electron in a crystal because of the close
act
proximity of the atomic nuclei and of other electrons. In addition, an
electron in the conduction band is subjected to different conditions from an
electron in the valence band. Thus, the properties assigned to a positive hole
(such as mass, mobility, etc.) will not be the same as those of an electron in the
conduction band.
SEC. 1-17 ELECTRONS AND POSITIVE HOLES 27
The mechanism of by reference to

positive hole conduction can be seen
Fig. 1-14. At 0° K, the valence bandand the conduction
is completely full,
band is empty because no thermal energy is available in the crystal. At any

other temperature, as shown in Fig. 1-14, there will be a few electrons which
gain enough energy to traverse the forbidden gap to the conduction band
and leave positive holes in the valence band. Four such electrons and positive
holes are shown. If an electric field, S, is applied across the material such
that the left-hand side is positive, electrons in the conduction band, being free
to move, will travel from right to left causing an electronic current to flow.
If every electron energy state in the valence band were occupied, there
would be no possibility of electrical conduction taking place in this band
since a strong electron bond would have to be broken to allow electron
motion. However, the absence of four electrons provides four energy states
into which neighboring electrons can move under the influence of the electric
Direction of electric field — Direction of electric field —

0=0=0=0 0=0=0=0
11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
0=0=0=0 0=0=0=0
11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
0=0=0=0 0=0=0=0
II lv —II II II II I II
o = o\=o
Positive hole
= o o = o=/o
v
= o
t \ Positive hole
(a) (b)
FIG. 1-15. Apparent motion of positive hole in electric field.
field. These electrons require little extra energy to make this transition since
the state into which they are moving is in the same energy band.
The motion of a positive hole in a two-dimensional simplified version of
a semiconductor crystal is shown in Fig. 1-15. The electric field is in the
same direction as in the previous figure. One positive hole is shown in Fig.
1-1 5(a), and the electric field aids another electron to move into the hole.
Part (b) of the figure shows the crystal after the event has taken place. The
positive hole has apparently moved in the direction of the electric field, and
this motion constitutes a passage of current. This positive hole current takes
place exclusively in the valence band since only the closely bound covalent
electron energy states are involved. There is also an electron current which
occurs in the conduction band and is not shown in Fig. 1-15. This is the
result of the drift in the electric field of the electron originally excited into the
conduction band.
To distinguish between the two forms of current which flow in a semi-

conductor it is usual to refer to the motion of electrons in the conduction
band and to that of positive holes in the valence band. Yet, it should be
remembered that electrons are flowing in both cases, and it is only a matter of
convenience to label one a "positive hole" current.
1-18 Mobility
When charged particles in a crystal move under the influence of an electric

field, they attain a velocity which is proportional to the value of the field.
Thus,
v = \l£ (1-17)
where v is the drift velocity in cm sec" \ and $ is the electric field in volts cm" 1
.
The quantity /jl is known as the mobility of the particles and is measured in
cm 2 volt" sec" 1 1
.
From Eq. (1-17), electrons apparently drift in a given electric field with a
constant velocity. However, this velocity is an average value, and the elec-
trons do not, in fact, move across the crystal at a uniform speed. Each
electron accelerates in the field and, after traveling a short distance, suffers a
collision. At each collision, the electron loses most of the velocity it has
gained, and then it starts to accelerate once more under the influence of the
field. This process is repeated, and when all the mobile electrons are con-
sidered, the average velocity is given by Eq. (1-17).
The value of upon temperature,
the mobility in semiconductors depends
purity of the material, and on whether electron or positive hole motion is
taking place. It is usual to assign the symbol \x n to the mobility of electrons
in the conduction band and \l v to positive holes in the valence band. For
silicon and germanium, \x n is higher than /x p because electrons in the conduc-
tion band are more free of the attractive forces exerted by the nuclei than are
positive holes which move only as a result of the slower drift of electrons in
covalent bonds.
TABLE 1-2. Properties of germanium and silicon.
Property Germanium Silicon Units
Atomic number 32 14
Atomic weight 72.6 28.1
Density 5.32 2.40 gem -3
Relative permittivity 16 12
Gap energy 0.72 1.1 ev
tit at 300° K 2.5 x 10 13 -1.6 x 10 10 cm -3
Intrinsic resistivity at 300° K 47 -230,000 ohm cm
-1
Mobility /x n at 300° K 3900 1500 cm 2 volt -1 sec
Mobility /*, at 300° K 1900 500 cm 2 volt -1 sec" 1
Diffusion constant Dn at 300° K 99 39 cm 2 sec -1

Diffusion constant Dp at 300° K 49 13 cm 2 sec ~ 1
SEC. 1-18 MOBILITY 29
The values of mobility in Table 1-2 apply to very pure semiconducting

material. This is known as intrinsic material. It will be shown in Sec. 1-19
that the resistivity of a semiconductor is decreased by the presence of a very
small amount of certain types of impurity atoms. If these impurities are
below its intrinsic value. This is due to the
present, the mobility also decreases
increased number of which a charge carrier makes with the added
collisions
impurity atoms. Curves showing the variation in mobility of electrons and
holes in germanium and silicon as a function of the density of added impurity
atoms are given in Sec. 1-19.
Consider a semiconductor having an electron density in the conduction
band given by n per unit volume. The charge which is available for conduction
per unit volume is ne and this charge will move with a velocity v in field S.
The current density is given by
Jn = nev (1-18)
and the conductivity of the material due to electrons in the conduction band
only is denoted by a n where
Jn nev ne^ n S ,.
im
where the subscript n applies to effects associated with electrons in the

conduction band.
If p is the positive hole density in the valence band and fi p is the positive
hole mobility, it can be shown by similar reasoning that
op = pe[i v (1-20)
and the total conductivity is
a = °p + <*n = e(pfi p + nfi n ) (1-21)
For an intrinsic semiconductor, such as pure germanium or silicon, the

electrons in the conduction band have all been removed from the previously
full valence band and so
p = n = n {
(1-22)
where n t
is the intrinsic density of electrons or holes in the material and so
a = n {
e{\i p + ix n ) (1-23)
1-19 p- and n-type Semiconductors
In the previous discussion, was noted that small amounts of certain im-
it
an otherwise pure semiconducting

purities greatly affect the conductivity of
crystal. This will now be explained by reference to the two separate con-
tributions which electron and positive hole motion make to the total con-
ductivity of the material.
30 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS CHAP.
Figure 1-1 6(a) shows the two-dimensional representation of a crystal

lattice containing only atoms of an element which has four outer electrons
available for covalent binding. Substances of this type (e.g., silicon and
germanium) are termed group 4 materials and will form a diamond-type
©=©= ©=©
ii ii ii ii Conduction band
©=©=©=© (nearly empty)
Forbidden gap
© = © = ©=©
ii ii ii ii
©=©=©=© Distance
(a) (b)
FIG. 1-16. (a) Two-dimensional picture of the crystal structure of

a group 4 material, (b) Energy bands of the group 4 crystal.
crystal structure. The energy bands for this crystal are given in Fig. 1-1 6(b).
Now assume that a few atoms of a substance having five outer electrons are
introduced into the crystal. This is a group 5 substance such as phosphorus,
arsenic, or antimony (see Table 1-1), and one atom of this new material is
© = © = © = <&_. Extra"
electron
ii
Conduction band
© © = © = ©
II II II
Energy state
of "extra"
© © = © = © electron
ii II II II
© © = © = ©
Distance
(a) (b)
FIG. 1-17. Addition of one atom of group 5 material to a group

4 crystal.
shown in the crystal lattice in Fig. 1-17. Four of the five outer electrons of the
group 5 atom will fit into the covalent bonds and will be shared with the four
neighboring atoms. The fifth outer electron, however, does not take part in
this binding process and is comparatively free to move. It is subject to a force
SEC. 1-19 p- AND n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS 31
of attraction towards its parent nucleus, but this force is much smaller than
the covalent binding forces represented by energies in the valence band.
The energy state corresponding to this fifth electron is shown just below the
conduction band in Fig. 1-17 and is in the forbidden gap of the pure group 4
substance.
A rough calculation of the force of attraction between the fifth outer
electron and its parent atom can be made by referring back to the simple
Bohr theory of the atom. If the fifth electron were not present, the remainder
of the atom would have a net charge of + e. This may be considered as the
nuclear charge of a new, Bohr-like atom with one electron in orbit around it.
However, Bohr's analysis, as exemplified by Eq. (1-12), was applied to the
case where the electron was moving in free space, whereas here the electron
is in a crystalline material of relative permittivity, er , greater than unity.
Equation (1-12) is, therefore, modified to
En = '
(1_24)
~Sn 2 h 2 e 2 e 2
where E'n is the energy of the electron in the orbit number n. From Eqs. (1-13)
and (1-14), the energy of the ground state of hydrogen (n = 1) is
= me =
Ei 13 - 60ev (1_25)
~%iki
Thus, for the electron in the crystal
t?>
Ei 13 60
-
n ™
In a germanium crystal, er = 16 and so
E[ = 1|^ = 0.053 ev (1-27)
It is necessary to justify the assumption that the electron is far enough

away from its parent atom that it is surrounded by germanium atoms. From
Eq. (1-6), the radius of the first orbit becomes
For germanium,
r'i = ^
nme
= V» (1-28)
r\ = \6r B = 8.5 A (1-29)
This value for the radius of the orbit of the fifth outer electron is greater than
the lattice constant of germanium (5.66 A) and so the electron orbit is wide
enough to carry it well away from its parent atom and into the germanium
crystal (see Fig. 1-17).
TABLE 1-3. Common donor and acceptor elements and

their energy levels in germanium and silicon.
Element Type of Semiconductor Position

impurity Ge Si
Phosphorous (P) Donor 0.012 0.044 In ev below the

Arsenic (As) Donor 0.013 0.049 bottom of the
Antimony (Sb) Donor 0.010 0.039 conduction band
Boron (B) Acceptor 0.010 0.045 In ev above the
Aluminium (Al) Acceptor 0.010 0.057 top of the
Gallium (Ga) Acceptor 0.011 0.065 valence band
Indium (In) Acceptor 0.011 0.160
The Bohr theory presents a very simple picture of the atom, and the
accuracy of the calculation is poor. Measurements have shown that the energy
level of the fifth electron of a group 5 atom in a germanium crystal is about
Electron free to move

Conduction band in conduction band
Positively ionized donor

state (immobile)
Distance
FIG. 1-18. Representation on an energy band diagram of an

electron being separated from a donor state.
0.01 ev. For silicon (er — 12), the measured values are commonly about
0.04 ev. Slightly different values are found for different added elements (see
"donor" in Table 1-3).
Since it requires such a small energy to remove the electron from the
group 5 atom, this energy can be supplied from thermal agitation in the crystal.
The electron is usually separated from its parent atom at room temperatures
and Fig. 1-18 shows how on the energy band
this process is represented
diagram. The electron has been removed from the parent atom leaving
behind a positively ionized (unfilled) electron bond, and it is free to move
under the influence of an electric field. However, there is no corresponding
positive hole in the valence band, and so only the electron motion in the
conduction band will contribute towards the conductivity. The extra energy
state associated with the group 5 material is known as a donor state. When
SEC. I- p. AND n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS 33
the electron is removed, the donor state becomes positively ionized, but the
positive charge is fixed in the crystal lattice and cannot move under the
influence of an electric field.
In intrinsic semiconductors where no impurity atoms are present, the

number of electrons in the conduction band at room temperatures is a
minute fraction of the total number of electrons in the crystal. Since each
group 5 atom donates one electron to the conduction band, adding a very
small fraction of impurity atoms to the number of group 4 atoms in the crystal
increases the conductivity appreciably. As an example, a ratio of 1 atom of
phosphorus to 10 8 atoms of germanium alters the conductivity of germanium
at 27° C by a ratio of 12:1.
When the
conductivity of a semiconductor is determined largely by the
added group 5 atoms, the material is known as n (for negative) type. It
must be emphasized that the material as a whole is neutral since the added
group 5 atoms have as many positive charges in the nucleus as they have
Conduction band
Additional energy state

of group 3 atom
Distance
FIG. 1-19. Position of the unfilled energy state of group 3 atom.
negative electrons. The term n-type is used to indicate that the major part of
the current is carried by electrons in the conduction band. Thus, electrons
are known as the majority carriers, and positive holes are the minority carriers
in the fl-type material.
An atom of group 3 material (such as boron, aluminum, etc.) has only
three electrons which are available to take part in covalent bonds. Thus for
every group 3 atom which is introduced into the crystal, there is one bond
which is left unsatisfied and this introduces an unfilled energy state into the
crystal. The band diagram is given in
position of this state on the energy
Fig. 1-19. When atom acquires an additional electron from a
the group 3
nearby atom to satisfy all its covalent bonds it becomes a negative ion. The
energy required for this process is small, and so the new energy state is just
above the energy of the electron in its previous state, that is, just above the
valence band. By an extension of the previous application of the Bohr theory

of the atom this energy may be calculated. Table 1-3 shows the measured
values of the energy level for various group 3 atoms present in germanium
and silicon crystals (see "acceptor" in the table).
At room temperature, the crystal has sufficient energy from thermal
agitation to allow the energy state to be filled by an electron from the valence
band. Figure 1-20 illustrates the condition that exists at room temperature.
An electron from the valence band (i.e., an electron originally in a covalent
bond somewhere in the crystal) gains sufficient energy to move into the state
associated with the group 3 atoms. This leaves a positive hole in the valence
band which is available for electrical conduction. The negatively ionized
Conduction band
Negatively ionized acceptor

state (immobile)
Positive hole free to move

in valence band
Distance —
FIG. 1-20. The production of a positive hole in the valence band
band of /Mype material.
filled electron state is and makes no contribution to

fixed in the crystal lattice
the conduction process. The energy state associated with the group 3 material
is called an acceptor state since it accepts electrons from the valence band.
The addition of atoms of group 3 material causes a semiconductor to

become p-type. In this case, positive holes are the majority carriers, and
electrons are the minority carriers. The addition of only a small fraction of
impurity atoms increases the conductivity by a large factor (as was the case for
the f?-type material), but now the conductivity is mainly the result of the
motion of positive holes in the semiconductor.
We can now distinguish three types of semiconducting material. An
intrinsic semiconductor is the pure group 4 crystal where the number of holes
equals the number of electrons. Material is known as n-type when some atoms
of group 5 are present in the crystal and there are more electrons than holes.
When group 3 atoms are present, the material is p-type and holes predominate
over electrons.
Other distinguishing features of the three types of material will be pointed
out in Chaps. 2, 3, and 4. In particular, we will show that a crystal containing
SEC. 1-19 p- AND n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS 35
a/7-type to /7-type junction (a p-n junction) has the electrical characteristics of

a rectifier.
The process of adding donor or acceptor material to an otherwise

either
pure crystal is group 4
referred to as doping the crystal. In preparation, the
material is purified to better than a few parts in 10 9 and the required im-
,
purity is added before the crystal is formed. If the same proportions of donor
and acceptor material are added, the two effects cancel out, and the material
becomes intrinsic again. It is the excess of one type of impurity over the
other that determines the dominant type of conductivity (see Sec. 2-8).
Figures 1-21 through 1-24 show the measured values of electron and hole
mobilities in n- and/?-type germanium and silicon. The curves were obtained
by measurement and calculation on semiconductor specimens of known
resistivity. In each case, the mobility is plotted against the resistivity which is
marked as an open scale at the top of the graph. The bottom scale is the
density of impurity atoms in the material. Nd signifies the number of donor
atoms per cubic centimeter for n-type material, and Na is the number of
acceptor atoms per cubic centimeter for /?-type material. These curves,
therefore, allow us to determine the resistivity when the donor or acceptor
density is known by comparing the scales at the top and the bottom of each
graph. The equations relating mobility, resistivity, and impurity density are
derived in Sec. 2-8.
From Figs. 1-21 and 1-22, which relate to germanium, it can be seen that
the addition of as few as 10 14 atoms of donor or acceptor material per cubic
centimeter reduces the resistivity of the specimen appreciably. Since there are
4.42 x 10 22 atoms of germanium per cubic centimeter, the impurity atoms
form a minute proportion of the total number of atoms in the crystal but
their effect on the resistivity is high. For both silicon and germanium, the
curves show that the mobility decreases with decreasing resistivity for material
of resistivity lower than about 10 ohm cm.
1-20 Generation and Recombination
Because of the vibrational energy of the crystal lattice at room temperatures,

covalent bonds are continually being broken, and electrons are being set free.
This process is known as the generation of electron-hole pairs. The reverse
process is and electrons are being recaptured by unfilled
also taking place,
bonds to produce the recombination of electron-hole pairs. Both generation
and recombination are random processes which are continuously occurring.
When the temperature and external conditions are constant, a balance is set
up between generation and recombination, and the resultant hole and electron
densities are known as the thermal equilibrium values, p and n respectively.
Since there are usually more than 10 10 carriers per cubic centimeter in a
typical piece of semiconducting material, the statistical variation in these
quantities is small and can be neglected. The symbols, p and n, are retained
for the carrier densities under general conditions.
p in ohm cm
1.6 0.19
3500
** 2500
'o
>
g 2000
.5
10 13 10 1
10 15 10 1 10 1
N^ in cm
FIG. 1-21. Electron and hole mobilities

in «-type
germanium at 300° K [from M. B. Prince, Phys.
Rev. 92 (1953), 681 ; 93 (1954), 1204].
p in ohm cm
3.5 0.40 0.07
4000
3500
3000
2500
1500
2 5 I
2 5 I
2 5 I
2 5 ' 2 5
1 1" 1
10 10' 10 10 10' 10'
-3
N„ in cm
FIG. 1-22. Electron and hole mobilities in p-type

germanium at 300° K [from M. B. Prince, Phys.
Rev., 92 (1953), 681 ; 93 (1954), 1204].
20 10 5 2 1 0.5
i
1500
n-t ype silicon
1400
1300
1200
1100
M„
a> 1000
75 900
| 800
c
* 700
600
500
_Mp_ FIG. 1-23. Electron and hole

400
mobilities in «-type silicon at
300
300° K [from M. B. Prince,
Phys. Rev., 92 (1953), 681;
200 93 (1954), 1204].
7 I 9 2 I
-i
E f> 7 { 9 2
1 J
10 10
3
r
d
in cm
p in ohm cm
20 5
1500
P- typej silicon
1400
1300
1200
1100
o
1000
-<
900
1
J*n
800
_c
a. 700
FIG. 1-24. Electron and hole J^

mobilities in />-type silicon at
300° K [from M. B. Prince,
Phys. Rev., 92 (1953), 681 ; 93
(1954), 1204].
6 7 I 9 * j A i 7 i 9 2
1 16
10 10
N„ in cm
It has been shown that the production of an electron-hole pair involves

the passage of an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
Similarly, recombination the process whereby an electron moves from the
is
conduction band to the valence band. The direct transition of an electron

from the conduction band to the valence band is unlikely, however, since a
free electron and a hole will only recombine if momentum is conserved in the
system, that is, if the electron and the hole initially have nearly equal and
opposite momenta. The probability for this in germanium and silicon is low,
and another recombination mechanism must be invoked.
Conduction Conduction
band band
-Trap ^Trap
Valence Valence
band band
Distance Distance
(a) (b)
FIG. 1-25. (a) An electron moves from the conduction band into
a recombination trap, (b) The electron moves from the trap down
into the valence band.
The majority of recombination events are found to take place at the site
of an impurity atom or a lattice defect in the crystal. Such a location acts as
a trap or recombination center and is, body which can satisfy
in effect, a third
the momentum requirements in the electron-hole collision. Figure 1-25 shows
a trap which is located approximately in the center of the forbidden gap.
The electron moves from the conduction band into the trap level and remains
there for a short time before passing down into the valence band. Once an
electron is in the trap it is not free to move and does not contribute to the
conductivity.
The average time that an electron spends in the conduction band before
recombining via a trap is known as the lifetime, r n . Similarly, r p is the average
lifetime of holes in the valence band. Electron and hole lifetimes are in the
range 10" 8 to 10" 3 second for the semiconducting material used in transistors.
The higher the conductivity the lower the lifetime since the added group 3
or 5 atoms act as recombination centers. Lifetimes also depend upon the
purity of the material (other than the presence of group 3 and 5 atoms),
temperature, and shape and surface conditions of the specimen (see Sec. 9-10).
In this book, we shall be primarily concerned with minority carrier lifetimes,
for example, the lifetime of electrons in /?-type material.
SEC. 1-20 GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION 39
Consider unit volume of a piece of p-type material which has a thermal

equilibrium electron and positive hole density n and p respectively. If
excess electrons are introduced into the crystal, an equation can be derived to
determine the way in which the density decays back to its original value.
There is a generation rate, g, of electron-hole pairs per unit volume that is
dependent upon the temperature for a given material but not upon the
number of electrons present. If the electron lifetime is rn , and n electrons
are present at time /, then the number of electrons recombining per second is
n/r n . Thus,
dn
(1-30)
where dn/dt is the rate of change of density with time (a negative quantity in
At equilibrium, dn/dt =
this case). and n = n and so ,
n
g = (1-31)
n= Anexp(-t/rn )
Thermal
equilibrium
density n
t=o
Time
FIG. 1-26. The decay of excess carriers in a semiconductor

[Eq. (1-33)].
Equation (1-30) can now be rewritten as
dn
(1-32)
It
and the solution is
n = An exp I 1 (1-33)
Here, An is the value of n — n at t = 0, i.e., it is the excess electron density

introduced into the material. Equation (1-33) and Fig. 1-26 show that the
number of excess electrons in the conduction band decays exponentially with
a time constant equal to the lifetime of the electrons in the material.
:
By a similar argument, it may be shown that the corresponding equation

for positive holes is
p - Po = Ap exp (-—) (1-34)
when excess positive holes, Ap, are introduced into «-type material, where r p
is the lifetime of positive holes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
General
Dekker, Adrianus J., Electrical Engineering Materials, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959
Shive, J. N., Properties, Physics and Design of Semiconductor Devices, New

York: D. Van Nostrand and Company, Inc., 1959
Spangenburg, Karl R., Fundamentals of Electron Devices, New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957
Sproull, Robert L., Modern Physics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1956
van der Ziel, Aldert, Solid State Physical Electronics, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957
Atomic physics
Van Name, F. W., Jr., Modern Physics, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1962
Wehr, M. Russell, and James A. Richards, Jr., Physics of the Atom, Reading,
Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1960
Yarwood, John, Electricity, Magnetism and Atomic Physics, Vol. II, Atomic
Physics, London: University Tutorial Press Ltd, 1958
Crystals
Dekker, Adrianus J., Solid State Physics, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1957
Kittel, Charles, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 2d ed., New York:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1956
Elementary semiconductor theory
Dekker, Adrianus J., Electrical Engineering Materials, Englewood Cliffs,

BIBLIOGRAPHY 41
DeWitt, David, and Arthur L. Rossoff, Transistor Electronics, New York:

PROBLEMS
l-l Write the expressions for the magnitudes of the tangential and angular
electron orbital velocities as a function of the principal quantum
number in the Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom. Calculate these
velocities for n = 1.
ans. 2.2 x 10 6 m sec -1 4.15 x 10

16
radsec
_1
1-2 Find the energy of an electron in the first, second, and third orbits of
the Bohr atom in joules and electron volts. What are the wavelengths
of the photons emitted when electrons make the transition between
orbits (a) 1 and 2, (b) 2 and 3, (c) 1 and 3?
1-3 Discuss the fundamental postulates used by Bohr in his theory of the
hydrogen atom. Explain the meaning of the terms "excitation" and
"ionization".
1-4 Calculate the energy of one quantum of the following radiation: (a)
X band radar (9300 Mc/sec), (b) far infrared, (c) blue light, (d) 50
kilovolt X rays.
ans. 3.8 x 10' 5 ev, 3 x 10~ 2 ev, 2.6 ev, 5 x 10 4 ev
1-5 (a) Electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 949.5 A is projected on to

hydrogen any of the radiation absorbed? If absorption takes
gas. Is
place, what are the initial and final energy states of the hydrogen atom?
(b) Repeat the question for radiation of wavelength 2108.3 A.
1-6 Before Bohr's theory of the atom was developed, Balmer gave an
empirical relationship between the wavelengths ofsome of the spectral
lines of hydrogen. This may be put in the form
= R ~
A \4 ?)
where A is the wavelength of a spectral line in the series, n has the value
3, 4, 5, 6, . . ., and R is known as Rydberg's constant. From Bohr's
theory of the atom, explain which transitions produce this series of
spectral lines and derive a value for R in terms of the fundamental
constants.
ans. R = 2 3
(tne*/8e h c)
Bohr's theory of the atom applies to any one-electron atom and can,
therefore, be applied to singly ionized helium and doubly ionized
lithium. What energy is required to remove the remaining electron
from these two atoms, respectively?
1-8 What is the de Broglie wavelength in Angstrom units of (a) an electron

of energy 10 ev, (b) a proton of energy 1 million-electron volts, (c) a
satellite of mass 100 lb orbiting the earth with a velocity of 18,000 mph?
ans. 3.9 A, 2.86 x 10~ 4
A, 1.82 x 10" 29 A
1-9 Explain why the discrete energy levels for a free, single atom will no
longer apply to the same atom in a crystal. Distinguish among con-
ductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
I
— 10 If the lattice constant for Fig. 1-8 is 5.66 A, what is the distance be-
tween neighboring atoms?
1-1 1 A germanium crystal specimen 1 mm cube has a total of 2.5 x 10 7

electrons in its conduction band. What electron current flows when
there is a field of 6 volts cm -1 parallel to one face of the cube?
1-12 One atom of boron is contained inside an otherwise pure germanium

crystal. Using the concepts of covalent binding between neighboring
atoms in a crystal, in your own words explain the effect of the added
boron atom on the electrical properties of the crystal.
2
Electrons The previous chapter presented a descriptive
account of electrical conduction in semiconductors.
and Holes in This chapter provides a more exact analysis of the
behavior of electrons and holes. This is carried out
Semiconductors by using an elementary treatment of Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
44 ELECTRONS AND HOLES IN SEMICONDUCTORS CHAP. 2
2-1 The Density of States in an Energy Band
The energy band representation which has been used in Chap. 1 shows that
there are electron energy states in both the valence and conduction bands in
a semiconductor and that these bands are separated by a forbidden gap. In
the valence band of a group 4 semiconductor, it is known that there are four
electron states for each atom (Fig. 1-10), and so the total number of states is
four times the number of atoms. This makes it possible to establish the total
number of states in the valence band per unit volume but gives no information
on the number of holes and electrons in the material.
Momentum in
y direction
\ Momentum in
I x direction
Momentum in
z direction
(a) (b)
FIG. 2-1. A momentum cell diagram, (a) Cube of metal having

sides Ax = Ay = Az = 1. (b) Momentum diagram showing unit
cell of dimensions Ap x = Ap y = Ap z = h. Dotted circle indicates
sphere of radius pM inside which all cells are occupied when M
electrons per unit volume are in the band at 0°K.
An electron-hole pair is produced when an electron acquires sufficient

energy to leave the valence band and enter the conduction band. The passage
of an electron from the top of the valence band to the bottom of the con-
duction band requires the expenditure of the least amount of energy of any
transitionwhich can be made between the two bands. Transitions will
normally be of this type, and so the number of electrons which move between
the two bands depends partly on the temperature and partly on the number
of electron energy states at the two band edges. It is, therefore, important to
learn how the states are distributed with respect to energy in the valence and
SEC. 2-1 THE DENSITY OF STATES IN AN ENERGY BAND 45
conduction bands. We will first consider the simple case of the energy states
in the outer (conduction) band of a metal. In Sec. 2-2, this result will be
applied to the valence and conduction bands in a semiconductor.
Consider a cube of metal having unit sides in the three coordinate direc-
tions as shown in Fig. 2-l(a). From Sec. 1-15, the electrons in the outer
energy band of the metal are free to move within the limits of the unit cube.
Thus, an electron cannot be located more accurately than to state that it is
still in the cube, that is, its position is specified to within Ax, Ay, and Az in
Fig. 2-1 (a), where

Ax = Ay = Az = I (2-1)
The momentum of the electron will next be considered. If p x p y p z are the , ,
three components of the momentum in the three coordinate directions, we

are able to specify the momentum to within Ap x Ap y and Ap z by applying
, ,
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle as expressed in Eq. (1-16). Thus,
Ap x = Ap y = Ap 2 = h (2-2)
This application of the uncertainty principle is illustrated in Fig. 2-1 (b)

where the three axes indicate momentum in the three coordinate directions,
and the vector, p, represents the magnitude and direction of the momentum
of any one electron. The uncertainty principle shows that, for a unit cube of
the metal, it is impossible to specify p with any more accuracy than to state
that the line representing p must end somewhere within a cell of side h and
volume h 3 on the momentum diagram. This cell is known as the unit mo-
mentum cell, and it can be seen that other cells having the same dimensions
but different positions can be drawn to represent the accuracy of specification
of the momenta of other electrons in the metal.
This pictorial representation of momentum cells can be extended by
applying the Pauli exclusion principle. In Sec. 1-10, it was stated that no
two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers in an atom
and, because of the close coupling between atoms, the exclusion principle
applies in the metal crystal as well. Since the spin quantum number s can
take only the values +\ or —\, the exclusion principle may be restated in
the form that only two electrons can have the same three quantum numbers
n, and m. The principle is now applicable to the momentum diagram since
I,
the three quantum numbers determine the momentum p. Thus each unit
momentum cell, which indicates the accuracy of specifying one value of p,
now accounts for two electrons having opposite spins (s — + \ and s = —J).
Consider now that there are M free electrons available in the material.
At a temperature of 0° K, there is no disturbing motion in the crystal due to
heat energy, and the electrons will occupy cells having the lowest values of
momentum (and energy). There is no preferred direction in the crystal, and
so M/2 cells arranged spherically about the origin as center up to a radius p M
3
will be occupied as shown in Fig. 2-1 (b). The "volume" of each cell is h
and so the total "volume" of occupied cells in the momentum diagram is
h 3
M= 3^m (2-3)
The term "volume" has been used, and we note that the axes of Fig. 2-l(b)
have the dimensions of momentum not length. Figure 2-1 (b) is often called
a momentum space diagram.
It is possible to relate the maximum momentum, p M with the position of ,
the corresponding electron energy state, E. On the momentum space dia-

gram, the zero of momentum (p = 0) corresponds to the bottom of the
Area represents
number of states
dM in energy
range dE
Energy density of states S(E)
FIG. 2-2. Energy density of states plotted as a function of energy.
energy band which we will call E c. The energy difference between the levels
at E and E c corresponds to the momentum pM , or
1 2 Pm
2«* = 2^ (2-4)
where m is the mass of the electron, and v M is its velocity. Eliminating pM

between Eqs. (2-3) and (2-4),
,/2
m 3/2
M= 3/2
3
77-
(e - Ec y (2-5)
Equation (2-5) gives the relationship between the total number of electron
states which are filled at 0° K and the energy level of the highest state relative
to the bottom of the band, E - Ec If M
is increased by a small value, dM,
.
the radius of the sphere on the momentum space diagram will increase from
Pm to/? M + dp M and the highest filled energy level will rise from £to E + dE.
,
SEC. 2-1 THE DENSITY OF STATES IN AN ENERGY BAND 47
We now define the energy density of states to be S(E) given by the equation
S(E) = 4£ (2-6)
where the E in parenthesis indicates that the energy density, S, is a function

of energy. The energy density is thus the number of states, dM, present in
unit energy range, and indicates the degree of '-packing" of the states with
respect to energy. This is the most useful way of expressing the information
given in Eq. (2-5) since it gives the numbers of states per unit energy at any
level in the band. By differentiation,
dM 2 7/2 m 3/2
™ 7r
S(E) = ~^= 3
(E ~ E ) 1!2c per unit volume (2-7)
Equation (2-7) has been plotted in Fig. 2-2. Energy has been taken as the
ordinate in this curve to conform with the energy band diagrams given
previously. The shaded area in the figure is equal to the number of states,
dM, in energy range dE in accordance with Eq. (2-7). This information,

which we have derived for the simple case of a metal, will now be applied to
the conduction and valence band in a semiconductor.
2-2 Energy State Densities

in Semiconductors and the Effect of Temperature
The energy density of states at the bottom of the conduction band of a semi-
conductor is given by
=
™ c
- Ec y 2
S(E) (E (2-8)
This is of similar form to Eq. (2-7) with E now

the energy at the bottom of
c
the conduction band and m c mass of the electron in that band.

as the effective
It is necessary to introduce the concept of effective mass to take into account
the influences of the neighboring atoms and charges on the motion of an

electron in the band. Thus, an electron will respond to an applied force as if
it had a mass of m c (not the free electronic mass, m) when it is in the conduc-
tion band. In the valence band, the effective mass of the positive hole is written
as m v and by analogy with the argument of the previous section, we write the
,
energy density of states in the valence band as
97/2
Z m 3/2
™ V (E -Ey>*
v
S(E) = V (2-9)
where Ev is the energy at the top of the valence band, and E is any energy in
the valence band. The values of m c and m v are not the same but they will be
considered so in this simplified analysis. Note that this introduces a small
error in Eq. (2-22) (see Problem 2-7). The curve of S(E) versus is is given in
Fig. 2-3 for the valence and conduction bands of a semiconductor.
The production of hole-electron pairs was shown in Chap. 1 to be the
result of the passage of an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band. In this chapter, we look at the same phenomenon from a different point
of view and consider how many of the electron energy states in the two bands
will be occupied. To do this, we introduce the Fermi factor, F(E), which is a
number that expresses the probability that a state of a given energy is occupied
by an electron. This number has a value
between zero and unity, and is a func-
tion of energy and temperature. Zero
Conduction band probability means that the state is
empty, and a probability of unity implies
that the state is occupied. A probability
of 0.5, for instance, means that states at
this energy level are 50 per cent occu-
Forbidden gap
pied. Since this is a statistical process,
this probability represents only the
average occupancy rate. However, the
total number of states involved is usually
Valence band so high that the fluctuation from the
statistical average is small.
The Fermi factor, F(E), can be
derived by a statistical argument which
S(E) -+ will not be given here (see the biblio-
FIG. 2-3. Energy density of states in

graphy at the end of this chapter). In
valence and conduction band. essence, it consists of finding the most
probable arrangement of electrons in
energy states, when occupancy governed by the Pauli exclusion principle,
is
when there is a given total energy in the system and when the number of
electrons is a constant. Under these circumstances the Fermi factor is
F(E) = (2-10)
1 + exp [(E - EF )/kT]
where EF is a particular energy known as the Fermi level, k is Boltzmann's
constant [1.38 x 10" 23 joule CK)" 1 ], and J is the absolute temperature, °K.
The Fermi factor is independent of the energy density of states; it is the
probability that states are occupied at that level irrespective of the number of
states actually present, thatis, it is the fractional occupancy of possible states.
Even no states at a particular energy (as in the forbidden gap of an

if there are
intrinsic semiconductor), the Fermi factor still has a definite value.
Before discussing the Fermi factor further, consider Eq. (2-11).
N(E) dE = S(E)F(E) dE (2-11)

*
SEC. 2-2 DENSITIES IN SEMICONDUCTORS AND THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE 49
Since S(E) is the energy density of states, S(E) dE is the total number of
available states in the energy range dE. E{E) is the probability that these states
are occupied and so the product of the density of available states, S(E), and the
probability of their being occupied, E(E), gives the number of occupied states,
N(E), in the small energy range considered, dE. Equation (2-11) and this
verbal statement of it are important for an understanding of later work in this
chapter.
^-T=o°K
Fermi factor F(E) —

(probability that states are occupied)
FIG. 2-4. Fermi factor as a function of energy for two different

temperatures.
The value of the Fermi factor is determined by the ratio (E — EF )/kTfrom

Eq. (2-10). The quantity kT has the dimensions of energy and can be specified
in electron volts. For example, kT = 25.8 millielectron volts at 300° K. The
variation of E(E) with energy is shown in Fig. 2-4. As the temperature is
increased, the size of the units of energy shown in the figure also increases
showing that F(E) is a function of temperature. The Fermi level, EF , is a
quantity of great significance in semiconductor electronics. It is a reference level
which is an important characteristic of a semiconductor as the following
analysis will show.
When the temperature is 0° K, F(E) can have one of two values.
For E > EF F(E) = =

,
1 + exp ( oo)
1
For E < EF ,
F(E) = = 1
1 + exp ( — oo)
Therefore, the value of F(E) is unity for all energies below the Fermi level and
zero for all energies above the Fermi level. This corresponds with the case
shown where all the momentum cells were full up to the radius
in Fig. 2-1
pM at 0°K. The energy corresponding to p M must coincide with the Fermi

level, and we can say that at 0° K all energy states will be full up to EF .
A more useful definition of the Fermi level can be obtained by putting

E — EF at any temperature other than 0° K. Then, if E = EF and T ^
1 + exp (0) 2
Thus, the Fermi level, EF , is that energy where the probability of a state being
occupied is \.
Referring to Fig. 2-4, at 0° K all the energy states below the Fermi level
are completely occupied whereas above this level they are completely empty.
At 0°K there is no heat energy present in the crystal lattice, and so no cova-
lent bonds are being broken. At any other temperature, however, the process
of generation and recombination of electron-hole pairs is taking place.
Because of this, there is a probability of slightly less than one that all of the
states below the Fermi level are occupied, and also a small probability that
some of the energy states just above the Fermi level are occupied.
It has been shown that both electrons and holes contribute to the con-
ductivity of semiconductors. In the conduction band, therefore, the prob-

ability of electron states being occupied, F(E), is of interest because all
electrons in this band are mobile. In the valence band, positive holes are
responsible for the passage of charge. Thus, it is the absence of electrons
which is important in the valence band, and we shall be considering 1 — F(E)
since this is the probability of a positive hole, rather than a filled state,
occurring at a particular energy level in the band.
The concept of the probability of occupancy of an energy state, as
represented by F(E) is applicable to all solid-state crystalline materials.
Equation (2-10) is true for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
The position of the Fermi level depends upon the available number of elec-
trons in the material and upon the energy state density curve, S(E). Relative
to the Fermi level, however, the probability of an energy state being filled
depends only upon the temperature as shown by Eq. (2-10).
The total number of electrons per unit volume in a material is M where
M= JN(E) dE = JS(E)F(E) dE (2-12)
and the from the bottom of the lowest energy band

limits of integration are
to the top of the highest band concerned. Equation (2-12) can be used to
find the position of the Fermi level for any material when the total number of
electrons per unit volume, M, is known and where S(E) can be determined.
The value of the Fermi level gives important information about a solid
*
SEC. 2-2 DENSITIES IN SEMICONDUCTORS AND THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE 51
material since it indicates the highest possible filled electron energy state at
0° K. At any other temperature, as shown in Fig. 2-4 and Eq. (2-10), the
value of F(E) drops from 0.95 to 0.05 as the energy changes from EF — 3kT'to
EF + 3kT. Below this region, states are almost completely full; above this
region, they are almost empty. The Fermi level is in the center of this region.
The ideas presented in this section will be applied to semiconductors to
determine the number of electrons in the conduction band, the number of
holes in the valence band, and the position of the Fermi level. The case of an
intrinsic semiconductor will be considered first.
2-3 Intrinsic Semiconductor
In a specimen of unit volume, the total number of occupied states with

energy between E and E + dE is equal to the product of the density of the
^/Conduction
t
^y^ band ^>
bq
& EF
a
w
^v Valence
band
(Expanc ed scale)
i
S(E) — 0.5
F(E) -*
Fermi factor
1.0
— P(E)
Density of
N(E) —
Energy state density Density of
positive holes electrons in
in valence conduction
band band
FIG. 2-5. Graphical illustration of the number of electrons and

holes in an intrinsic semiconductor showing the position of the
Fermi level.
available number of states and the probability of their occupancy. Equation

(2-11) is repeated here for convenience.
N(E) dE = S(E)F(E) dE (2-11)
This relationship is illustrated in Fig. 2-5. The left-hand curve is a plot of

Eqs. (2-8) and (2-9) and shows the density of available electron states close
to the forbidden gap for both the valence and conduction bands. The central
curve shows the Fermi factor at room temperature, and the right-hand curve
is obtained by taking the product of the values shown in the two preceding
curves at all energy levels. The density of electrons in the conduction band as
given by Eq. (2-11) is shown to the right of the energy axis. The density of
positive holes in the valence band is shown to the left of the energy axis.
This number can be represented by P(E) dE in an equation which uses
1 - F(E) in place of F(E) in Eq. (2-11), i.e.,
P(E) dE = F(E)[l - F(E)] dE (2-13)
Under certain conditions an approximation to the Fermi factor can be

made. For a room temperature of 300° K, for example, the value of kT is
25.8 millielectron volts. At an energy level Ex which is more than 100 milli-
electron volts (say) above the Fermi level,
and Eq. (2-10) can be written as
F(E0 ~ exp (^~i) (2-14)
The right-hand side of Eq. (2-14) is known as the Boltzmann factor because it
corresponds with the relationship obtained from classical Maxwell-Boltzmann

statistics, which apply to a perfect gas. We see from Eq. (2-14) that the
probability of occupancy drops exponentially with energy at levels well above
EF .
The probability of finding an electron state unoccupied in the valence

band has already been given as the difference between unity and the Fermi
factor at that energy. Assuming E2 is an energy level in the valence band
which is far removed from the Fermi level,
1
- w =
»
-
1 + exp id - mm "
(2 15)
where EF - E2 » kT. In Eq. (2-15), the exponential term is much less than
unity, and so by the binomial expansion,
- F(E2 ) x 1 - [l - exp
1
(^f^)]
= exp
{^^) (2-16)
Equation (2-16) indicates that as E2 becomes more negative the probability

of finding holes decreases exponentially.
This information allows us to calculate the position of the Fermi level in
an intrinsic semiconductor. First, it should be noted that the Fermi level
will be somewhere in the forbidden gap since nearly all the valence band
states are occupied, and only very few be found in the conduc-
electrons will
tion band at room temperatures. Next, Eqs. (2-8) and (2-9) give the required
information of the energy state densities in the two bands, and finally, Eqs.
SEC. 2-3 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR 53
(2-14) and (2-16) give the approximate probability factors to be used in the
calculation.
Consider energy levels E 1 in the conduction band and E2 in the valence
band symmetrically placed about the center of the gap. For an energy range
dE in both cases, the number of electrons in the conduction band is
NiEJ dE = S(E )F(E ) dE 1 1 (2-17)
and the number of positive holes in energy range dE in the valence band is
P(E2 ) dE = S(E2 )[l - F(E2)] dE

(2-18) _L
Ey y//////// dE
Assuming for simplicity that m c m, X f
in Eqs. (2-8) and (2-9), y"^ Conduction band
S(E± ) = S(E2 ) (2-19)

Center of gap
N(EJ _ FjEJ
Thus,
P(E2 ) F(E2 )
_ exp [(EF - EJ/kT] >v Valence band

exp [(E2 - EF)/kT]
E< V//////7S. dE
(2-20) \ |
assuming E — EF » kT
x and EF - E2
» kT.
S(E) -+
Equation (2-20) applies to all sym-
metrically placed elements on Fig. 2-6. FIG. 2-6. Curve of S(E) versus E for
Hence, the ratio of the numbers of elec- an intrinsic semiconductor showing the
trons and positive holes for any element location of elements spaced symmetric-
is thesame as the ratio of the total ally about the center of the forbidden
gap.
numbers of electrons and positive holes
in the semiconductor, which is unity for intrinsic material. Thus,
(2-21)
P(E2 ) Pt
Therefore, in Eq. (2-20)
Hip Hii Hi 2
kT kT
E E
or EP = 2 + 1
(2-22)
It will be recalled that the energy levels E 1 and E2 were taken symmetrically
about the center of the forbidden gap. Equation (2-22) shows that the Fermi
level lies at the center of the forbidden gap for intrinsic material and that it is
independent of temperature. The error introduced by putting m c = m v is
small in practice (see Problem 2-7).

2-4 n-type Semiconductor
When atoms of group 5 material are introduced into an otherwise pure

crystal ofgermanium or silicon, additional energy levels are introduced just
below the bottom of the conduction band in the forbidden gap. The curve of
available energy states versus energy is no longer symmetrical about the
center, and the Fermi level is no longer at the center of the gap.
Conduction
band
!
^^y^ Donor
r*-^ states
** — -— — ^
~Jae~
<
Valence
band (Expanded scale)
0.5 1.0
S(E) -+ F(E) -* *- P(E) N(E) -+

I Energy state density Fermi factor Density of Density of
band band
FIG. 2-7. The position of the Fermi level in an n-type semi-

conductor.
In Fig. 2-7, the Fermi level is shown at an energy AE above the center of
the gap. By comparison with the case of the intrinsic semiconductor where
the Fermi level is located at the center of the gap, the Fermi factor is increased
by the ratio exp (AE/kT) everywhere in the conduction band [see Eq. (2-14)].
Thus, the total number of electrons in the band (which was n for the intrinsic {
case) is now given by
n = n exp
i
m
For an «-type semiconductor, n > n h and so AE is positive, i.e., the Fermi
(2-23)
level for an «-type semiconductor lies above the center of the gap.
The energy level of the donor states lies just below the bottom of the
conduction band, and the Fermi factor at this energy is low. The donor states
will, therefore, be almost empty, and the donor electrons will be found in the
conduction band. Note that the probability of occupancy in the conduction

band is even lower than in the donor states, but there are many more states
present in the conduction band.
SEC. 2-4 n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR 55
When the density of donor atoms in the material is high, the conductivity
is almost entirely due to donor electrons in the conduction band as explained
in Sees. 1-19 and 2-8. Under these conditions,
and so the position of the Fermi

N d = n exp
level
i
m
can be calculated if Nd
(2-24)
and n are{
known.
The number of holes in the valence band is small in /7-type material. This
is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2-7 where it is seen that raising the Fermi
level above the center of the forbidden gap decreases the value of 1 — F(E)
at the top of the valence band.
2-5 p-type Semiconductor
When groupatoms are introduced into a germanium or silicon crystal, the

3
acceptor energy level is just above the valence band in the forbidden gap.
The number of positive holes in the valence band is greater than the number of
electrons in the conduction band, and the Fermi level is below the center of
the forbidden gap as shown in Fig. 2-8.
JA&
w >"*- Acceptor
states
(Expanded scale)
1.0
S(E) -* F(E) - <— P(E) N(E) —

Energy state density Fermi factor Density of Density of
band band
FIG. 2-8. The position of the Fermi level in a p-type semi-

conductor.
If AE' is the energy by which the Fermi level is displaced down from the
center of the gap in this material, the total number of holes in the valence
band can be written as
p = n exp (2-25)
t
\j^j
by comparison with the arguments of the previous section. For material
which has so many added acceptor atoms that the conductivity is mainly due
to holes, p = a and N ,
N a n exp
{
(w) (2-26)
The number of electrons in the conduction band is small, as shown in Fig. 2-8.
2-6 Variation of the Fermi level with Temperature
For intrinsic material, raising the temperature increases the number of both
electrons and positive holes more energy is available to allow a valence
since
electron to break its bond. The number of electrons is still equal to the num-
ber of positive holes, however, and so the Fermi level remains approximately
at the center of the forbidden energy gap whatever the temperature.
Intrinsic n-type p-type
Conduction band Conduction band at Conduction band

Donor
states
o o o o o o -
.T=20°C
-Fermi level T=20°C
Fe_rmiievel_,/j unchange
d N
T=100°C
with
temperature ,o o o o
+ + Acceptor >*
+ + +
st.at.ps y
Valence band Valence band Valence band
Distance Distance Distance
FIG. 2-9. Effect of temperature on Fermi level for typical in-

trinsic n- and /?-type semiconductors.
In an «-type crystal, there are electrons in the conduction band that have
come from two different sources. Some of the electrons will be those from the
group 5 impurity atoms, and these are easily separated from their parent
atom. Their number does not vary much as the temperature is altered within
the range of temperatures where semiconducting devices are commonly used
(0° to 50° C). The other electrons in the conduction band are present because
of the breaking of a covalent bond. Such "intrinsic effect " electrons will
increase in number as the temperature is raised, and so their proportion of the
total number will increase. Thus as the temperature rises, the material
becomes more intrinsic and the Fermi level moves closer to the intrinsic
position, that is, to the center of the forbidden gap. Hence as the temperature
is raised, the material becomes increasingly nearer to intrinsic material in its
electrical properties.
For p-type material, the Fermi level at room temperature is below the
center of the forbidden gap. As the temperature is increased, this material
SEC. 2-6 VARIATION OF THE FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE 57
also becomes increasingly intrinsic for the same reason, and the Fermi level
rises until approaches the center of the gap. Thus both p- and tf-type
it
material become more like intrinsic material at high temperatures. This

places a limit on the operating temperature of a semiconducting device.
2-7 The Law of Mass Action
The number of electrons in an energy range dE in the conduction band at a

level E has previously been given as
N(E) dE = S(E) exp

{^f^) dE (2-27)
where E — EF » kT. The total number of electrons in the conduction band

is
Ep ~ E
n= f N(E) dE = J°°
S(E) exp (
T
\ dE (2-28)
The upper limit of the integral is put as infinity for convenience in the
integration. This limit will certainly include all the electrons in the conduction
band. Now the value of S(E) has been given previously as
S(E) = K (E - E
C c)
112
(2-8)
for the bottom of the conduction band only, where
K = c 2 7/2 m 3/2 77/r 3
The exponential term of Eq. (2-28) dominates the equation for energies more
than a few kT abovebottom of the conduction band, and the value of the
the
integrand soon drops to zero upon moving upwards through the band.
Hence, all the electrons will be found at the bottom of the band, and so the
limit can be used even when Eq. (2-8) is substituted in the integral. Thus,
n = K c £ (E - E y* exp (^r^) dE
c
= Kc exp
[^fi) f™ (E - E Y*
C exp (^^) dE (2-29)
This integral may be put in the form
00
77-
1/2
r
x ll2 e- x dx = ^-
J ^
and so
n = l^K^k^T* 12
exp (
^Jf^ )
(2-30)
Similarly for holes in the valence band it can be shown that
p = 2-%7r 1 ' 2
A:
3/2
r 3/2 exp (
Ev ~ Ep \ (2-31)
T
where
K = v 2 7/2 m 3/2 7r/r 3
Multiplying Eq. (2-30) by Eq. (2-31),
= ^r exp(^)
3
(2-32)
where Eg = E — E
c Vi and is the width of the forbidden gap, and
K2 = AcAp — (2-33)
From
Eq. (2-32), the product np is seen to be independent of the position of
theFermi level and is thus the same value for p-type, n-type or intrinsic material.
Using the subscript i for intrinsic material,
np = n pi {
= n2 (2-34)
Equation (2-34) is known as the law of mass action. From Eqs. (2-32) and
(2-34),
» I
-Jfi r»«exp(^) (2-35)
which allows us to calculate n for a given material

{
if Kx and Eg are known.
In the previous sections of this chapter, we put m =m c v without incurring
serious error. In this calculation, however, the product of m c and m v is
involved in the constant K ± of Eq. (2-35), and m c cannot be equated to m v.
If the energy gap and the intrinsic density of the carriers are known by
experiment, the product of the effective masses can be calculated from Eq.
(2-35) (see Problem 2-8).
For germanium at 300° K, Eg = 0.72 ev, and n = 2.5 x 10 13 cm" 3 For t
.
silicon at 300° K, Eg = 1.1 ev, and n = 1.6 x 10 10 cm" 3 t

.
2-8 Mobile and Immobile Charges
Consider a piece of semiconducting material containing atoms of both group

3 and group 5. Let 7Va and N
d be the density of atoms of the two groups
respectively. The material will be />-type or «-type according to which kind
of impurity atom predominates. Let the density of positive holes in the
material be p and the density of electrons be n.
SEC. 2-8 MOBILE AND IMMOBILE CHARGES 59
In germanium or silicon at room temperature it is found that the energy

state of the fourth (missing) valence electron of the group 3 (acceptor) atom
is band that every acceptor ion has an extra
sufficiently close to the valence
electron associated with it 1-19 and Fig. 1-20). Thus there is a
(see Sec.
resultant negative charge ( — e) associated with each acceptor atom in the
crystal lattice at room temperature. Similarly, every group 5 donor atom
donates its extra electron into the conduction band and a positive charge
( + e) is associated with every donor atom (see Fig. 1-18).
The crystal as a whole must be electrically neutral since it was formed from
neutral group 3, 4, or 5 atoms. Therefore, a charge neutrality equation may
be written summing the negative charges as ne + Na e and the positive charges
as pe + NA e. Hence,
n + Na =p + N d (2-36)
From Eq. (2-34),
Hence, ^ + Na =p + Nd
p
or p* + (Nd - Na)p - n? = (2-37)
The solution of Eqs. (2-34) and (2-36) is, therefore,
~(Nd - Na) ± V(Nd - Na )

2
+ 4/i?
= (Nd - Na ) ± V(Nd - Na f + 4/2?

n (2 _ 3g)
Assume that the material is «-type and that A^ - Na » 2n t

. Then in Eq.
(2-38) the positive sign in front of the square root is selected since n must be
positive. Hence,
n « Nd - Na
and from Eq. (2-34),
1
(2-39)
Nd - N,
When the density of acceptor atoms is higher than donor atoms in the
crystal, and assuming that N a -N » 2n h Eq.
d (2-38) becomes
p = Na - Nd
and n = ^- (2-40)
Equations (2-39) and (2-40) show that it is the excess of one type of
impurity density over the other that determines the type of material. When
N a N
= d the material becomes intrinsic again provided the donor and accep-
,
tor atoms are not present in such numbers as to destroy the lattice properties
of the group 4 crystal.
For n-typt material where no acceptor atoms are present and d » 2n u N
n = N d
P = (2-41)
i
Since N d is relatively high, the contribution of the minority carriers to the
conductivity can be ignored, and
a = ne\ji n + pefM p X N e^d n (2-42)
For strongly />-type material where no donor atoms are present, the
corresponding equations are
P = N a
n = %
N„
'I (2-43)
and a = ne[x n + pe\i v X N a e[x p (2-44)
Example :
Germanium has a donor-type impurity added to the extent of one atom per
10 8 germanium atoms. What effect does this have on the conductivity of the
material at 300° K?
For intrinsic germanium at 300° K from Table 1-2 and Figs. 1-21 and
1-22,
nf = 6.25 x 10
26
cm- 3
/x n = 3900 cm 2 volt" 1
sec" 1
Ijl
p
= 1900 cm 2
volt" 1
sec" 1
The conductivity of intrinsic germanium is
Oi = n^n + ii p )
= 2.5 x 10 13
(1.6 x 10" 19 )5800
= 0.0232 ohm" cm" 1 1
There are 4.42 x 10 22 atoms of germanium per cubic centimeter (see Appen-
14
dix), and so the number of donor atoms per cubic centimeter is 4.42 x 10 .
N d is, therefore, about 18 times n h and we may use the simplified form of
Eq. (2-38) without introducing an error of more than 1 per cent. This is not
significant, since semiconductor properties can seldom be measured with an
5EC. 2-8 MOBILE AND IMMOBILE CHARGES 61
accuracy of better than 3 per cent. Thus,
n = Nd = 4.42 x 10 14 cm- 3
26
nf 6.25 x 10
P 1.41 x 10 12 cm
N d 4.42 x 10 14
and Eq. (2-42) becomes
o a N d efi n = 4.42 x 10 14 (1.6 x 1CT 19

)3800
= 0.269 ohm" cm"

1 1
where the mobility is obtained from Fig. 1-21.
This example illustrates several important points. First, the addition of

only 1 part of donor impurity to 10 8 parts of germanium increases the
conductivity of a crystal approximately ten-fold, showing how sensitive the
conductivity is to donor (or acceptor) type impurity. Secondly, although
this type of calculation aids us in understanding the mechanism of semi-
conductors, it is difficult to carry out for high impurity densities where the
mobility is a function of the conductivity. Finally, the experimental results
given in Figs. 1-21 through 1-24 provide a ready-made solution to this type
of problem.
2-9 The Hall Effect
It is often necessary to determine whether a material is /7-type or /?-type.

Measurement of the conductivity of a specimen will not give this information
Probe attached
to face 2
Direction of
conventional
current flow
Probe attached
to face 1
FIG. 2-10. Illustration of the Hall effect.

since it cannot distinguish between positive hole and electron conduction. The
Hall effect can be utilized to distinguish between the two types of carrier, and it
also allows the density of the charge carriers to be determined. In conjunction

with a measurement of conductivity the mobility of the carriers can be found.
In 1897, Hall discovered that when a current was passed through a slab
of material in the presence of a transverse magnetic field, a small potential
difference was established in a direction perpendicular to both the current
flow and the magnetic field. Figure 2-10 shows the current flowing in the
positive x direction with the flux density, B, in the positive z direction and the
potential difference appearing in the y direction. Probes may be attached to
faces 1 and 2 and the potential difference may be measured by a high sensitivity
d-c vacuum tube voltmeter of very high input resistance.
Face 2
Face 1
Direction of B out of paper
FIG. 2-11 Motion of electrons in an //-type semiconductor (Hall

effect).
The Hall effect may be explained by reference to Fig. 2-1 1 which shows
the front face of the slab only. Assuming that the material is an «-type
semiconductor, the current flow consists almost entirely of electrons moving

from right to left. This corresponds to the direction of conventional current
from left to right as in Fig. 2-10.
If v is the velocity of electrons at right angles to the magnetic field, there
is a downward on each electron of magnitude Bev. This causes the
force
electron current to be deflected in a downwards direction and causes a nega-
tive charge to accumulate on the bottom face of the slab (face 1). A potential
difference is therefore established from top to bottom of the specimen with
the bottom face negative. This potential difference causes a field $ in the
negative y direction, and so there is a force of e$ acting in the upward direc-
tion on the electron. Equilibrium occurs when
= Bev
or = Bv (2-45)
SEC. 2-9 THE HALL EFFECT 63
The Hall coefficient is defined to be
*" ~BJ (2-46)
where J is the current density of the electron stream, and the negative sign is
used because the electric field is in the negative y direction. Now J = nev,
thus
v
Rn = (2-47)
BJ nev ne
All three quantities on the right-hand side of Eq. (2-46) can be measured, and
so the Hall coefficient and the carrier density n can be found.
<>y
Face 2
Direction of
positive hole
motion
Face 1
Direction of B out of paper
FIG. 2-12. Motion of positive holes in a p-type semiconductor

(Hall effect).
Figure 2-12 shows the conditions that exist in a similar p-type specimen
when the current is carried entirely by positive holes. If the conventional
current flow is in the same direction, the deflection of the holes is down-
wards, but now the carriers have a positive charge. Thus the bottom face
becomes positive,and the potential difference and the field are in the opposite
direction from the previous case. The sign of the charge and the direction of
the field are both changed so Eq. (2-45) still applies, i.e.,
$ = Bv (2-45)
The Hall coefficient for hole conduction is now positive and is given by
R* =
M (2-48)
Substituting J = pev where p is the positive hole density gives
RP = -1
(2-49)
pe
Thus the which carriers predominate

sign of the Hall voltage indicates in
the material, and the magnitude of the potential difference may be used to
calculate the density of charge carriers.
The analysis given above applies only when the charge carriers are free of
attractive forces in the energy bands and when they move with a steady drift
velocity v. This is not the case in a semiconductor, and a computation of the
average speed leads to the conclusion that
Rn = =* = =^ (2-50)
Sne ne
Rv = T- =
Zpe
Spe
~
3tt
—1.18
pe
(2-51)
For «-type material, the conductivity is given by
r
n = nep
and in /?-type material
ap = pefx p
Hence, * - £- -£=£ (2-52)
and ^ =
G
fe
= Tji ^ 53 >
Therefore, the mobility of the charge carriers may be found if the con-
ductivity and the Hall coefficient are known.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
General
Dekker, Adrianus J., Solid State Physics, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1957
Middlebrook, R. D., An Introduction to Junction Transistor Theory, New

York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1957
Spenke, Eberhard, Electronic Semiconductors, New York: McGraw-Hill

Book Company, Inc., 1958
1956
Hall effect
Dunlap, W. C, An Introduction to Semiconductors, New York: John Wiley &

Sons, Inc., 1957
-BIBLIOGRAPHY 65
Kittel, Charles, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 2d ed., New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1956
Shive,J. N., Properties, Physics and Design of Semiconductor Devices, New

York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1959
PROBLEMS
2-1 A metal has its Fermi level 8.95 ev above the bottom of the conduction
band. Find the momentum of an electron at the Fermi level assuming
the free mass of an electron applies. How many energy states per unit
volume are present below the Fermi level ?
2-2 What is the range in energy in multiples of kT over which the Fermi
factor varies from 0.99 to 0.01 ? What is this energy range in electron
volts at 300° K?
2-3 What fundamental concepts are used in the derivation of the energy
density of states in the conduction band of a metal as a function of
energy ?
2-4 Determine the average energy of an electron in the conduction band of

a metal at 0° K as a function of the Fermi level.
ans. (3/5) EF
2-5 What is the percentage error introduced by making the approximation
in Eq. (2-14) that E — EF » kT (in
1 particular, that 100 millielectron
volts » 25.8 millielectron volts)?
2-6 What are the significant differences between crystalline solid state
materials and gases that necessitate the use of different statistical
treatments (Fermi-Dirac for solids and Maxwell-Boltzmann for gases)
in the evaluation of electrical phenomena?
2-7 Recalculate Eq. (2-22) using m c and m v for the mass of an electron in
the conduction band and a hole in the valence band respectively. If
w m
cl v =1.5, what is the displacement of the Fermi level from the
center of the forbidden gap when T = 300° K?
2-8 At 300° K, the width of the forbidden energy gap in germanium is
0.72 ev and the intrinsic carrier density is 2.5 x 10 13 cm -3 . Calculate

the value mmc v /m 2 where
, m is the free mass of an electron.
2-9 Carefully distinguish among intrinsic, n-type and/?-type semiconductor.

Assuming what is the position of the Fermi level at 300° K
m = mc v,
(a) in intrinsic germanium (b) in «-type germanium where Nd = 10

15
-3 -3
cm (c) inp-type germanium where 7Va = 10
13
cm ?
2-10 Calculate the resistivity of intrinsic silicon at 300° K from the data of
Table 1-2.
2-1 1 Calculate the density of donor atoms which has to be added to intrinsic
germanium to produce n-typ& material of conductivity 0.19 ohm cm. It
is given that the mobility of electrons in the «-type semiconductor is
3250 cm 2 volt" 1 cm" 1 .
ans. 1.01 x 10 16 cm" 3

2-12 Explain how the Hall effect shows whether holes or electrons pre-
dominate in a semiconductor. Suggest an experimental arrangement
for measuring Hall voltage giving values of current, magnetic field, and
voltage you would expect to find for a small specimen of «-type ger-
manium of resistivity 5 ohm cm.
2-13 An w-type germanium specimen has a donor density of 10 15 cm" 3 . It
is arranged in a Hall effect experiment where B= 0.5 webers m~ 2 and

J = 500 amps m -2 . What is the Hall voltage if the specimen is 3 mm
thick?
ans. 5.5 millivolts
3
Junctions Before discussing semiconductor junctions, we will
briefly consider the lesscomplex case of a junction
between Materials between two metals. It is shown that there is an
initial passage of charge across the junction which
causes a change in potential between the two sides.

A semiconductor junction is then examined in more
detail, and the contact potential, the junction
capacitance, and the current versus voltage char-

acteristic are derived.
*
68 JUNCTIONS BETWEEN MATERIALS CHAP. 3
3-1 Work Function in a Metal
Figure 3-1 shows the energy state density curve and the position of the Fermi
level for a typical metal. The curve of S(E) versus energy is of the form
S(E) = K(E) 1 '2

(3-1)
where the energy, E, is measured from the bottom of the band, and K= 2 7/2
m 3l2
7rh-
3
.
The Fermi factor, F(E), has the value given in Eq. (2-10) which is re-
peated here for convenience
1
F(E) =
1 + exp [(E - EF)/kT]
0°K
S(E) —* F(E) — N(E)
FIG. 3-1. Position of the Fermi level for a metal.
The curve of the number of occupied states, N(E), versus energy which is on
the right-hand side of Fig. 3-1 is obtained from Eq. (2-11), i.e.,
N(E) dE = S(E)F(E) dE
For a metal, the total number of conduction electrons remains constant
as the temperature is changed. The variation of F(E) with temperature has
been discussed in Chap. 2. However, it is found that, although the shape of
the curve of Fermi factor plotted against energy is dependent upon tem-
perature, the curve alters in such a way that the Fermi level is substantially
constant. The Fermi level of a metal, therefore, is a useful reference level.
In any metal the energy states at the top of the band are not completely
full. Because there is a continuous band of energy states, electrons are free to
move about within the metal, and the electrical conductivity is high. This
leads to a picture of the potential energy variation in a metal which ignores
the potential energy variations close to an atom but has the merit of simplicity.
Sommerfeld first introduced this simple model of electrons in a metal as
SEC. 3- WORK FUNCTION IN A METAL 69
given in Fig. 3-2. Here electron levels up to the Fermi level EF are shown
filled. The vacuum level in the diagram refers to the energy of an electron at
rest outside the metal.
The vacuum level, Es must be higher than the Fermi level, EF for a
, ,
metal at room temperatures, otherwise electrons would be thermionically

emitted (see below). The difference between Es and EF is known as the work
function, of the material. It is the energy required to raise one electron from
(/>,
the Fermi level inside the metal to the vacuum level outside. The value of the
work function is usually between 2 and 5 ev.
The Fermi level is measured from the bottom of the energy band and can
be calculated for a particular metal if the valence, density, and atomic weight
of the metal are known. The valence of a metal is the number of electrons per
atom in the outer energy band, and so the product of the valence and the
number of atoms per unit volume gives the total number of electrons per unit
[— i 1 Vacuum level Ec
Bottom of energy band

Metal Vacuum
Distance
FIG. 3-2. Simple picture of electrons in a metal. Conditions close

to the surface of the metal are not shown.
volume which are occupying energy states in this band. If this number is N,
from Eqs. (3-1) and (2-11),
F
N
Jo
P KE ll2
F{E) dE = C
Jo
KE 112
dE (3-2)
at T= 0° K, since F(E) = 1 up to EF and all states will be filled up to the

Fermi level and unfilled above that level. Hence,
2
N = 2KEV
or
Table 3-1 gives the values of the Fermi

m level
2/3
and the work function for several

(3-3)
metals.
*
TABLE 3-1. Valence, Fermi level, and work function for

five common metals.
Metal Valence
Al 3 11.7 ev 4.20 ev
Ag 1 5.5 4.46
Cu 1 7.0 4.45
K 1 2.1 2.22
Na 1 3.1 2.28
As the temperature of a metal (or semiconductor) is raised, it is found

that electrons will be emitted from the surface. This phenomenon is known
as thermionic emission and is of great
importance in thermionic vacuum
tubes where it supplies the electron
current in the device. The electron
state distribution curve of Fig. 3-3
Electrons having an shows that at high temperatures there
energy greater than
is an appreciable number of electrons
the vacuum level Es
in the "tail" of the curve above the
vacuum level, Es This number can be
.
calculated at any given temperature

from Eq. (2-11). These electrons have
sufficient energy to escape from the
metal surface over the potential barrier
<j> (see Fig. 3-2). However, all elec-
trons having an energy greater than

N(E) — £s w ill not necessarily be emitted from
the surface. The calculation of the
FIG. 3-3. Diagram showing electrons in
emitted current takes into account only
the tail of the distribution curve which
have an energy greater than Es .
those electrons which are traveling
with a velocity normal to the surface
sufficient to overcome the energy barrier of the work function, <f>.
This example briefly indicates how the Fermi-Dirac statistics can be used
to explain a well-known phenomenon in physical electronics. In the re-
maining sections of this chapter, the Fermi level will be shown to be an
important tool in the analysis of current flow across metals and semiconductor
junctions.
3-2 Junctions between Metals
In Fig. 3-4 is band diagram at 0° K of two different metals

shown the energy
having work functions fa and fa. The shaded areas represent the filled
SEC. 3-2 JUNCTIONS BETWEEN METALS 71
Metal 1 Metal 2
E*
(Vacuum level)
Fermi level
Fermi level
Filled electron
levels Filled electron
levels
+- N(E) N(E)
FIG. 3-4. Energy band diagram of two metals with work func-
tions (f>i and <f> 2 (metals are not in contact).
Transition
Metal 1 Metal 2
region
E,
01-02
Surface potential
Fermi level
Filled electron Filled electron

levels levels
N(E) ME) —
FIG. 3-5. Junctions of two metals at 0° K showing the contact
potential (metal 1 at ground potential).
electron levels in each metal, and the metals are assumed to be separated.
The reference level Es is common.
Figure 3-5 shows the energy band diagram when the two metals have a
common junction. The junction is assumed to be clean and regular so that
the crystalline properties of the two materials are altered as little as possible.
Since the electrons are virtually free in both metals, there is a transfer of
electrons from metal 2 to metal Fermi levels coincide. In this
1 until the
process, metal 1 acquires electrons and becomes negative, and metal 2 loses
electrons and becomes positive. The difference in energy possessed by an
electron on the two sides of the junction is x — 2 = eVB Thus VB is the
<j>
<f>
.
potential difference between the two metals which occurs because of the
transfer of charge across the junction. VB is known as the contact potential
between the metals.
For metals at 0° K it can easily be seen that, since the highest filled
electron states coincide with the Fermi level, the two Fermi levels on either
side of the junction will line up. At any other temperature, there are some
filled electron states above the Fermi levels, but it may be shown thermo-
dynamically that, at any temperature, the Fermi levels of any two materials
will coincide when the two materials have a common junction.
3-3 Semiconductor Junctions with No Applied Voltage
Semiconductor junctions are commonly formed between p- and «-type

material. It is assumed that the group 4 crystalline structure is unaltered
across the junction and that only the type of impurity changes. Thus,
junctions having the properties described here cannot be made by placing
two pieces of semiconducting material together, because surface films and
other irregularities would produce major discontinuities in the crystal
structure. Junctions can be made by diffusing the required impurity density
into the crystal, by an alloying process, or by growing a crystal with an
impurity density which is a function of distance. These three methods of
construction are briefly discussed in Sec. 5-6.
Junctions may be abrupt or graded. An abrupt junction, which is also
known as a step junction, is of the type shown later in Fig. 3-7 where the
acceptor or donor density is a constant in the material up to the boundary.
away from the
In a graded junction, the impurity density varies with distance
boundary in some manner. Both types of junction are used extensively in the
manufacture of diodes and transistors. Only the abrupt type of junction will
be discussed in detail in this chapter.
In a metal, the electrons which move across the boundary to bring the
Fermi levels in line are drawn from a very thin layer close to the junction
22
since there is a high density of free electrons in the metal (about 10 electrons
per cubic centimeter). For a semiconductor, however, there may be only
about 10 15 free electrons per cubic centimeter, in a typical case, and so there
.
SEC. 3-3 SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE 73
is a much wider
region which is affected by the flow of charge. Electrons in
the conductionband on the n-typt side, which were supplied from the group 5
impurity atoms, travel across the junction and leave the positively ionized
group 5 atoms unneutralized (Fig. 3-6). Consequently there is a positively
p-type rc-type p-type n-type

Metallurgical ~, - ,
, Group 5 atoms
junction
Group 3 atoms shQwn only
shown only-.
o o © © © © o o
#
b °o © © © © o* o
D O #
o o © © © © o o*
}_
Extent of Extent of I
f
Positive hole negative positive Electron and
J
and group 3 space-charge space-chargei group 5 atom

atom (neutral) region on region on (neutral)
]
p-type side rc-type side |
Metallurgical Charge Charge i
junction depletion depletion j
region region \
Distance -
FIG. 3-6. The p-n junction.
charged region adjacent to the junction in the /?-type material. On the /?-type
side, the electrons which have traversed the boundary recombine with the
positive holes in the valence band, which predominate because of the pres-
ence of group 3 atoms. Close to the junction on the /?-type side, there is a
layer of unneutralized negatively ionized group 3 ions which form a negatively
charged region. Both the group 5 positive ions (in the «-type material) and
the group 3 negative ions (in the /?-type material) are immobile since they are
bound in the crystal lattice. Close to the metallurgical junction, therefore,
there are very few mobile charge carriers, and this location is referred to as the
charge depletion region. In fact, it is a charged or space charge region because
of the presence of the immobile ions, but there are no charges available for
conduction.
Figure 3-7(b) shows the two charge depletion regions of opposite sign on
the two sides of the junction. Since the numerical values of the charge on the
two types of ion are the same, for overall charge neutrality
Nd X = Na X 2 1 (3-4)
The charge depletion region in each material is therefore inversely propor-

tional to thedonor or acceptor density in the material. The effective width of
the junction (that is, the region over which the bulk properties of the p- or
«-type material no longer apply) is X1 + X2 This quantity is of considerable.
importance in junction transistors as will be shown later. Also of interest in

both p-n junctions and transistors is the capacitance across the junction
because of the two space charge regions (see Sec. 3-4).
There is an important relationship, known as Poissorfs equation, which
may be used to find the way in which the potential varies with distance in a
p-type a n- type
S T3
N (a)
Negative
charge
FIG. 3-7. (a) Impurity density, (b) Charge density, (c) Potential
across a p-n junction.
region containing charge. In three dimensions, and written in nonvectorial

form, Poisson's equation is
82 V d2 V d2 V _ -p
2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ~ e
8x
where p is the volume charge density in the material of permittivity e.

S€C. 3-3 SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE 75
In the more simple one-dimensional case that we are using in this analysis,
Poisson's equation reduces to
In the space charge region of the /?-type material in the junction shown in
Fig. 3-7 and assuming that the junction has unit area,
P= -eNa (3-6)
TU
Thus, _ = _-p = __
d V
2
eN a _.
(3-7)
Integrating,
dV eN
^- =
dx
—
x + C
s
(3-8)
eN x 2
and V= A^- + Cx + D (3-9)
Equation (3-9) applies only in the space charge region of the p-type
material. To evaluate the constants, C and D, we will investigate the bound-
ary conditions at the two ends of the region. At the right-hand side of this
region in Fig. 3-7, we can write V = when x — 0, if all voltages are
measured by reference to the potential at the metallurgical boundary of the
two materials. In the bulk/?-type semiconducting material, we know that the
potential is uniform. Therefore, in Fig. 3-7, the space charge region can be
X
said to end at a point x = — ± where dV/dx = 0. Inserting these two
boundary conditions into Eqs. (3-9) and (3-8), respectively,
D =
from Eq. (3-9), and
eN
£
from Eq. (3-8). If V = V when x =

± -X l9
Vl = Z£^£ xl (3-10)
Is
If Poisson's equation for the n-typc depletion region is considered,
and by a similar argument it can be shown that
6
V2 = -^X\ (3-11)
where V = V2 at x = X2 (the limit of the n-typc depletion region in Fig. 3-7).

The total potential across the junction when no external voltage is sup-
plied is the contact potential, VB .
VB = |Fi| + \V2 \
=
T£
{Na X\ + N Xl)
d (3-12)
From charge neutrality,
NX a ±
= NXd 2 (3-4)
Eliminating X 2 from Eqs. (3-12) and (3-4),
v =
eNa X\ I, ,
N
a
1/2
or X = x (3-13)
Alternatively, if X 1 is eliminated,
1/2
Xo. = (3-14)
Equations (3-13) and (3-14) show that the depletion widths can be calculated
from a knowledge of the contact potential and the donor and acceptor
densities in the n- and /?-type semiconducting regions.
It is possible to calculate the contact potential if Nd and Na are given for
the two regions. For the junction of Fig. 3-7, we can write n n for the equilib-
rium density of electrons in the rc-type bulk material (away from the space
charge region), and n p for the equilibrium density of electrons in the /?-type
bulk material (away from the space charge region). Then n n = Nd where Nd
refers to the «-type material, and n p = nf/Na where Na refers to the p-typc
material, and n p is obtained from the law of mass action [Eq. (2-34)]. In
Fig. 3-8, we have repeated the energy band diagram of the p-n junction. The
Fermi levels on the two sides of the junction are coincident, and the diagram
also indicates the relative positions of the Fermi levels of intrinsic material
with reference to the energy gap. If Ep and En are the energy levels of the
bottom of the conduction band on the /?-type and «-type side respectively,
we can write
Ep - En = eVB (3-15)
In addition, from Eqs. (2-23) and (2-25),
nn = Nd = tiiCxp^J
and
nf
m
SEC. 3-3 SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE 77
where AE and AE' are as defined in Sees. 2-4 and 2-5 and as shown in Fig
3-8. From the diagram,
AE + AE' = eVB (3-16)
Thus,
nn (AE + AE'\ (eVB \
(3-17)
or '-?'* ©-¥*(¥) (3-18)
p-type n-type
np
Conduction
nn band
Fermi level of
intrinsic material
Jae'
Fermi level Fermi level (n-type)
<D
(p-type) Jae - Fermilevel of
intrinsic material
Valence
band
Metallurgical
junction
Distance —
FIG. 3-8. Energy band diagram for the p-n junction.
Example :
A p-n junction is formed from germanium of resistivity ohm cm (p side) and 1
0.1 ohm cm (n side). When operating at room temperature (300° K), what is
the voltage across the junction (contact potential), and what is the total width
of the depletion region? [Note: Many of the quantities required in this cal-
culation are commonly given in c.g.s. units whereas most electrical calcula-
tions are made using practical (M.K.S.) units. Familiarity must be obtained
in converting from one set of units to the other.]
Since the resistivity of both sides is considerably less than the resistivity of
intrinsicgermanium, 7Vd » n (w-type) and /Va » n (p-type). For the «-type
{ {
-1
material where a n = 10 mho cm an = Nd e^ n and the electron mobility,
,
-1 -1
n from Fig. 1-21 is 3000 cm volt
2
/Lt , sec Hence, .
10
JV„«-3l 19 « 2.1 x 10 16 cm" 3
en n (1.6 x 10" )3000
2.1 x 10 22 m" 3
For the p-type material, the hole mobility, \i

v, from Fig. 1-22 is 1650 cm 2
-1 -1
volt sec when ap = 1 mho cm" 1
, and
"ATa = —L = :
x 10" 19 )1650
= **
18 X Cm -3
1U 15 cm
x 10
ep p (1.6
= 3.8 x 10 21 m- 3
At a temperature of 300° K,
kT (1.38 x 10- 23 )300

19 25.8 mv
1.6 x 10"
"
e
Hence,
v kT. (Nd Na \
= _
25 8c l0ge
'
, [(2.1 x 10 16 )3.8 x 10 15 1
I 6.25 x 10 2 ° J
= 303 mv
From Eq. (3-13),
1/2
= 2eV f
*i
eN c
(>»
Working in M.K.S. units and noting that the relative permittivity of
germanium is 16,
12 2
2(16)(8.85 x 10- )0.303
1 '
Al _ [
I
5A:> x 1U m
~ Ll.6 x 10" 19 (3.8 x 10 21 )(1 + 0.183)J ~
Similarly, from Eq. (3-14),
12
_ 2(16)(8.85 x 10- )0.303 V' 2 _
*2 ~ [
x 10" 19 22 " 6 23 x 1U
' m
Ll.6 (2.1 x 10 )(1 + 5.53)J
Total depletion width = |*i| + \X2 = \

4.08 x 10"
7
m
Because of the contact potential across a p-n junction, the energy of an
electron at the bottom of the conduction band in the p-type material is
greater than that of a corresponding electron at the bottom of the conduction

band in the /7-type material by an amount eVB (Fig. 3-8). The presence of the
potential across the p-n junction, therefore, can be thought of as a potential
barrier existing between the two sides. The voltage, VB , is in such a direction
as to present a potential barrier to electrons which move from the n to
try to
the p side, whereas, it will assist electrons moving from the p to the n side.
For an open-circuited junction, the net flow of current must be zero, and this
condition is used in the analysis of the junction in Sec. 3-5.

SEC. 3-4 JUNCTION WITH APPLIED VOLTAGE: JUNCTION CAPACITANCE 79
3-4 Semiconductor Junction

with Applied Voltage: Junction Capacitance
When a voltage is applied to a p-n semiconductor junction, it is found that

the voltage-current characteristic is nonlinear. If the p-type material is made
positive with respect to the ft-type, the junction is said to be forward biased
p-type n-type -i
Forward bias
=ft*
Forward bias
+ v
p-type n-type
Reverse bias 7
^
Reverse bias
FIG. 3-9. The p-n junction and its characteristics under forward
and reverse bias.
since this is the direction in which the resistance of the device is low and the
current flows more readily. When the «-type is made positive with respect to
the /?-type, the junction is reverse biased, and its resistance is high (Fig. 3-9).
p-type n-type
Fermi level %¥ (Forward

T bias)
^
Distance
FIG. 3-10. A p-n junction with forward bias.
This rectifying property of the p-n junction will later be explained in terms
of the previously developed theory of semiconductors.
When only a small current is flowing in a typical p-n junction, the voltage
drop across the p- or «-type bulk material is usually small compared with the
voltage drop across the junction. In the analysis that follows, therefore, the
voltage drop in the semiconducting material itself will be neglected, and all
the applied voltage will be assumed to be dropped across the junction.

The presence of an applied voltage across the junction adds to, or sub-
tracts from, the barrier voltage VB . Consider the p-n junction with forward
bias as shown in Fig. 3-10. When an electron passes
across the junction from
the n- to the p-type material, moving in the same direction as the force
it is
due to the applied electric field. Thus the potential energy in the />-type
material is less than it would have been in an unbiased junction by an amount
V electron volts, and in Fig. 3-10, the conduction and valence bands have
been lowered by this value. (Compare Fig. 3-10 with the energy bands for
the unbiased junction given in Fig. 3-8.) The energy band structure of the
p-type n-type
x^ a
t
I
Fermi level
i\_
eV s
a <
Reve rse bias
r Fermi level 2
>
•"tt
O
J
Barrier v
height
eVT
I
Distance
FIG. 3-11. A p-n junction with reverse bias.
p-type material is unchanged, however, and so the Fermi level, too, is
lowered V electron volts with respect to its counterpart in the n-type material.
Since the unbiased barrier voltage (the contact potential VB ) is reduced by
a forward bias V, the barrier voltage in the general case is given by VT where
VT = VB - V (3-19)
Figure 3-1 1 illustrates the case of the p-n junction with reverse bias. The
barrier height is now increased over the unbiased value.
Referring back to the analysis of the preceding section, Eqs. (3-4) to
(3-14) still apply if the total barrier voltage VT is substituted in place of the
unbiased value VB . For example, Eq. (3-13) can be rewritten as
leV,
Xi = (3-20)
eN D
(a
SEC. 3-4 JUNCTION WITH APPLIED VOLTAGE: JUNCTION CAPACITANCE 81
where X x is now the depletion width in the p-type material with an applied
voltage V. Similarly,
11/2
2sVT
Xo = (3-21)
eK (-3
where X2 is the depletion width in the «-type material with applied voltage V.
Each space charge region of the junction contains a charge which is
numerically equal to Q, where
*NY .NY ^sNa Nd VT y 12
\Q\=eNa X = eNd X2 =[
\n\ \
1
{Na + Nd) \
from Eqs. (3-20) and (3-21) and from Fig. 3-7(b). Equation (3-19) shows
that, when a forward voltage V is applied, VT decreases, and Q is diminished.
From Fig. 3-7(b), the «-type region contains positive charge, and the /?-type
region contains negative charge. These charges are both of the opposite sign
to the charges on an equivalent capacitor when a forward bias is applied.
Thus the junction charge, Q, should be written with a negative sign to give
= _\2eeNa Nd VT y» (3 _ 22)
The variation in junction charge, Q, as the applied voltage, V, is altered

constitutes an incremental junction capacitance, C, which is given by C=
dQIdV. From Eq. (3-19),
dVT = -dV
and so, by differentiation of Eq. (3-22),
dQ ctiy a iy d
C= 17-1/2 H-2TI
{ " l5)
dV 2(Na + N )\ d
By an algebraic manipulation of Eqs. (3-20), (3-21), and (3-23), we can

write,
c -
=xnrm (3 24)
The last two equations show that across an abrupt semiconductor junction,
there is a nonlinear incremental capacitance of value equal to the quotient of
the permittivity of the medium and the total depletion width. For the
junction used as an example in Sec. 3-3,
|JSTi| + \X2 = \
4.08 x 10"
7
m
and, taking the relative permittivity of germanium as 16, the capacitance per
unit area is
r
C=
m g = 16(8.85 x 10"
12
)
= _
346 ^ ffm
_2
+ 1^ 1 4.08 x 10-^
~6
For a junction of area 10 m G=
2
, 346 pf. This is the capacitance across
the junction when the applied voltage is small compared with VB In practice,
.
the capacitance is more frequently of concern when the p-n junction is

reverse biased, since then its reactance may be smaller than the resistance of
the junction in the reverse direction. If the applied voltage is - 10 volts,
VT = VB - V = 0.303 + 10 = 10.3 volts
The capacitance of the junction then becomes 59 pf. Note from Eqs. (3-23)
and (3-24) that if one of the regions is
p-type n-type
of high conductivity, it has little effect
on the junction capacitance which is
then determined by the conductivity,

i.e., the doping, of the other region.
For a linearly graded junction
where the donor and acceptor densities
are as given in Fig. 3-12, the incre-
mental junction capacitance is pro-
113
portional to Vt The relationship
.
between capacitance and voltage can

FIG. 3-12. A linearly graded junction
where N d — N a = ax and a is a constant. be derived in a similar way to the
analysis for the abrupt junction (see
problem 3-4). The nonlinear capacitance versus voltage characteristic is
useful in some types of electronic circuitry.
3-5 Flow of Current

across a p-n Junction: The Rectifier Equation
In this section, we shall quantitatively discuss the flow of current across a p-n
junction and derive the form of the rectifier equation. This will give a physical
picture of the semiconductor rectifier before the more exact analysis is given
in Chap. 4.
Consider Fig. 3-13 which shows the energy bands of a p-n junction. In
the diagram, a forward bias has been applied, and so the Fermi level on the
ft-type side, EFn , is higher than that on the p-type side by the value eV.
There are four possibilities for current flow across the junction, and these
have been shown in the figure. In the valence band, holes can flow to the
right or to the left, and the two current densities have been separately
+
identified as Jf and J2 respectively. In the conduction band, electrons can
flow to the right or to the left. A flow of electrons to the left produces a
conventional current flow to the right since electrons carry a negative charge.
For this reason, the arrows in the conduction band on Fig. 3-13 indicate the
direction of flow of the electrons, and a minus sign has been placed before the
current densities. Thus current density J± is flowing to the right, and current
density J 2 is flowing to the left. This means that the two current densities 7r
SEC. 3-5 FLOW OF CURRENT ACROSS A p-n JUNCTION: THE RECTIFIER EQUATION 83
and J± add together in the right-hand direction and current densities /2~ and
J} add together in the left-hand direction. The net current density flowing
toward the right is
J = (/£ + J?) - (J* + J}) (3-25)
The variation of all four current densities with applied voltage, V, will now be
discussed.
In the conduction band, current density J^ is caused by a flow of electrons
from the /?-type material down the potential hill into the fl-type. In a typical
junction, this is a small current of a few microamps since its supply of charge
p-type n-type
•
EF Fermi level
2 Fermi level
Distance — *
FIG. 3-13.A p-n junction showing electron and hole current

densities.(Note that the arrows show the direction of flow of
both electrons and holes. For J{ and /2~ the flow of conventional
current is in the opposite direction.)
isthe conduction band of the p-typQ material where electrons are scarce. The
mechanism of the transfer of charge from the bulk material to the depletion
region is mainly that of diffusion which will be discussed in Chap. 4. Here, we
note only that the passage of electrons into the depletion region by diffusion
is nearly independent of the voltage across the junction since the two regions
are substantially independent of one another. Once an electron is at the edge
of the potential barrier (coordinate — X onx Fig. 3-7), it will be swept across
the junction by the action of the electric field. Changing the height of the
barrier will not alter /£ provided the barrier voltage remains in the sense
shown in Fig. 3-13. In other words, J% will be constant provided the electrons
flowdown a potential hill. This condition is true for all values of reverse bias,
and also when the forward bias is less than VB J^ . is often known as a
saturation current density for this reason.
Ji is the other current density in the conduction band, and here electrons
flow from the «-type to the /?-type semiconductor. The conduction band of
the H-type material provides a copious source of electrons for this current.
Provided the current is not excessive, the only restriction on the flow of the
current is VT The probability of
that of the presence of the barrier potential .
occupation of the states in the conduction band of the «-type material

decreases exponentially with increasing energy in the band according to
exp [(EFn — E)/kT]. For a potential barrier of height VTabove the bottom
of the conduction band of the «-type material (as shown in Fig. 3-13), the
number of electrons which are an available source of current is proportional
to exp (-eVT /kT). Thus the flow of electrons from right to left across the
barrier causes a current
Ji = C, exp (3-26)
(^ffj
where C x is a constant to be determined.
A argument may be used to find the two positive hole current
similar
densities in the valence band. J% is a saturation current density which does
not depend on the height of the potential barrier. Since holes carry a positive
sign, holes flowing upwards in Fig. 3-13 are effectively flowing down the
potential barrier. Current density /J", which is flowing in the opposite
direction, is moving up the potential barrier and is given by
y x+ = C2 exp(^) (3-27)
where C2 is another constant.

There is no net current flow across the junction when the applied voltage,
V, is zero. From Eq. (3-19), VT = VB and ,
J- _ /- = (3-28)
and J} -J£=0 (3-29)
because current flow in one band is independent of the flow in the other band
and charge cannot be accumulated in either band. Substituting for Jx from
Eq. (3-26) in Eq. (3-28) and using VT = VB
c^p(=ffi)-j; = o
or d = Ji exp
(^?)
(3-30)
Similarly,
C2 = Ji exp (3-31)
(§)
Equations (3-26) and (3-30) relate Jf and J% in terms of VT and VB Similarly, .
Eqs. (3-27) and (3-31) give the relationship between J} and J%. For the
SEC. 3-5 FLOW OF CURRENT ACROSS A p-n JUNCTION: THE RECTIFIER EQUATION 85
general case of V^ 0, we may substitute for Jx and J± in Eq. (3-25), to give
J = (Ji + J?) - W+ JZ)
= (/2" +/ + )[exp(g)-
2 l]
= /2
[
eXP ©" 1
]
(3
" 32)
where J2= J* + «^2+ (the sum of the saturation current densities), and
V = VB - VT from Eq. (3-19).
Positive quadrant
forward bias
J2 ex P
(f|)
AkT/e + V
4kT/e
K
N- Breakdown
region
Negative quadrant
reverse bias _j
FIG. 3-14. The voltage-current characteristic of a p-n junction

rectifier.
Equation (3-32) is known as the rectifier equation and is plotted in Fig.

3-14. In the positive quadrant, when a forward bias is applied of magnitude
eV > 4kT, Qxp(eV/kT) » 1, and J = J2 exp (eV/kT). In the negative
quadrant, when a reverse bias of magnitude — eV > AkT is applied, exp
(eV/kT) « 1, and / = J2 At room
. temperature (T = 300° K), 4kT = 103
millielectron volts.
When the junction is biased in the forward direction, the potential barrier,
VT ,lowered, and the currents Jl and J± are increased. For the reverse-
is
biased junction, the potential barrier is increased, and the saturation current
densities J% and J} dominate the expression. The value of the saturation

current is derived in Chap. 4.
As the forward current increases, the characteristic in Fig. 3-14 becomes

more linear. This is because the ohmic resistance of the semiconductor (which
has so far been neglected) causes a significant voltage drop to occur in the
body of the semiconductor.
3-6 The Breakdown Region of a p-n Junction
As the voltage is increased in the negative direction in Fig. 3-14, we come to a

part of the curve labelled "breakdown region." Here, the current increases
very rapidly. This is the effect of avalanche breakdown. An electron acquires
sufficient energy in its passage in the electric field that it can excite an electron
from the valence band and so add an electron-hole
to the conduction band,
pair to the existing charge carriers.The new charge carriers now take place in
a secondary collision process of the same nature, and an avalanche of charges
is obtained. This mechanism is very similar to the Townsend avalanche
which is of great importance in gas discharge phenomena.

The name "Zener breakdown" has been widely used to describe the
breakdown region of the p-n rectifier characteristic and is still in use even
though the avalanche mechanism is usually operative. Zener breakdown
occurs when the electric field is so high that electrons are pulled out of their
covalent bonds in a semiconductor. For most p-n junctions, avalanche
breakdown will occur first. The avalanche breakdown voltage is very
stable and forms a useful reference voltage in electronic circuitry. Semi-
conductor manufacturers produce special devices for this purpose known as
"Zener" (a misnomer), voltage regulator, or avalanche diodes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Greiner, R. A., Semiconductor Devices and Applications, New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961

Shockley, William, Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, New York: D.

Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1950
Smith, R. A., Semiconductors, London: Cambridge University Press, 1959

1956
PROBLEMS 87
PROBLEMS
3-1 Explain the terms (a) valence, (b) work function, (c) contact potential
with reference to metals or metal junctions.
3-2 An abrupt p-n junction is made of silicon where the resistivities of the
two sides are 2 ohm cm (/7-side) and 1 ohm cm («-side). Using the in-
formation given in Sees. 1-18 and 3-3 compute the contact potential
and the total width of the depletion regions for zero applied voltage.
ans. 0-30 volts, 3.1 x 10" 7 m
3-3 Using the example in Sec. 3-3, find the positions of the Fermi levels on
the two sides of the junction at 25° K. Using Eq. (2-35) and assuming
that the exponential term dominates the expression, show that the
variation in Fermi level with temperature for the «-type material may
be calculated. From this argument, show that the contact potential
decreases to zero as the temperature is raised.
3-4 Show that the incremental capacitance of a linearly graded junction is
given by
3
_ (ea£_y>
" \12VTJ
where N d — Na = ax and a is a constant (see Fig. 3-12).
3-5 What is the incremental junction capacitance of a germanium p-n

~3 2
junction of area 10 cm when a reverse voltage of 1 volt is applied?
-1
The conductivity of the «-type side is 1 mho cm and that of the/?-type
side is 2 mho cm -1 .
3-6 What is meant by a space charge region? Discuss the variation in the
space charge region of an abrupt p-n junction which occurs when the
applied voltage is changed. Show that the junction has an incremental
capacitance and suggest a use for this nonlinear capacitance.
3-7 Show where the acceptor density in the /?-type

that for the condition
region is donor density in the «-type region, the total
greater than the
m
depletion width of the p-n junction when there is no applied voltage is
3-8 Find the depletion widths and the junction capacitance for the p-n
junction used as an example in Sees. 3-3 and 3-4 when (a) a reverse bias
of 4 volts is applied (b) when a forward bias of 0.04 volts is applied.
3-9 Describe the four currents which may be considered to flow across the
p-n junction. What is meant by the saturation current density? Show
that for very small values of applied voltage (whether forward or
reverse) the p-n junction behaves as a small linear resistance of value

0.026//2 ohms at room temperature, where I2 is the total saturation
current across the junction.
3-10 A p-n junction is constructed with conductivities of 200 mhos m _1

-1
(«-side) and 500 mhos m (/?-side). The total length of the device is
2 mm and the cross-sectional area is 1 sq mm. The saturation current in

the reverse direction is 2 microamps at room temperature. Compute the
voltage across the whole device when the current is 10 ma assuming the
junction is at the center of the device and that no temperature rise takes
place.
4
The It has been shown that the number of free electrons
and positive holes available for the passage of
Conti nu ity current in a semiconductor is considerably less than
the number of free electrons in a metal. This fact is
equation f importance in analyzing the flow of current in
semiconducting materials since the equilibrium
charge density is disturbed by the passage of a
comparatively small current density. In this chap-
ter, a fundamental equation is developed which
governs the behavior of charge carriers in the
material. This is known as the continuity equation.
. :
90 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION CHAP. 4
4-1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation
The analysis of the charge distributions and current flow in a piece of semi-
conducting material will be carried out by taking into account the effects of
three phenomena. These are
1 the generation and recombination of electrons and positive holes,
2. the drift of charge in an electric field,
3. the diffusion of charge as a result of a charge concentration gradient.
Among the other effects which may have to be considered in particular cases
are temperature gradients and applied magnetic fields. However, in most of
the problems which will be encountered in practice it is necessary only to
consider the three most important phenomena listed above.
The continuity equation formed by adding the three rates of delivery or
is
removal of charge in a given volume of the semiconductor and equating this
Unit area
^J+dJ
dx
dx
h
FIG. 4-1. Volume element used in the derivation of the con-
tinuity equation.
total to the rate of change of charge density in the material. This computa-
tion is a more sophisticated version of the calculation of the change in height
of liquid in a tub when water is entering through an inlet and leaving through
an outlet. The semiconductor problem is complicated by having two charge
carriers of opposite sign (negative electrons and positive holes) and by the
possibility of the presence of a nonuniform charge density through the
material. In practice, two continuity equations may be established: one will
be for electrons, and one will be for positive holes.
The continuity equation is extremely important in the understanding of
the properties of semiconductor diodes and transistors, and it will be used
extensively in this book. For simplicity, the one-dimensional form of the
equation will be derived here. Although more complete, the three-dimensional
form is more difficult to solve and gives little additional information for our
purpose.
The volume element in the semiconductor which is to be used in the
derivation of the continuity equation is shown in Fig. 4-1. It is a three-
dimensional element of unit area in the yz plane and of length dx in the x
SEC. 4-1 DERIVATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 91
direction. The total volume of the element is dx. The continuity equation will
first be derived for positive holes only.

Let the average density of positive holes in the volume element at any
time be p per unit volume. Restricting the argument to the one-dimensional
case, assume that the current density entering the element by the left-hand
face and the current density leaving the right-hand face is J + dJ. The
is /,
difference between these two current densities shows that dJ/e positive holes
are being removed from the volume element every second by current flow.
Note that this lack of continuity in current indicates that other mechanisms
are operating in the delivery, removal, or storage of charge in the element.
The three phenomena which affect the charge density in the semiconductor
will be discussed in the order in which they were listed.
1. Generation and recombination of electrons and positive holes. It was shown in

Sec. 1-20 that the rate of change of electron density with time could be
represented by
dn _ n — n
dt
" rn
where the generation rate, « /

T n, and the recombination rate, n/rnt were the
only factors affecting the electron density.
By a similar argument,
dp
= P^P (4 _, }
dt rp
where p is the equilibrium density of positive holes in the material, p is the

positive hole density at any time, and t p is the hole lifetime. This equation
determines the change in hole density because of generation and recombina-
tion.
2. Drift of charge in an electric field. Suppose an electric field, £, is applied

along the x axis of the volume element. Positive holes will flow in the x
direction with an average velocity v where
v = nP * (4-2)
and jjL
p is the mobility of positive holes in the material. This flow of charge
constitutes a current density in the x direction of magnitude
J£T = pev = pe^pfi (4-3)
where the superscript + indicates that this is a current of positive holes, and
the subscript Dr stands for drift to distinguish it from the case of diffusion.
Equation (4-3) will be used later when the terms in the continuity equation are
assembled.
3. Diffusion of charge. The phenomenon of diffusion plays an important role

in transistor operation. Diffusion is a process whereby charge carriers (holes
or electrons) can move in a material independently of the electric field. Dif-

fusion is from regions of high carrier density to regions of
the flow of carriers
low density and, therefore, occurs only where there is nonuniform carrier
density in the material. As an illustration, assume that the hole density at one
point in a semiconductor specimen is increased by some means. There will
then be a flow of holes from the high to the low density region so that the hole
density becomes more uniform in the material. If the mechanism which
produced the excess holes stops operating, the effect of diffusion is to bring
the hole density back to uniformity in the specimen. At all times, diffusion is
a flow of carriers in the direction of decreasing carrier concentration regard-
less of the sign of the charge on the carrier.
We can represent the diffusion of holes in a semiconductor by the equation,
N--.D.% (4-4)
In this equation we are postulating a change in hole density in the x direction

along the volume element and stating that TV is the number of holes diffusing
per unit area in the x direction per second. The minus sign is included in the
equation because the diffusion of holes is in the direction of decreasing
concentration, that is, TV will be positive when dp/dx is negative. The diffusion
constant Dp is a constant for positive holes in a particular material. A
-1
typical value for Dp is 49 cm 2 sec for intrinsic germanium (see Table 1-2).
The current density carried by the diffusing holes is
J£ =
i eN= -eDp ^ (4-5)
The subscript Di indicates diffusion and the superscript + shows that the
current is carried by positive holes. Here the negative sign shows that the
current is diffusing away from the region of maximum concentration density.
The sum of the drift and diffusion currents must be taken into account in
determining the rate of change of charge density with time. The total current
density of positive holes is
j+ =/D+ r + yD+ t
(4-6)
and the net flow of current from the element dJ (see Fig. 4-1).
is
Considering only the phenomena of drift and diffusion, the charge

density may be postulated to change at the rate of dpjdt. Thus the rate of
increase of the total number of positive holes in the element is
dx
¥t
since dx is the volume of the element. If the net current flow is responsible for
SEC. 4-1 DERIVATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 93
this change in holes contained in the element,
ax
dt e
or -£
dt
= --
e
—
dx
(4-7)
where the negative sign appears because the net flow of current dJ was defined
as being out of the volume element.
Equation (4-7) takes into account only drift and diffusion. When the
generation and recombination processes are also included,
dt rp e dx
Substituting the values of the drift and diffusion currents from Eqs. (4-3),
and (4-5) into Eq. (4-6), and differentiating with respect to x, Eq. (4-8) can
be rewritten as
~ d d 2p
ty
Tt = —^
Po
~ ^dx
P
(p ^ + D
*W (4" 9)
This is the continuity equation for positive holes.

The continuity equation for electrons may be derived by reconsidering
the three terms separately. From Eq. (1-32), the rate of change of electron
charge density is related to the generation and recombination rate by
f*? = H9SU1 (4-10)
The drift of charge in an electric field $ is given by
J» r = nefjL n <? (4-11)
where the superscript — indicates electron flow. The diffusion of electrons in

the x direction can be represented by a similar equation to Eq. (4-4), i.e.,
where TV is now the number of electrons diffusing across unit area per second,
and D n is the diffusion constant for electrons. Since electrons have a negative
charge, the current density carried by this flow of electrons per second per
unit area is
-
7D i= - e N=eD ^ n (4-12)
When the drift and diffusion current densities are considered, we see that a
net conventional current flow to the right is caused by electron motion to the
left. Thus the corresponding equation to Eq. (4-7) is
8n 1 dj
=
dt e dx
and the continuity equation for electrons becomes
8n nn - n
+ nn
fi n —d ^
'
(n#) +K
d2n
D n .5-3 ,a-i*\
(4-13)
dt r„ dx ' dx
4-2 Application of the Continuity Equations

to the Abrupt p-n Junction Operating with a Constant Current
The continuity equations may be solved under various conditions of operation

ofthe/?-« junction. A simple, yet most important, case is that of a constant
current flowing across a junction, since the solution of this problem leads to an
understanding of the junction transistor. When the total junction current
density is a constant, the hole and electron densities in the two regions are
also constant with respect to time. Thus, wherever the continuity equations
are applied, we can put
d
JL = —=
dt dt
The continuity equations for holes and electrons can now be written as
= ^ + ,„« + ^S
In Sec. 3-5 there was a discussion of the four current densities which can
(4-15)
flow across the junction. When the junction is reverse biased so that — eV
+
> 4kT, saturation currents J% and /2 are flowing as shown in Fig. 4-2(a).
Both currents flow from regions where the respective charges are minority
carriers and enter regions where they add to the majority carrier density.
The total reverse saturation current is small so the majority carrier densities
are hardly changed by the incoming charges, but the regions which supply the
charge are greatly affected by the loss of their minority carriers. Close to the
depletion regions on both sides of the junction, the minority carrier densities
drop because the saturation currents are removing minority charges. There-
fore, the continuity equations will be solved only for the minority charges
close to the junction as these are the cases of maximum interest.
When the junction is forward biased with eV > 4kT, the two saturation
currents can be neglected in comparison with the forward currents Jl and
/?. As shown in Fig. 4-2(b), these forward currents transfer charges from
the majority carrier regions to the minority carrier regions. The injected
SEC. 4-2 APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATIONS 95
Depletion
p-type ! n-type
j
regions
i
Electron current flow \

from minority \
carrier source -^ \^
Fermi level 1 %^
Reverse bias
Fermi level
Hole current flow

from minority
current source
Distance -
(a)
Depletion
p-type n-type
regions
Minority carrier
injection (electrons)
pq
Forward bias
S Fermi level
Fermi level
+ ""**
J\ Minority carrier
injection (holes)
FIG. 4-2. Diagram showing the carriers flowing across a p-n

junction (a) under reverse bias, (b) with forward bias. Arrows
indicate carrier flow direction.
minority carrier densities will alter the thermal minority carrier equilibrium
close to the junction, and so the solution of the continuity equations for the
minority carrier regions will again be important.
In the depletion regions, there are very few mobile charge carriers present,
and so little recombination takes place. We can therefore assume that hole
and electron currents are, separately, continuous across the depletion region.
This means that it is necessary to solve the continuity equations only for the
minority carriers on the two sides of the junction to gain a knowledge of the
total junction current. In general, we will solve the hole continuity equation
to find the current carried by holes at the edge of the n-typt region, and we
will solve the electron continuity equation to find the current carried by
electrons at the edge of the/?-type region. Assuming no recombination in the
depletion regions, the sum of these two currents is the constant total current
throughout the material and across the junction.
Care must be taken before such restricted conditions are applied to a
practical case. When very small currents are flowing, recombination may be
a significant factor. This is particularly noticeable in silicon where the intrinsic
carrier densities are much lower than in germanium at the same temperature.
In addition, when the continuity equations are solved only for the minority
carrier regions, it is on the assumption that the majority carrier levels remain
at their thermal equilibrium values even though a current is flowing. We will
distinguish among three conditions of operation for p-n junctions. Very small
current operation refers to the case where the junction is reverse biased or
operated in the forward direction with a very small current so that recombina-
tion in the depletion region must be taken into account. Small-current
operation occurs when the current density is higher than the previous case
but not so large that the majority carrier density is disturbed. This applies to
a typical junction operated with a forward current of a few milliamps.
Under large-current operation of a p-n junction, such a high current density
is flowing that the majority carrier density is affected and both continuity
equations must be solved in both regions to get an accurate analysis of carrier

density distributions. In most of this book, small-current operation will be
assumed. However, all three cases are considered in Sec. 9-7 where the
variation of alpha with emitter current is discussed.
Close to a typical p-n junction, found that the diffusion current density
it is
is much larger than the drift current density under the condition of small-
current operation. This is because the minority carrier levels on both sides
of the junction are substantially modified by the flow of current whether the
junction is forward or reverse biased as shown in Fig. 4-2. In the following
analysis in this chapter, we shall neglect the drift terms in the continuity
equations by comparison with the diffusion terms. (The justification for this
approximation can be seen by inserting typical values for all the quantities
involved in the continuity equations.) Equations (4-14) and (4-15) then
become
Po
U (4-16)
"dx 2
n - n d2n
and (4-17)
The solution of these two equations for a p-n junction can be found using
the same coordinate system for the two equations and putting x = at the
metallurgical junction. This is the most logical method but great simplifica-
tion can be achieved by using two different coordinate systems as shown in
Fig. 4-3. For the ft-type material, x is measured in the positive direction to the
right, and x = coincides with the edge of the «-type depletion region. In
the p-typQ material, the x coordinate is similarly measured from the edge of
Metallurgical
junction
Depletion
p-type
/^T regions
n-type
(Hole density iVa ) (Electron density Nd )
Electron density — Hole density

N at edge of P at edge of
p-type depletion n-type depletion
region region
Thermal equilibrium
..
Thermal equilibrium
hole density hole density
PnO
Electron continuity Positive hole continuity

equation (4-13) x=0 x=0 equation (4-9)
for for
solved for this region solved for this region
Eqs. (4-13) Eqs. (4-9)
and (4-17) and (4-16)
Direction x Direction x —*
FIG. 4-3. Diagram showing the two coordinate systems used to
simplify the solution of the two minority carrier continuity
equations.
the/7-type depletion region, but, here, the positive direction ofx is to the left.
The two equations two regions and the situation
are solved separately for the
will be clear if it is remembered that in each case, x = signifies the edge of
the depletion region and x is positive when moving away from the junction
into the bulk material.
Consider first the solution of Eq. (4-16) in the rt-type material. We can
write Eq. (4-16) in the form,
d 2Pn Pn ~ PnO (A\K\
where the additional subscript shows that the equation is restricted to the
rt-type material. Since D pr p can be considered constant, the solution is of the

form
where K x and K 2 are constants of integration. This equation applies to the

tt-type material shown to the right-hand side of Fig. 4-3.
At a large distance from the junction, the positive hole density must
approach its equilibrium value in the bulk material. Hence, as
X-^GO, Pn->PnO
and so
°^ exp
(vfe)
giving K2 =
The solution of Eq. (4-18) is, therefore
p„-,n0 = * exp(vi=rj 1
From Fig. 4-3, we can write p n = P at the edge of the depletion region where
x = 0. Hence,
P-P n0 = K,
and
Pn ~ PnO = (P ~ Pno) ™V (
/= )
(4-19)
Equation (4-19) applies to both forward and reverse-biased junctions by

done later. For a change in x
inserting an appropriate value of P, as will be
of value Vd tp p, the charge density changes by a factor 1/exp because of

recombination. The distance,
Lp = VWp (4-20)
is known as the diffusion length for positive holes in this region, and it can be
calculated from the values of the diffusion constant and the lifetime. Re-
writing Eq. (4-19),
Pn ~ PnO = (P~ Pno) ™P (^) (4-21)
in the «-type region. The application of this equation to junctions operating

under reverse and forward bias is given in Sees. 4-4 and 4-5.
The continuity equation relating to electrons in the p-type material can be

solved in a similar manner. From Eq. (4-17), we can write
" np _ np ~ H P0 (A Q'Vt
where the subscript p restricts the equation to the /?-type material. The
diffusion length for electrons in this region is L n where
,
Ln = VD r n n
and writing N for the electron density at the edge of the depletion region of
the /7-type material,
p0 (N - n p0) exp (4-23)

fei
by comparison with the argument in the previous paragraph. Equations
(4-21) and (4-23) apply to reverse or forward-biased conditions of an abrupt
p-n junction.
4-3 Calculation of the Charge Densities

at the Edge of the Depletion Regions
We will have completed the solutions of the continuity equations when P and
N are determined. Under conditions of small-current operation, the majority
p-type n-type
Electron density
in bulk material
™
, n
E„ = E n + eV7 Donor density

eVT = e(VB -V) N,
Fermi level
T^T^- , Fermi level
t Forward
bias eV
Acceptor density
N„
P Hole density p n0
in bulk material
Distance — *•
FIG. 4-4. Energy band diagram of a forward-biased p-n junction

showing energy levels and carrier densities in the two regions.
on both sides of the junctions are assumed to be undisturbed

carrier densities
by the current flow. The minority current densities close to the depletion
regions are determined by the donor and acceptor densities, and the Boltz-
mann factor as shown below.
The Boltzmann factor [Eq. (2-14)],
=
F(E) exp
(V) (4-24)
is the probability, expressed in terms of the Fermi level, that an electron state
at an energy E is occupied. Writing En as the lowest energy level in the con-
duction band of the /t-type material and Ep as the lowest energy in the con-
duction band of the p-type material, and by reference to Fig. 4-4 and Eq.
(3-19),
VT = VB - V (4-25)
where V is the applied voltage across the junction, and
Ep = En + eVT (4-26)
If the applied voltage, V, levels on the two sides of

were zero, the Fermi
the junction would be means that the probabilities of occupation
in line. This
of states at a given energy on the two sides of the junction would be equal.
In Fig. 4-4, however, a forward bias is shown. In this case, the Fermi level
of the p-type side is eV below the Fermi level of the n-typc side. For a given
energy, E, in the conduction band, the ratio of the probability of occupancy
in the «-type to the p-typQ is
where EF is
exp [(Ep
exp [(EF
the Fermi level

- E)/kT]
- eV - E)/kT]
on the «-type
eXp
©
side of the junction.
A current of electrons flows in the conduction band across the junction to
equalize the probability of occupancy across the two sides. Since we have
assumed small-current operation, this flow of charge does not disturb the
majority carrier density in the n-type region but raises the minority carrier
density in the/?-type material by the factor exp (eV/kT). A small, continuous
current is necessary to sustain this new minority carrier density on the left-
hand side of the junction (p-type region) because diffusion and recombination
are removing charge into the bulk material. Since the minority carrier density
under thermal equilibrium in the bulk p-type material is n p0 the increased
,
electron density close to the depletion region is
N= n p0 exp (4-28)
(g)
A similar argument can be applied to the valence band. The probability
for the occurrence of holes has previously been given as
1 - F(E) a exp
{^~) (4-29)
from Eq. (2-16), where E is now an energy lying within the limits of the
valence band. The ratio of the probabilities of finding holes at an energy Em
the valence band of the p-type and the «-type material is
exp [(£ - EF )/kT)

= -p (4- 3o)
exp [(E - EF - eV)/kT] (9
SEC. 4-3 CHARGE DENSITIES AT THE EDGE OF THE DEPLETION REGIONS 101
as before. In this band, therefore, a current of positive holes moves from left
to right to raise the minority carrier (hole) density at the edge of the «-type
material by the factor exp (eV/kT). Since the hole density in the bulk n-type
material is p n0 ,
P= Pn0 exp{j^ (4-31)
and the continuity equations can be written as
Pn ~ Pno = Pno [exp - 1 1 exp (4-32)

\j^j \-j^J
nn - nPo — "pO
h(SH exp
(if)
(4 - 33)
Care must be taken to apply these equations only to the regions where they
were derived and only under small-current operation. Equations (4-32) and
(4-33) apply when the junction is either reverse or forward biased since
Eqs. (4-28) and (4-31) hold for negative or positive values of V, although we
have described here the flow of current in the positive case only.
4-4 Solution of the Continuity Equations

for a Reverse-biased Abrupt p-n Junction
The continuity equation solutions, Eqs. (4-32) and (4-33) apply directly to
this case. Since the junction is reverse biased, Kis negative, and exp (eV/kT)
< 1. Let us first examine the density of holes in the «-type region.
From Eq. (4-32), at the edge of the depletion region, x — 0, and so
Pn = P = Pno exp ( ~ J
< p n0 (4-34)
Thus the minority charge density at the edge of the depletion region is less
than the density in the bulk material. The physical reason for this is that the
+
current J 2 is carrying holes across the junction into the p-type material, and
these holes are being supplied from the bulk n-type material by diffusion.
For electrons in the p-type material, at x =
np = N= n p0 exp (^,1 < n p0 (4-35)
by a similar argument. In this case, J 2 is the electron current which flows

across the junction and depletes the minority carrier level in the p-type
material.
When the junction is biased in the reverse direction with a voltage greater
than about 0. 1 volt at 300° K, we can write
-eV > AkT thus exp W=\ « 1

This corresponds to the case when J £ and J£ carry almost all the current
across the junction. From Eq. (4-5),
Jm - eD p
dx
where J^ {
is defined in the positive x direction, i.e., to the right in the «-type
material. Hence,
J™ = ~^ (4" 36)
p
^ eXp
(l~)
by differentiating Eq. (4-32). The negative sign in Eq. (4-36) indicates that
the diffusion current flow is to the left in the tf-type material.
For electrons in the /?-type material, from Eq. (4-12),
/i-.A.J-«A.te oq ,(^) (4-37)
by differentiating Eq. (4-33). This current is defined to be in the positive x

direction in the /?-type material, i.e., from right to left.
At the edge of the «-type depletion region, x = 0, and the hole current to
the left as defined in Sec. 3-5 is
Ji=eD p P-f (4-38)
At the edge of the /?-type depletion region, x = 0, and the electron current to
the left is defined as
J 2-=eD n '^ (4-39)

71
L
From Sec. 3-5, the total current density defined in the forward direction is
since we have assumed J$ = /£" = for a junction with a large reverse bias.
Hence,
eDp P^ + eD ng) (4-40)
Thus a reverse-biased junction will pass a current in the reverse direction given
by Eq. (4-40). Since p n0 and n p0 are small compared to Nd and Na the reverse- ,
biased junction current density is small.

Figure 4-5 shows the result of a computation of Eqs. (4-32), (4-33),
(4-36), and (4-37) for the case of the p-n junction used as an example in
Chap. The minority carrier densities, which are shown in the upper set of
3.
curves, are small close to the depletion regions and increase exponentially
with density in the bulk material until the thermal equilibrium value is
reached. The two diffusion currents are plotted as full lines in the lower set
of curves in Fig. 4-5. The diffusion current of positive holes in the w-type
SEC. 4-4 CONTINUITY EQUATIONS FOR A REVERSE-BIASED ABRUPT p-n JUNCTION 03
p-type n-type
Electron Hole ohm cm
1 ohm cm density density
0.1
u
n p0 = 1.65xlO cra'\
10 -3
p =3.00xl0 cm
Jl
7
10
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Distance from edge of Distance from edge of

depletion region cm depletion region cm
(a)
p-type Current rc-type

1 ohm cm density 0.1 ohm cm
amps cm"
Total current density J Total current density J
Electrons (majority carriers)
Holes ^
Electrons
(minority carriers
Holes (minority carriers)
0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

depletion region cm depletion region cm
(b)
FIG. 4-5. Minority carrier and current density for a reverse-

biased abrupt p-n junction.
material is labeled "holes (minority carriers)" and is traveling towards the

left-hand side of the diagram and constitutes a current in this direction. The
diffusion flow of electrons in the p-type material is labeled " electrons
(minority carriers)" and is moving to the right. Since electrons carry a
negative charge, the current associated with the electron motion is to the left.
In both materials, the current which is carried by the minority carriers is at

its maximum at the edge of the depletion regions. Further into the bulk
material, recombination takes place, and the current is mainly carried by
majority carriers.
Values of the constants that have been used to draw Fig. 4-5 are given
below. The voltage across the junction was —0.15 volt.
p-type germanium:
PP = 1 ohm cm Na = 3.8 x 10 15 cm" 3
fi n = cm 2 volt" sec" 1 n p0 = x 10 11 cm" 3

1
3320 1.65
Dn = 86 cm 2 sec" 1
Ln = 0.05 cm
«-type germanium:
Pn = 0.1 ohm cm Nd = 2.1 x 10 16 cm" 3
p =
fji 1200 cm 2 volt" 1
sec" 1
p n0 = 3.0 x 10 10 cm" 3
-1
Dp = 2
31 cm sec Lp = 0.05 cm
The total current density across the junction is
J = eD p ^p + eD n ^f\ = -4.84 x 10" 5 amps cm

Lp Ln J
This value ignores the effect of surface leakage which is present in a practical
case.
4-5 Solution of the Continuity Equations

for a Forward-biased Abrupt p-n Junction
The solutions of the continuity equations are limited to the small-current

condition. For positive holes in the «-type material, Eq. (4-32) still applies.
Pn - Pno = />no[exp - lj exp (4-32)

\j^j \j^J
where Kis now positive and exp (eV/kT) > 1. Similarly, for electrons in the
/7-type material, Eq. (4-33) is still valid.
nv - n p0 = n p0 jêxp - lj exp (4-33)

\j^j \^j
where V is positive.
SEC. 4-5 CONTINUITY EQUATIONS FOR A FORWARD-BIASED ABRUPT p-n JUNCTION 105
The diffusion current of holes at any point in the n-type material is,
J» - ~ eD exp exp
" i= e
jr,'" [ (w) ~
l
] (~rj
= e^(p n - Pn0 ) (4-41)
defined in the positive x direction in the «-type material, i.e., from left to
right. Similarly,
J* = eDn g= -e
^ (n p - n pB ) (4-42)
defined in the positive x direction in the />-type material, i.e., from right to
left.
When the junction is forward biased with a voltage greater than about
0.1 volt at 300° K,
Thus the
eV > AkT and
reverse saturation currents (J'%

exp
m
h— »
and J 2 )
1
are negligible, and the total

current across the junction can be written as
J = J1 + Jl
where
T + DP t
eV \
when x = in the tf-type region and /f is defined to flow from left to right.
Also,
Jx = ,_, exp^j p0
when x = in the /?-type region and J 1 is defined to flow from left to right.
Taking account of the directions of current flow, therefore,
H ?> e + e
r>) exp (S)
The curves of charge density and current for the typical p-n junction are
^ 3>
plotted in Fig. 4-6. The applied voltage is 0.15 volt in the forward direction.
On both sides of the depletion region, the minority carrier density is increased
because of the injection of minority charges from the other side of the junc-
tion. As the minority carriers diffuse away from the junction, recombination
occurs and the minority carrier current density drops. For instance, in the
«-type region on the right-hand side, the minority carriers (holes) recombine,
and the current becomes electronic. At a distance L n from the edge of the
depletion region only 1/exp of the initial hole diffusion current is still being
carried by holes.
^ 1
p-type
ohm cm
n
u
n p0 = 1.65xlO cm"
a7
3/
—
-
10
10
]
10
10
13
12
11
10
-
-
n-type
0.1
Vpn0 =3.00xl0
ohm cm
10
cm"
3
9
10
] -
Electron Hole
density -
10 8 - density
cm -3 cm -3
7
10
] -
0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

depletion region cm (a) depletion region cm
p-type n-type
1 ohm cm Current 0.1 ohm cm
density
amps cm -2
Total current density J Total current density J
- 1.6X10- 2
Electrons (majority carriers)
- 1.4 xKT 2
Holes
- 1.2xl0- 2
(majority carriers)^S
-2
lx lO
8xl0 -3
-3
Injected electrons 6xl0 -
(minority carriers)
4x10"
2x10"
Injected holes (minority carriers)
0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

depletion region cm (b) depletion region cm
FIG. 4-6. Minority carrier and current density for a forward-

biased abrupt p-n junction.
SEC. 4-5 CONTINUITY EQUATIONS FOR A FORWARD-BIASED ABRUPT p-n JUNCTION 107
In this example, the applied voltage is assumed to be constant and so dpjdt

and dn/dt are everywhere zero. Assuming isothermal and isotropic conditions
throughout, the sum of the minority and majority currents is constant across
all regions, and this has been indicated on the diagram. In the depletion
regions, there is a scarcity of mobile charges, and recombination is very
small. The hole and electron currents are assumed to be unchanged while in
these regions.
4-6 A Brief Discussion of the p-n Junction
In the foregoing, the continuity equations have been solved for the reverse
and forward bias conditions. Both cases are important in understanding the
5. At this stage, it is well
junction transistor and will be referred to in Chap.
to summarize briefly the physical meaning of the solutions.
When an abrupt p-n junction is reverse biased, the minority carrier
densities at the edge of the two depletion regions are very low. The total
reverse junction current density is also small, and it is determined by the
minority carrier densities in the bulk material [Eq. (4-40)].

When the junction is forward biased, the majority of the current is carried
by injected minority carriers. Holes will move from the /?-type side to the
«-type material where they become minority carriers. Electrons travel from
the «-type material across the junction and become minority carriers in the
/?-type side. These injected currents increase the minority carrier densities
close to the depletion regions, and so a diffusion of minority carriers away
from the junction takes place (Fig. 4-6). As these minority carriers move
away from the depletion region, recombination occurs. In the p-type material,
the injected electrons gradually recombine with the positive holes, and the
proportion of the current carried by the majority carriers (holes) increases
with distance from the edge of the depletion region. At a distance 4L n in the
/7-type region most of the recombination has already occurred and nearly all
the current is carried by holes. In the «-type material, recombination also
occurs with the result that the transfer of current from holes to electrons is
nearly complete at a distance 4L P from the edge of the «-type depletion region.
At this point, we can distinguish between the p-n junction and an ohmic
contact. The sole purpose of an ohmic contact is to form a connection be-
tween the semiconductor region and the external lead so that current can be
passed into, or out of, the device. Unlike the p-n junction, therefore, the
ohmic contact should have a linear voltage versus current characteristic, and
it should behave as a small ohmic resistance. Ohmic contacts are frequently
made between a metal and the semiconductor region. The surface structure of
the semiconductor is often deliberately damaged in some way around the
contact. This increases the recombination rate in the vicinity of the contact,
and, by keeping the carrier concentration near equilibrium, prevents to some
extent the formation of a rectifying junction. Ohmic contacts may be formed
by soldering, alloying, or other types of bonding process.
4-7 The Incremental Resistance of a Forward-biased p-n Junction
The total current density, J, in a forward-biased junction is given by Eq.

(4-43) to be
'-(^ + .4.g)«p(g) (4-43)
For a junction of area A, the total current is
I = JA (4-44)
An incremental resistance for the junction can be defined to be
J_
dV 1 dV A
dl
kT
A dJ _£_
kT {
e
^ + e
t np
°)
Qxp
{S)
(4-45)
el
At room temperature, T= 300° K and kT/e = 0.0258 volts. Hence,
0.0258
ohms (4-46)
when / is specified in amps. r e is the resistance presented to small changes in

the voltage across the junction. For a given junction current, the incremental
resistance, from Eq. (4-46), is independent of the area of the junction.
4-8 Einstein Equation
There is an important relationship, known as the Einstein equation, which

exists between the mobility and diffusion constant. It will be derived here by
reference to the current flow in a p-n junction.

In the conduction band of Fig. 4-7, there are two current density com-
ponents flowing across the junction, /f and J^. J 2 is the current which
flows down the potential hill from the /?-type to the «-type region. It is,
therefore, a drift current of electrons of the form,
J2 = ne^ (4-47)
where $ is the electric field, and n is the density of electrons in the depletion
regions. The current, Jl, is the result of diffusion of electrons from the
tf-type region, where electrons are majority carriers, to the /?-type material,
where they are in the minority. Thus,
dn
Ar- = eD
r»
"Tx
SEC. 4-8 EINSTEIN EQUATION 109
We know that when the applied voltage is zero,
dn
or ne\L n £ = eD n
dx
Integrating across the junction as shown in Fig. 4-7,
N *dn
A, r
or VB = — log e -— = —eV
kT
t
from Eq. (3-18). Thus,
e
(4-48)
kT
p-type n-type
Electron
density
Electron
density
eVn
c
w
a b
Distance —
FIG. 4-7. p-n junction with no applied voltage showing electron
densities and currents.
From a consideration of holes in the valence band, we can show that
ts.
Dp
= —
kT
(4-49)
This relationship between the mobility and the diffusion constant is the
Einstein equation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Shive,J. N., Properties, Physics and Design of Semiconductor Devices, New

Shockley, William, Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, New York: D.

Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1950

PROBLEMS
A- 1 In the derivation of the continuity equation, the effects of only three
phenomena were taken into account. If the electric field in a semi-
conductor is related to the temperature gradient by the equation,
dS = KdT
where $ is the electric T is the temperature, and K is a constant,
field,
derive the term which must be added to the continuity equation to

account for this phenomenon.
4-2 If the electric field in a semiconductor is zero and the injected electron
concentration varies with an angular frequency oj, i.e.,
n(x, t) = n(x) exp (jot)
show that the continuity equation becomes
<Pn
dx 2 - HP)-
4-3 Discuss the continuity equation for electrons, identifying the terms that
account for the three phenomena affecting the charge distributions and
current flow in a semiconductor. How are these terms derived ? What
is the form of the equation if no field is applied and a steady state has
been reached ?
4-4 It has been stated that a very small proportion of the minority carrier
current close to a semiconductor p-n junctionis carried by drift of the
minority carriers in the electric Using the values for the p-n
field.
junction given in Sec. 4-4, compare the relative magnitudes of the

minority drift and diffusion currents at a distance of two diffusion
lengths away from the edge of the depletion region in the «-type
material.
4-5 A germanium p-n junction consists of two regions 2 mm long and

having an area of 1 sq mm. The resistivity of the n-typQ region is 3 ohm
cm. If the lifetime of holes in the n-type region is 10 microseconds and
the /7-type region is heavily doped compared to the n-typc, calculate
the approximate saturation current at 300° K.
PROBLEMS I I I
4-6 Explain the phenomena of diffusion, drift and recombination and

show how they are related in the continuity equation.
4-7 Using the data given in Sec. 4-4, determine the value of x in the fl-type
material at which 95 per cent of the hole minority carriers have re-
combined. At what distance from the edge of the depletion region do
the majority and minority currents contribute equally to the total
current density?
4-8 Show that Eq. (4-40) can be expressed as
JPnpLp n p0 L n \
j _
\ Jp Jn J
or
/ = - en\ +
\L p Nd L n Na )
4-9 Describe what is meant by "small-current" operation. Show why it is
not necessary to solve the continuity equation applying to majority

charges to obtain a solution for the charge density and current flow
in a p-n junction operating under small-current conditions.
4-10 Show that the ratio of hole current to electron current across a semi-
conductor junction can be expressed as
J_p _ QpLn
Jn a nL p
"6
4- 1 1 Find the current flowing across a p-n junction of area 10 m 2
at 300° K
when the applied voltage is 2 volts in the reverse direction. The
resistivities of the p- and n-type regions are both 1 ohm cm. Assume
Ln = 0. 1 cm and L p = 0.04 cm.
4-12 Summarize and discuss the principal electrical characteristics of a p-n

junction as given in Chaps. 3 and 4, dealing in particular with (a)
depletion widths, (b) incremental resistance and capacitance, (c)
reverse and forward current versus voltage characteristic.

5
The In the preceding chapters the theory of electrical
conduction in semiconductors has been applied
Junction only to the rectifying, abrupt p-n junction. In this
chapter, the same theory is extended to analyze the
Transistor junction transistor.
Historically, semiconducting rectifiers dateback
to the "crystal and cats-whisker" type of detector
which was used in the early days of radio. This
simple device operated as a rectifier when the cats-
whisker was able to find a spot on the crystal where
the impurity content was such as to create a p-n
SEC. 5-1 THE npn TRANSISTOR 113
junction. The development of the point-contact germanium diode prior to

1945 was the result of manufacturing a device with more control over the
point contact and the semiconducting base material. In 1948, Bardeen and
Brattain announced a point-contact transistor. This was a device having two
germanium base, and experiment showed that such an
contacts on an n-type
arrangement could provide a current and power gain when operated with
suitable applied potentials. This type of transistor is rarely used now because
of manufacturing difficulties and the presence of a high noise level. The
theory of the point-contact transistor is not completely understood at the
present time.
Developments in the semiconductor field were rapid after 1945, and, by
1949, the theory of p-n junctions had been established. At this time, Shockley
announced, and gave the theory of, a junction transistor, and, within a few
years, this new The junction transistor is
device was commercially available.
composed of an npn or pnp sandwich where the junctions may be abrupt or
graded. In this chapter, only transistors using abrupt junctions will be
considered and the main characteristics of these devices will be discussed.
5-1 The npn Transistor
In the particular p-n junction which was used as an example in Chaps. 3 and 4,
the conductivity of the/?-type material was 1 mho cm -1 and that of the n-type
material was 10 mho cm -1 When . this junction is forward biased with an
applied voltage of 0.15 volts, the electronic current density across the junction
is
^^-°exp(^ = 1.56 x 10- 2 ampcm- 2
The positive hole current density across the junction is
^^° exp(j^) = L02 x 10- 3 ampcm- 2
The electron current therefore carries more than 90 per cent of the charge
flow across the junction. If the conductivity of the n-type material is in-
creased to, say, 100 mho cm -1 while the p-type conductivity is reduced to
0.1 mho cm -1 nearly all of the current passing across the forward-biased
junction will be carried by electrons. The energy band diagram of this junction
is shown in Fig. 5-1.
When the junction is forward biased with a voltage greater than 4kT/e, the
two reverse saturation currents can be neglected, and, if we also neglect the
small positive hole current in the forward direction, the total current is simply
J = Jl (5-1)
14 THE JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CHAP. 5
100 mho cm l
0.1 mho cm-1
/ Conduction band
1
electrons "^s
Fermi level
a „ ,, J Fermi level
Forward bias
^/""~
Valence band
^/^
Distance — *-
FIG. 5-1. Energy band diagram of a p-n junction where the

conductivity of the /z-region is much higher than that of the
/j-region.
The electron current JI is shown in the diagram to flow from the «-type to
the /?-type region, Thus, the minority carrier density close to the junction in
the /?-type material has been increased because of electron injection.
Next consider Fig. 5-2 which represents an npn transistor. A second
junction has been made by adding a piece of «-type material to the right-hand
side of the />-type semiconductor. The width of the central /?-type material in
the sandwich has been made very small, and the second junction is reverse
Electron flow
across junction
Reverse saturation
current of electrons
Fermi level
Reverse bias
Fermi level
Emitter Base Collector
Distance
FIG. 5-2. Energy band diagram of an npn transistor.

SEC. 5-1 THE npn TRANSISTOR 115
biased. (The methods of manufacturing transistors are considered in Sec.

5-6.) If the width of the central region is made much
smaller than the electron
diffusion length, Ln , little recombination occurs before the electrons diffuse
across to the second junction.
In Sec. 4-4, it was shown that the current across a reverse-biased junction
is dependent upon the minority carrier density in the bulk material. In the
/7-type central region, the minority carrier density has been increased because
of the injection of electrons from the left-hand junction. The reverse satura-
tion current of the right-hand junction is thus increased, and substantially all the
injected current flows through the central region and across the second junction.
This device is an npn junctionand the three regions are identified
transistor
in Fig. 5-2 as the emitter, the base, and the
Under normal operating
collector.
conditions, the emitter-to-base junction is forward biased and the base-to-
collector junction is reverse biased.
Emitter current — Collector current — *

Direction of electron flow Direction of electron flow
npn
Emitter Collector
Current <S> \/ <&

limiting Base
resistance Direction of
Collector-to-base
conventional
t_L reverse voltage
Emitter-to- current flow "y" battery
base forward
2 to 40 volts
voltage battery
2 volts
FIG. 5-3. The npn transistor: symbol and connections.
The flow of current across the emitter-to-base junction is known as the

emitter current, and this current is mainly controlled by the emitter-to-base
voltage. Nearly all of this current flows across the base into the collector
region, and, provided the collector-to-base junction is reverse biased, the
collector current is almost independent of the reverse applied voltage (see
Fig. 5-10).
The symbol which is widely used to represent the transistor is given in
Fig. 5-3where it is seen to consist of two leads connected to a base region.
This symbol was first used for the point-contact transistor and has been
retained for the junction type. The emitter lead is identified by having an
arrow on it this arrow shows the direction of flow of the conventional current.
;
For the npn transistor of Fig. 5-3, the electrons flow into the emitter lead, and
so the direction of conventional current is out from the base.
It is not yet apparent that the transistor can be used as an amplifier. The
amplifying properties of a transistor are discussed briefly in Sees. 5-4 and 5-5
and in some detail in Chaps. 6, 7, and 8. At this point, some general remarks
on the operation of the transistor are in order.
It has been shown that the emitter current flows through the base and into
the collector region, and it is found that the collector current is almost
independent of the collector-to-base voltage provided this junction is reverse

biased. Therefore, by varying the emitter current, we will vary the collector
current as well, and so control the power which will be dissipated in a load
resistance placed in the collector circuit. When the collector voltage is higher
than the emitter supply, the power dissipation in the collector circuit is
controlled with the expenditure of a smaller power in the emitter circuit, and
we have achieved a form of amplification. This is not the only, nor even the
most usual, method of operating a transistor; it does indicate, however, that
the device has considerable potentialities as an amplifier.
5-2 The pnp Transistor
Figure 5-4 shows the energy band diagrams of a pnp transistor. The emitter is
made of high conductivity p-type semiconductor, and the base region is of

low conductivity n-type material. Thus the emitter current which flows when
the first junction is forward biased consists largely of positive holes which
t
v
r^
/
/
*
\^ h1
' Reverse
Fermi
bias
level
//*" Reverse saturation

Fermi level
.
—
i
«^.
1
// current of holes
*"
Forward //
— hi as //
Positive hole flow
across junction Hole flow /
by diffusion/
\__7
Distance — *
FIG. 5-4. Energy band diagrams of a pnp transistor.
travel through the thin base region until they reach the reverse-biased
collector-to-base junction.Here the holes are collected by the final p-type
collector region. It will be recalled that, since holes carry a positive sign, the
upward direction in Fig. 5-4 represents a "downhill" or accelerating potential
for holes.
The symbol used for the pnp transistor has the arrow on the emitter lead
pointing into the base and indicating the direction of flow of conventional
- :
SEC. 5-2 THE pnp TRANSISTOR I 17
current. The circuit of Fig. 5-5 is similar to that for the npn transistor except
for the polarity of the batteries. The pnp transistors are used more frequently
than npn because they are easier to manufacture (see Sec. 5-6).
Emitter current — Collector current —

Direction of hole flow Direction of hole flow
pnp
©Emitter Collector f7\
Current
\7 \*ss
limiting
resistance
Collector-to-base
Emitter- to reverse voltage

battery
base forward "t="
2 to 40 volts
voltage battery
2 volts
FIG. 5-5. The pnp transistor: symbol and connections.
5-3 Characteristics of the Current Flow across the Base Region
A. Current flow by diffusion. This section will summarize the principal

which determine the operation of the transistor. In order to
characteristics
emphasize the main physical arguments several simplifying assumptions will
be made. The analysis will be carried out by the application of the continuity
equation to the base region of a pnp transistor. The analysis of an npn
transistor follows a similar pattern.
Transistors are most frequently used as amplifiers of alternating currents
in the audio and radio frequency range. Direct analysis of the transistor
under a-c conditions will not be attempted in this section which is mainly
concerned with direct-current operation of the device. However, the estab-
lishment of the d-c characteristics is a necessary step towards an under-
standing of alternating-current operation.
Consider the positive hole current which is injected into the base region of
a pnp transistor. The continuity equation for holes in the fl-type region states
that
ty Pno ~P g(g£) n dP
2
,c ? x
+ â? (5 ~ 2)
,
= ~
ei —^r îsr
The following simplifying assumptions will be made in the first instance
1. Small-current, steady-state conditions apply with dp/dt = 0.
2.Recombination in the base region is very small since the base width is
much less than L v and so the recombination term in Eq.(5-2) can be neglected.
3. The voltage drop is confined to the two junctions so that there is no
field in the base region and d{pS)jdx = 0.
Under these conditions, the continuity equation reduces to
Z>,g = (5-3)
and has a solution of the form

Ax + B (5-4)
From Sees. 4-2 and 4-3, the hole density at the edge of an «-type depletion
region in the presence of a junction voltage V is
Pno exp (5-5)

(S)
where p n0 is the thermal equilibrium hole density in the /7-type base material.
In the coordinate system suggested by Fig. 5-6, x = is at the right-hand edge
p-type n-type p-type
Metallurgical Metallurgical
junction junction
Depletion regions Depletion

(small) /e y \ regions
-Hole density p=p n0 exp
\-~J
Hole density
assuming no
recombination
Hole
density
Thermal equilibrium X * 0^
hole density p„ >v \
x= W
Emitter Collector
Distance in base region
FIG. 5-6. Hole density in the base region of a pnp transistor

assuming no recombination.
of the base-to-emitter depletion region, and, if the emitter-to-base direct

voltage is VEB
m
,
Pno exp at x = (5-6)
The edge of the collector-base depletion region is at x = W in Fig. 5-6

and, VCB is the voltage across this second junction, we note that for a pnp
if
transistor VCB is negative and usually has a magnitude of a few volts. We can
write
— eVCB » kT, and so, at x = W,
Pno exp
(*)- (5-7)
SEC. 5-3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CURRENT FLOW ACROSS THE BASE REGION | 19
Substituting these two boundary values for p in Eq. (5-4),
p.-^(l--i)«p(^) (5-8)
This equation is plotted in Fig. 5-6. The three simplifying assumptions

which were used at the beginning of this section, therefore, lead to the con-
clusion that there is a linear reduction in hole density with distance in the base
region. The current density flowing across the base under these conditions is
due entirely to diffusion of positive holes. The diffusion current density is
/ = y+ = -^| = êxp(^) (5-9)
Since x does not appear in Eq. (5-9), the diffusion current remains constant
across the base region.
B. Emitter efficiency. It was shown previously that by unequal doping of the
p- and tf-type regions of a junction the current flowing may be made to consist
largely of positive holes. When this p-n junction forms the emitter-to-base
junction of a pnp transistor, this condition must be re-examined in the light
of Eq. (5-9). For positive holes moving from emitter to base, the current
density is inversely proportional to the active base width W. For electrons
moving from base to emitter, the current is given by Eq. (4-43) as
A-=êxp(^) (5-10)
where n p0 is the thermal equilibrium electron density in the emitter. The ratio
of the hole current to the total current flow across the junction is known as
the emitter efficiency, y. Since it is only the hole current which takes part in
the pnp transistor action, y should be very close to unity for efficient operation
of the transistor.
Jj 1 1
Jt D p p n0 L n
«uM V p PnoL n
a i-^L ae n
(5-11)
from Eqs. (4-48), (4-49), and (2-34), where a b and a e are the conductivities of
the base and emitter regions respectively. This ratio is higher for the transistor
than it is for a corresponding p-n junction. The reason for this is that under
small current conditions the minority charges just at the edge of the two
depletion regions are maintained at values determined by the applied voltages.
The current flow of holes in the base region of the transistor, however, is
greatly increased by the presence of the reverse-biased collector-to-base

junction.
J
C. Base width modulation. Under small-current conditions, the hole density

close to the emitter side of the base region is unaffected by the presence of a
second junction at the other end of the base if VEB is constant. However, the
collector-to-base junction is and acts as a sink for minority

reverse biased
carriers in the base region. Equation (5-9) shows that the positive hole
current across the base is inversely proportional to the active base width, W.
In practice, the depletion region at the emitter end of the base region can be
neglected since the forward bias, VEB is small, but the collector-to-base de-
junction junction
-Charge density at x = 0, Edge of depletion

jeVEB\
region for VCB1
ePn o exp
^—
Edge of depletion
region for VCB2
j2= exp
w; p »°
W W
2 l
B
Distance in base region
FIG. 5-7. Diagram showing the change in current density pro-

duced by a change in collector-to-base voltage, VCB when VEB
, is
a constant.
pletion width may extend a considerable distance into the base region. Writ-
ing B for the metallurgical width of the base, from Fig. 5-7, the base depletion
region close to the collector is of extent B-W. From Eq. (3-13), B-W is
proportional to {VCB )K Hence, W, and also the hole current through the
base, are also functions of VCB as shown in Fig. 5-7.
In normal operation of the transistor, the condition VEB is constant is
unusual, and, more commonly, the direct emitter current IE is held constant.
Under these conditions, the modulation of base width due to changes in
collector-to-base voltage has only a second order effect on collector current.
Small though this effect may be, it is still greater than the corresponding
change in current in a simple reverse-biased p-n junction, and it is the main
factor which determines the incremental collector-to-base resistance in a
junction transistor. Base width modulation is also responsible for a small
SEC. 5-3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CURRENT FLOW ACROSS THE BASE REGION 21
change in the emitter-to-base voltage-current characteristic when the collector

voltage changes.
D. Recombination in the base region. If the three assumptions listed at the

beginning of this section were completely true, all the positive holes entering
the base region would pass to the collector. In practice, it is found that 1 or
2 per cent of the current flows out of the transistor by the base lead. The
largest component of this current is caused by recombination in the base.
junction junction
ep„n ex P
m
Small amount of
^SX recombination
TangentS. affects slope
atx =
o
Tangent ^W
atx=W ^s
W
Emitter Collector
Distance in base region — *•
FIG. 5-8. Charge density in the base region showing the effect of
recombination. [Solution of Eq. (5-12).]
Taking account of this recombination, the continuity equation can be written

as
P - PnO
Uv (5-12)
dx 2
and may be solved to give a more correct analysis of the variation of hole
density in the base region. This equation is not solved until Chap. 9 but
Fig. 5-8 shows that the resulting charge distribution is slightly concave in
shape. The hole current entering the base region is proportional to the
negative slope of the curve at x = from Eq. (5-9). From Fig. 5-8, the slope
at this point is clearly more negative than the slope at x = W. The difference
between the current entering the base region from the emitter and that leaving
through the collector is the small current in the base lead.
E. Collector-to-base cut-off current. Another small current is flowing into the
base region which has hitherto been neglected. This is the saturation current
of the collector-to-base junction which flows because the collector-to-base
junction is reverse biased. This current is present even when the emitter
current is zero and is known as the cut-off current. It is generally designated
either ICBO or Ico . For a typical small germanium transistor at room tem-
perature, ICBO is a few microamps, and, for a silicon unit, it is much
usually
below one microamp. Although of small magnitude, the temperature varia-
tion of IC Bo is high, and, in some circuits, the cut-off current can markedly
affect the total collector current (see Chap. 8).
F. Diffusion capacitance. When the transistor is operated in the usual manner,

we have shown that the minority charge density decreases linearly with dis-
tance across the base. This charge density is established by the emitter current
junction junction
W B
Distance in base region — *
FIG. 5-9. Stored charge in the base region for the calculation of
diffusion capacitance.
which flows into the base region because the emitter-to-base junction is
forward biased. A change in the voltage across this junction results in a
change in the minority charge in the base region, and because of this
effect, the junction acts as if it had an incremental capacitance known as the
diffusion capacitance.
From Eq. (4-31), the hole density in the base region just inside the emitter-
base depletion region (x = in Fig. 5-9) is
P = Pno exp
m
SEC. 5-3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CURRENT FLOW ACROSS THE BASE REGION 123
where VEB is the forward bias on this junction. Ignoring recombination, the
charge-versus-distance curve in the base region is a straight line as shown in
Fig. 5-9. The charge stored in the base region per unit area of the junction
is the shaded, triangular region in Fig. 5-9 and is given by
ePnoW fi
exp(^f ) (5-13)
where W is the active base width.

If the input voltage VEB is varied, the charge stored in the base region will
change. The value
is
c° =
£
defined as the diffusion capacitance of the transistor per unit area of the
(5 - 14)
junction. From Eqs. (5-13) and (5-14),
dQ e'PnoW leVEB \
Ld
'w; - ~2kf~ exp vw)
b
But from Eq. (5-9),
. eD p (eVEB \
and so
eW 2
CD = 2kTD J per Unit area ^
5_1 ^
The incremental capacitance is given in Eq. (5-15) in terms of the current
density J, and thus the total diffusion capacitance across the junction is
proportional to the total emitter current, IE .
The diffusion capacitance is in addition to the incremental capacitance of

a p-n junction that exists because of the presence of the charge depletion
regions (see Sec. 3-4). For a small transistor, the emitter-to-base diffusion
capacitance is usually above 100 picofarads at IE = 1 milliamp whereas the
junction capacitance is typically of the order of 10 picofarads. The diffusion
capacitance for the collector-to-base junction is very small since there is little
alteration in the charge in the base region as the collector voltage changes.
The incremental capacitance across the two junctions is a major factor in
determining the upper frequency response of a transistor. This matter is
discussed in some detail in Chap. 10.
5-4 The Transistor as a Device: Common Base Circuit
Figure. 5-10 shows a method of operating a pnp transistor. This is known as

the common base (CB) circuit. Under normal transistor operation, the emitter-
to-base junction is operated in a forward direction with a direct current IE ,
and the collector-to-base junction is biased in a reverse direction with a

current flow of Ic . From the preceding analysis, Ic is slightly less than IE
and the output characteristics in Fig. 5-10 show a family of curves, each
curve having a different value of IE .The difference between IE and Ic at any
point is the base current, IB . The output curves are nearly horizontal lines
provided the collector-to-base junction is reverse biased. This indicates a
high incremental output resistance of the order of 10 6 ohms. By contrast, the
incremental input resistance of the transistor is of the order of a few ohms.
Limiting
resistance
Zi. Collector-to-
Emitter- to -
ry~ base battery
base battery
/F =0
Collector- to -base voltage

(reverse bias)
FIG. 5-10. The common base (CB) circuit and the common base
output characteristics.
One of the principal components of this is the emitter-to-base junction

incremental resistance (Sec. 4-7).
In most of the circuit analyses which will be carried out in the following
chapters, the current gain of the transistor will be the factor of greatest interest
the ratio of the output and input currents). The transistor is a current-
(i.e.,
operated device, and the voltages necessary to sustain suitable currents across
the junctions are of secondary importance. For example, the emitter current
versus emitter-to-base voltage curve is only rarely plotted since it is so tem-
perature dependent (see Eq. 5-9). The small emitter-to-base voltage required
for forward operation of the junction is readily obtained, and interest is
chiefly centered on the value of the emitter current.

Before a complete analysis of the operation of the transistor amplifier is
attempted, it is of interest to show the capabilities of the device under a-c
SEC. 5-4 THE TRANSISTOR AS A DEVICE: COMMON BASE CIRCUIT 125
operation. This can be done by reference to Fig. 5-1 1 where a small alter-
nating-voltage generator Ve has been placed in series with the input circuit.
Assuming that the alternating-voltage Ve is much less than the direct emitter-
to-base voltage, a small alternating current Ie will flow in the input circuit
given by
Ve = IJi (5-16)
where r t
is the incremental input resistance under the given conditions. If the
alternating current in the output circuit is Ic the alternating output voltage
,
across the load is
V = IC R L (5-17)
The current gain of the circuit is
A, = (5-18)
and the voltage gain is
IcRl
A„ = (5-19)
hr<
Equations 5-16 through 5-19 apply to small-signal a-c operation. It can be

and Ie is almost the
seen, however, that the ratio of the alternating currents Ic
same as the ratio of the direct currents measured under the same conditions
since the mechanism of charge conveyance in the base region is the same at
low frequencies as at zero frequency. When the load resistance, R L is zero ,
and the collector-to-base voltage is a constant, the current gain of the CB

circuit is known as the a (alpha) of the transistor and has a value between
0.95 and 0.995. This is the most important transistor parameter.
Alternating Alternating
current current
Alternating
£> \ / <S>
voltage v?<§ rl Output V
Suitable o
emitter-to- ~^F
base voltage
tl
FIG. 5-11. Inclusion of a small alternating voltage in the input of
a CB transistor circuit.
In the case shown in Fig. 5-11, we may approximate the condition

RL — by RL < 0.1 r , where r is the incremental output resistance, since
then the voltage drop across RL is a small proportion of the total alternating
voltage in the collector circuit. Using the further approximation that a = 1,
An = (5-20)
Typical values would be
r = 1 megohm, RL = 10,000 ohms, r{ = 50 ohms
giving a, . 1^000 . 20Q
From the foregoing simplified analysis, the CB transistor circuit is charac-

terized by
1. current gain just less than unity,
2. high voltage gain,
3. low input resistance,
4. high output resistance.
5-5 The Transistor as a Device: Common Emitter Circuit
The common emitter (CE) circuit is the most used type of transistor amplifying
stage since it provides a high current gain. To understand its principle of
operation consider the three direct currents
7c flowing in the leads of a transistor as defined
h+. x
\. / by Fig. 5-12.
Neglecting any charge storage effects in
the device which might occur under transient
conditions,
h=h+h (5-21)
FIG. 5-12. Assigned directions The total collector current can be represented
of direct currents flowing in a by
transistor. /c tvv
Irc = aIrB +
, r
Icbo (5-22)
Here the collector current is written as the sum of the small cut-off current
which flows even when IE = (see Fig. 5-10), and alpha times the emitter
current IE . The quantity a was defined for alternating-current conditions but
will also apply to the direct-current case without appreciable error when the
collector-to-base voltage is constant. Eliminating IE between Eqs. (5-21) and
(5-22) gives
h = r^—
— h + -r^
I— a a. 1
(5-23)
Now assume that a small alternating current Ib is impressed upon the

direct current IB . Assuming ICBO is a constant, Eq. (5-23) can be written as
(ic + to) = r1— -a Vb

1
+ h) + r^
1— a
(5-24)
o
SEC. 5-5 THE TRANSISTOR AS A DEVICE: COMMON EMITTER CIRCUIT 127
Subtracting Eq. (5-23) from Eq. (5-24)
/, = - (5-25)
1
The current ratio IJIb is the alternating-current gain of a transistor circuit

when the base lead is used as the input and the collector lead is the output.
Such an arrangement is known as a common and is
emitter (CE) circuit
shown in Fig. 5-13. This figure also shows the output characteristic curves
Alternating
current
Alternating
current
<&
Alternating <i> Output
voltage <§ —
generator
Suitable
base-to-
emitter voltage £T
Collector-to-emitter voltage
(reverse bias)
FIG. 5-13. The common emitter (CE) circuit and the common
emitter output characteristics.
for this connection. By comparing the characteristic curves for the CE and
the CB connection it is seen that the output incremental resistance of the CE
circuit is much lower. This is a factor in the design of CE stages such as the
one given in Fig. 5-13, since, to apply Eq. (5-25) directly, R L must be much
less than the incremental output resistance. Suitable values for the CE stage
are
r = 20,000 ohms, RL = 1500 ohms,
r{ = 1000 ohms, a = 0.98
Assuming R L « r , the current gain of the stage is
h 1 - a
.
The p (beta) of a transistor is the maximum current gain that can be obtained
from the CE circuit and is commonly between 20 and 200. The acceptable
limits of j3 for a particular type of transistor will be specified by the manu-
facturer. For the transistor mentioned above, p = 49 and so the current gain
of the circuit assuming R L « r is
A = p =
t
49
The voltage gain through the stage is given approximately by
hRk _PRk _ 49(1500) _ ,XD

1
lb r {
rt 1000 ~
Thus the CE transistor stage is characterized by
1 current gain fairly high (between 20 and 200),
2. voltage gain fairly high,
3. fairly low input resistance,
4. fairly high output resistance.
The CE circuit is the most used amplifier because it has a useful current gain
and individual stages can be cascaded to form a multistage amplifier.
5-6 The Manufacture of Transistors
A. Materials. Germanium was the first material to be used in the manu-

facture of transistors, but in recent years increasing use has been made of
silicon. Silicon has a higher forbidden gap width (1.1 volts for silicon,
0.72 volts for germanium) and so silicon devices can be operated at higher
temperatures (about 175° C for silicon and 75° C for germanium). The wider
band gap of silicon leads to lower leakage currents and higher impedances.
Silicon has a sharper avalanche property and hence allows fabrication of
voltage regulator diodes (see Sec. 3-6). In addition, silicon junctions can be
made to operate at higher voltages. Finally, silicon has a remarkable natural
oxide which allows easy fabrication of diffused and surface passivated devices
(see Sec. 9-10).
A single crystal of germanium or
must be formed as a step in
silicon
transistor grown by slowly withdrawing a
manufacture. This crystal is
"seed" crystal having the desired orientation from a crucible containing the
molten semiconductor. Although chemically pure material is used, the small
amount of group 3 or 5 impurity still present in the semiconductor determines
its conductivity. Removal of these impurities is obtained by zone refining. In
this technique, molten zones, obtained by localized heating, are moved along
a semiconducting rod, and it is found that the impurities (being more soluble
in the melt than in the solid) pass along to one end, leaving the rest of the rod
10
with a reduced impurity content. Purity of better than 1 part in 10 may be
SEC. 5-6 THE MANUFACTURE OF TRANSISTORS 129
obtained with this method. It is more difficult to produce pure single crystals
from silicon than from germanium but most of the technical problems
associated with the use of silicon have now been overcome.
B. Point-contact transistors. Many semiconducting diodes and some early

transistors were made by pressing fine cats-whisker contact wires on to semi-
conducting wafers. Many diodes are still made in this way, but transistor
production of this type has now ceased. The three major drawbacks to the use
of point-contact transistors were their tendency to instability, their high noise
level and the difficulty of predicting their characteristics.
C. Grown-junction transistors. This type of device accounts for a few per cent,
of the total output of the industry. A typical germanium npn grown-junction
transistor is cut from a bar of up to 1 in. in diameter. The single crystal bar is
grown from a germanium melt containing arsenic to make it n-typz. During
Collector
p-type
alloy region^ ^^^^^>^' IndlUm
7 Âctive base region

p-type alloy region- J\ Indium
FIG. 5-14. Schematic diagram of a typical alloy-junction tran-

sistor.
the crystal growing process, gallium is added to the melt to make it /?-type.
Then, more n-typo,added to make an npn sandwich. The bar is then

dope is
sliced longitudinally into small sections about 0.025 x 0.025 x 0.125 in.
long. The/7-type base region is about 1/1000 in. thick. This device is suitable
for audio-frequency operation only.
D. Alloy-junction transistors. Many transistors are now made using a structure

similar to Fig. 5-14. Here an n-type semiconducting wafer of 0.08 x 0.08 x
0.004 in. thick serves as the «-type base. Indium is placed on the crystal
wafer, and is heated to a carefully controlled temperature so that the indium
germanium as shown in Fig. 5-14. Upon cooling,
dissolves (by alloying) the
two p-type regions regrow from the indium-germanium alloy and form the
emitter and the collector regions. Both junctions are of abrupt or step-like
nature. By alloying further into the n-type material, the thickness of the base
region can be reduced. In this way, the frequency response of the device can
be increased at the expense of reducing the allowed operating voltage to
prevent breakdown. The manufacturing techniques become difficult when the
base thickness is reduced below a certain value and so the frequency response
of the CB circuit is limited in practice to tens of megacycles per second
which is adequate for many purposes. A variation of this technique involves
chemically etching the base region to reduce the base thickness before
alloying takes place. The device is then known as a surface-barrier transistor.
E. Diffusion techniques. This method of transistor and diode manufacture is

increasingly being used in the semiconductor industry. The diffusion referred
to here (doping impurity diffusion) occurs at high temperatures when there is
atomic migration of group 3 or 5 material into the semiconductor. This pro-

cess gives accurately controlled penetration depths, and base thicknesses of
~5
less than 5 x 10 in. can be produced as the difference in depth of two
n-type diffused emitter
Base contact
Emitter contact
Active base X»l JL .p-type diffused region
region 6xl0 _5 in.
Û- Original ra-type

"|| material
I (collection)
X. Ohmic contact
FIG. 5-15. Cross section of a mesa diffused-base transistor

(simplified).
diffusion cycles. Junctions produced by method are not abrupt but graded
this
in some way, giving lower capacitances and often higher allowable operating
voltages. Diffusants are usually in vapor form, and phosphorus (/2-type),
boron (p-type) and gallium (/?-type) are commonly used. In general, hun-
dreds of diffused devices can be made on wafers of \ to 1 in. diameter and
then be scribed into several hundred individual devices. In this way, a highly
uniform product of low cost may be obtained. A common manufacturing
technique is described below.
The "mesa" transistor is shown in simplified form in
diffused-base
Fig. 5-15. The word "mesa" means "a flat-topped rocky hill with steeply
sloping sides, common in the southwestern U.S." and describes the form of
this device. The square wafer of /7-type material shown is one of 100 to
1000 units which are made simultaneously on the same semiconducting slice.
After cleaning and polishing of the top face of the slice, boron is diffused
into the material to a depth of 1.6 x 10" 4 in. to form a /?-type layer. Then
a second diffusion of phosphorus is made over a controlled region to a
~4 "
depth of 1 x 10 abase region of thickness 6 x 10 5 in. between
in. to give
the first and the second diffusions. Emitter and base metallic contacts are
now evaporated on to the surface using a precision mask, and unwanted
material is etched away to give the transistor its "mesa" shape. The semi-
:
SEC. 5-6 THE MANUFACTURE OF TRANSISTORS 131
conducting slice must still be cleaned and broken into its individual pieces
before mounting and lead attachment takes place. The expense incurred in
this construction is offset by the large quantity and uniformity of transistors
produced from one slice of semiconductor. Diffused transistors are capable
of operation above one kilomegacycle per second.
Transistors may be made using both diffusion and alloying technologies.
One manufacturing process starts with a high resistance n-typc wafer into
which is diffused an n-type skin. An indium dot is next alloyed to one face to
produce a p-n emitter to base junction. On the reverse face of the wafer, the
«-type skin is removed to uncover the near-intrinsic «-type material below,
and to this is alloyed an indium collector. This method of fabrication pro-
duces a pnp transistor with a graded base having the high resistance part of
the base close to the collector. Thus a small collector-to-base capacitance
results, and there is also a "built-in" electric field which sweeps the injected
minority carriers across the base region to the collector (see Sec. 9-8). Fre-
quency responses of greater than one kilomegacycles per second are obtainable
but power dissipation is generally limited to below one watt and the cost of the
device is high.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Junction transistors
Gartner, Wolfgang W., Transistors: Principles, Design, and Applications,

Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1960

Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961
Lo, Arthur W., Richard O. Endres, et al, Transistor Electronics, Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955
Middlebrook, R. D., An Introduction to Junction Transistor Theory, New York

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1957
Manufacture of transistors
Anderson, A. Eugene, "Transistor Technology Evolution," Western Electric
Engineer, 3 (July 1959), 2-12, 3 (October 1959), 30-36, 4 (January 1960),
14-19
Shive, J. N., Properties, Physics and Design of Semiconductor Devices, New

PROBLEMS
5-1 The p-n junction that was used as an example in Sec. 4-4 is now the
emitter-to-base junction of a pnp transistor. If the base thickness is
0.002 cm, the emitter-to-base voltage is 0.2 volts in the forward direc-
tion and the collector-to-base junction is reverse biased, find the
current density of holes across the base region.
5-2 Calculate the emitter efficiency for the transistor in the previous
question. How can the emitter efficiency be improved?
5-3 In an alloy junction transistor, the base is a field-free region under small-
current conditions. Discuss how the current passes from emitter to
collector showing what conditions must be fulfilled for transistor action.
5-4 The transistor of Prob. 5-1 is operated with a collector-to-base reverse

voltage of (a) 0.5 and (b) 20 volts. What are the collector currents in
the two cases if VEB is a constant? Assume that the base and collector
conductivities are identical.
5-5 Compute the diffusion capacitance for the transistor of Prob. 5-1
when IE = 1 ma.
5-6 Identify the nature of the carrier currents in each region of an alloy
junction pnp transistor. In what manner are these currents sensitive
to (a) temperature variations, (b) bias variations ?
5-7 A transistor with an alpha of 0.97 is operated in a common base circuit

with a resistance of 2500 ohms in the collector circuit. A small-signal
a-c source is connected in series with the emitter lead. The a-c output
resistance of the transistor is 1 megohm and the input resistance is 100
ohms. What are the a-c voltage and current gains for this circuit?
Suggest a use for the common base circuit.
5-8 A transistor with an alpha of 0.99 is operated in a common emitter

circuit. What is the maximum alternating-current gain that can be
achieved? In this circuit, the direct current, IB , is held constant as the
temperature of the device changes. ICBO however, , is found to double its
value for a 10° C increase in temperature. If IB = 10 /xa (constant) and
ICBO = l ^
at 25° C, what is the value of Ic at (a) 25° C, (b) 35° C, (c)
50° C ? (Note the serious effect of changes in ICBO when the CE circuit
is operated with constant 7S ; this effect is analyzed in Chap. 8.)
5-9 What are the effects of the conductivities of the three transistor regions
on current gain, emitter efficiency and base width modulation?
5-10 It is required to cascade two transistor stages to form a multistage
transistor a-c amplifier. Taking the typical stages given in Sees. 5-4 and
5-5 as a guide, design a suitable circuit for coupling (a) two common
base stages, (b) two common emitter stages. Compute the current gain
in both cases and discuss the results.
5- 1 1 Describe the construction of an alloy junction and a diffused-base mesa

transistor. By reference to current transistor literature, determine the
capabilities of both types of transistor.
PART 2
Transistors
at
Low Frequencies
and under
d-c Conditions
6
The In this chapter will be found a discussion of three
small-signal parameter representations of the tran-
Transistor sistor. These are the z or impedance parameters, the
y or admittance parameters and the h or hybrid
as a parameters. Of these three, the h parameters are
most commonly used, and they will be employed for
Two Port circuit analysis at low frequencies in Chaps. 7 and
8. The equivalent circuits for these representations
Network
are given together with the hybrid-n representation
which is used in Chaps. 9 and 10. The chapter
opens with a general discussion of the properties of
electronic amplifying devices.
36 THE TRANSISTOR AS A TWO PORT NETWORK CHAP. 6
6-1 General Considerations of Electronic Devices

as Amplifiers
There are four requirements which must be fulfilled if an electronic device is
to be a useful general-purpose amplifier. In the must have a

first place, it
considerable voltage or current gain and be able to control the power in its
output circuit with the expenditure of relatively little power in the input cir-
cuit. Secondly, the device must be linear to prevent the introduction of un-
wanted When used as a power amplifier, a third requirement is
distortion.
that this linearity must be obtainable over a substantial part of the output
characteristics of the device. The last condition is that it must be possible to
Y/
generator
generator
£T fr
(a) (b)
generator
(c)
FIG. 6-1. Three transistor connections: (a) CB circuit; (b) CE

circuit; (c) CC circuit.
cascade the device to form a multistage amplifier. Triode and pentode vacuum
tubes meet all and any competing device must measure up to
these conditions
these requirements before other points of comparison are made. It will be
shown that the transistor is capable of providing a high gain with a substantial
amount of linearity in a cascaded amplifier, and so it can be used as a
general-purpose amplifying device.
Figure 6-1 shows a transistor arranged in three possible configurations.
Two CB and the CE circuits, have been briefly discussed in
of these, the
Sees. 5-4 and 5-5, and the third diagram shows the common collector (CC)
circuit. Of these three circuits, only the CE stage can be used in multistage
amplifiers. The reasons for this will be given in Chap. 7.

The transistor is mainly used as an amplifier of alternating currents, but
SEC. 6-1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES AS AMPLIFIERS 137
suitable direct-current operating conditions must also be established. This

may be done by plotting the static characteristics of the device. Figure 6-2
shows that the any one of its three connections can be regarded
transistor in
as a two port device linking the input and output circuits. The symbols used
in this figure define the instantaneous total current and voltage at the input and
output terminals. These symbols, which conform to current practice, there-
fore apply when direct-current and voltage measurements are taken on the
transistor to the input and output static characteristic curves. The
give
subscripts and c will be used where appropriate to denote values at the
e, b,
emitter, base, and collector terminals.

Consider Fig. 6-3 which shows the static input and output characteristics
for the CE and CB circuits respectively. These curves are obtained from a
measuring circuit of the type shown in Fig. 6-4 which applies specifically to
the CE connection. As we can predict from semiconductor theory, useful
operation occurs when the base-to-emitter junction has a forward voltage
bias and when the collector-to-base junction has a reverse-applied voltage.
We note that the reverse bias between the collector and the base is responsible
for a large output resistance, whereas the forward-biased, emitter-to-base
junction has a low resistance. Since the emitter current and the collector
current are essentially the same, current is transferred from a low to a high
resistance circuit, leading to the name trans-resistor or transistor.
l
l *2
Transistor
Input Output
Vl ^2
circuit O circuit
o o
FIG. 6-2. The transistor as a two port device linking output and
input circuits. Instantaneous total voltages and currents are
shown.
Valuable information can be obtained from the input and output static
characteristic curves of any electron device. Voltage or current gain can be
predicted by inspection of the family of output curves. Linearity of gain over
a wide range of input and output currents can be assessed by checking the
constancy of the spacing of the output curves for equal variations in the input
parameters. Wide range of operation is suggested by an extensive region over
which the output curves have a near-constant slope. The characteristics for
the CE connection of the transistor show that this method of operating the
device will give a high current amplification since a small variation in ib pro-
duces a large variation in ic . The spacing between the output curves is
approximately constant for equal variations in input current showing that the
CE connection will give substantial linearity. The operating range is plainly
10 _
ic = 10 ma
C8
o ie = 8 ma
£
a
ie = 6ma
"»
6
v cb = - 1 volt 4
L = 4 ma
(reverse bias)
ie = 2 ma
2
ie = ma
0.1 0.2
v eb in volts (forward bias) vch in negative volts (reverse bias)

Input curve Output curve
(a)
v ce = - 10 volts
(reverse bias)
0.1 0.2 0.3 2 4 6 8 10
v be in volts (forward bias) v ce in negative volts (reverse bias)
Input curve Output curve

(b)
FIG. 6-3. Input and output characteristics of pnp germanium

transistor, (a) CB connection, (b) CE connection.
FIG. 6-4. A circuit suitable for taking static characteristic curves

for the CE connection.
SEC. 6-1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES AS AMPLIFIERS 139
seen from the shape of the curves. It may be concluded, therefore, that the
CE stage is a useful current amplifier. However, inspection of the base-to-
emitter characteristic shows marked nonlinearity which must be taken into
account in amplifier design.
The CB
and the CC characteristics may also be analyzed in a similar
manner. For the CB stage, it will be seen that a current gain of slightly less
than unity and so

will result, this stage is unsuitable for cascading in a multi-
stage current amplifier. The CC static characteristics (which are not shown
here) indicate that a high current gain can be obtained when one stage only is
used, but, in Chap. 7, it is shown that this circuit, too, is never employed in
multistage amplifiers.
The characteristics shown in Fig. 6-3 are the most useful ones in practice.
We have reproduced the output curves with input current as a running para-
meter since it is known by experience that the transistor is best regarded as a
current amplifier. The output curves drawn with input voltage as a parameter
plainly show the nonlinearity which exists between input voltage and output
current.
The design of single and multistage amplifiers prior to the advent of tran-
sistorshad been dominated by considerations which applied to vacuum tubes.
Loudspeakers, microphones, etc., had been made with impedances and
power requirements suitable for triode and pentode circuits. Furthermore,
matching between stages was considered solely from a voltage standpoint
since the vacuum tube is primarily a voltage amplifier. However, the tran-
sistor is a current-operated device. It is the current gain per stage which
determines the properties of a multistage transistor amplifier and the voltage
gain has a much smaller significance. Consequently, since about 1950, the
design of electronic equipment has been studied with regard to the use of both
voltage and current amplifying devices and this has resulted in a better un-
derstanding of the processes involved.
6-2 Alternating-current Operation of the Transistor
In this,and the following chapter, only the alternating-current operation of

the transistor will be considered.It will be assumed that the transistor is
operating with a constant emitter, base, and collector current such that
"small-current" conditions hold (see Sec. 4-2). The selection of a suitable
operating point on the characteristic curves is discussed in Chap. 8.
There are four variables two port representation of a device given

in the
in Fig. 6-2. These are the two voltages iând v 2 and the two currents i x and
ia. The graphical relationship between these quantities is shown by a pair of
the static characteristic curves of Fig. 6-3 which apply to the two port re-
presentation of the particular connection chosen. These curves determine the
potentialities of the device, as described in the previous section, but for a-c
analysis, it is better to consider the mathematical relationship between the
four variables. In general, an amplifier is operated in the region where the

curves are straight lines so the equations should be linear.
There is some function, fa , relating one of the variables, say vu with the
other three. Thus
Vi = fa(v 2 , h, i 2) (6-1)
The quantity, v 2 , could have been written in a similar general form with a
different function, fb, involving v l9 i lt and /2 , hence
^2 = fb (v lf h, i 2) (6-2)
From Eqs. (6-1) and (6-2), we can write
Vi = /iO'i, i
2) (6-3)
v2 = f2 (h, *2
) (6-4)
where /x and/2 are two functions which can be found if the functions fa and
f
b are known. Equations (6-3) and (6-4) show that i x and i 2 can be considered
as independent variables.
By a similar analysis, the two currents can be written in terms of the two
voltages to give
k = fa(v u v 2 ) (6-5)
k = U(vi, v 2 ) (6-6)
There is no reason why one current and one voltage cannot be taken as the
independent variables. The curves of Fig. 6-3 suggest the equations
Vi = f5 0'i, v 2) (6-7)
h = feO'i, ^2) (6-8)
Further equations can be written using the three remaining pairs of in-
dependent variables, but they serve no useful purpose in our analysis.

The relationships given above apply to the instantaneous total voltages
and currents. For small variations in these quantities about the operating
point, Eqs. (6-3) and (6-4) become
dVl = ^
Oil
dil + ^l d 2
^h
i (6-9)
d d
dv 2 = pdi + pdi 1 2 (6-10)
Clx Cl 2
Small-signal operation applies when the variations are restricted to such a

small amplitude that the partial differential terms in Eqs. (6-9) and (6-10) can
be considered as constant. Inspection of the static characteristics shows how
wide a range this will be. In general, this linear region should extend to at
least 10 per cent of the corresponding direct operating values or the device
SEC. 6-2 ALTERNATING-CURRENT OPERATION OF THE TRANSISTOR 141
would not be used. Small-signal operation is usually taken to mean the con-
ditions where all four partial differentials are constant. Linear amplification
can often be obtained over a much wider range if one or more of the partial
differential coefficients can be ignored.
The four partial differential terms have the dimensions of impedance and
can be written
(6 ~ n)
Zll = ^' Z
^ = W 2
- —
_ dv 2
2 dv
z 21 = -^ z 22
In practice, the transistor will frequently be used for the amplification of

sinusoidal currents. Hence, it is convenient to replace the changes in in-
stantaneous total voltage and current by rms a-c quantities which are con-
sidered to be impressed on the direct values. Equations (6-9) and (6-10) may
now be written as
V = x z lx Ix+ z 12 /2 (6-12)
V2 = z 2 Ji + z 22 I2 (6-13)
The four impedance terms can be defined as follows:
Vi and is the input impedance when the output is open-

h /2 =o circuited to a-c.
Vi and is the reverse transfer impedance with the input open-

Z,o =
h circuited to a-c.
and is the forward transfer impedance with the output

ZoA = Yi
h /2=0 open-circuited to a-c.
and is the output impedance with the input open-circuited

u h to a-c.
The and voltages

open-circuit a-c condition assumes that the direct currents
in the two port network are undisturbed. Practical methods of achieving this
are discussed in Sec. 6-7.
Equations (6-12) and (6-13) are the defining equations of the open-circuit
impedance representation of the linear two port (four terminal) network. The
four impedance parameters, z n z 12 z 21 and z 22 will be used to synthesize a
, , ,
circuit which represents the device within the " black box " of Fig. 6-1 as far as
small-signal a-c conditions are concerned. This is the z parameter represen-
tation.
If the second pair of independent variables is considered, Eqs. (6-5) and

(6-6) can be written in the form
h =J>iiKi +^12^2 (6-14)
h = y2iVi + y 22 v2 (6-15)
where the y parameters are defined below
= and is the input admittance when the output is short-

^11
v2 = o circuited to a-c.
and is the reverse transfer admittance with the input short-

yxi
Vl=0 circuited to a-c.
and is the forward transfer admittance with the output

y2 i short-circuited to a-c.
v2 = o
and is the output admittance with the input short-

y22 =
Vi=0 circuited to a-c.
Here the short-circuit a-c conditions must be achieved without altering the
direct currents and voltages (see Sec. 6-7). These are the short-circuit ad-
mittance parameters of the linear two port network and can be used to syn-
thesize an equivalent circuit for the device under small-signal a-c conditions.
This is y parameter representation.
the
The third, and last, representation which will be given here uses the hybrid,
or h, parameters. These parameters arise from considering Eqs. (6-7) and
(6-8) and are defined by the two equations below.
Vx = h 11 I1 + h 12 V2 (6-16)
h = /*2lA + ^22^2 (6-17)

where
Vi and is the input impedance when the output is short-
h 11 '
h v2 =o circuited to a-c.
Vi and is the reverse voltage amplification factor with the

h 12
v2 h = o input open-circuited to a-c.
h2i
h and is the forward current gain with the output short-
v2 = o circuited to a-c.
h22
h and is the output admittance with the input open-circuited
v2 to a-c.
The parameter /* n has the dimensions of impedance, and it is equal to 1/yu.

h 22 has the dimensions of admittance and is equal to \/z 22 . h 12 and h 21 are
nondimensional. It will be shown that h 21 is of great importance in a transistor
since it is the current gain of the device in the short-circuit condition.
6-3 z, y, and h Parameters: General Comments
So far we have defined three sets of parameters to represent the two port
network. These representations apply to small-signal operation where a
linear relationship exists between the alternating currents and voltages. Since
SEC. 6-3 z, y, AND h PARAMETERS: GENERAL COMMENTS 143
all three representations refer to the same device, the three sets of parameters
must be interrelated. At first sight, it is difficult to see why three representa-
tions of the same device are required. The reasons are partly historical and
partly technical; moreover, the various manufacturers continue to specify
their transistors in different ways. Historically, the z parameters were used a
great deal in the early days of transistor electronics. This representation was
simple and direct since an impedance was associated with each of the tran-
However, measurement of the z parameters is difficult (Sec. 6-7),
sistor leads.
and the representation is less useful at high frequencies. The y and h para-
meter representation gained in popularity with increasing usage of the tran-
sistor. In this book, the h parameter representation will be used for the
FIG. 6-5. Input and output circuits connected to the two port
"black box." Rms a-c voltages and currents are shown.
analysis of low frequency operation of the device. In Part 3, where high

frequency and pulse operation are considered, a modification of the y para-
meter representation is employed which is known as the hybrid-n circuit, and
it will be referred to later in this chapter.
In the next three sections, equivalent circuits will be developed for the z,
y, and h parameter representations respectively. In general, the justification

for using these circuits will be left to the reader since this is standard two port
network theory. The references given at the end of this chapter deal with
this topic in detail.
The object of using any of the three sets of parameters is to provide a
simple circuit representation of the transistor. Thus a transistor stage may be
analyzed by replacing the device by an equivalent two port network contain-
ing resistances, capacitances, inductances, and generators. Figure 6-5 shows
input and output circuits connected to the "black box." We require to know
the following quantities under all circuit conditions.
Input impedance, z«
h
v2
Output impedance, Z„
h
Current gain, A, -k T
y
~
Voltage gain, Av =
Power gain, Ap = A AV {
These terms are known as performance quantities, and the aim of the following
circuit representation and analysis is to determine these quantities under any
conditions which may exist. The voltage generator, VL is rarely connected in ,
practice, but it is included in Fig. 6-5 to simplify the calculation for the output
impedance.
6-4 Equivalent Circuit using z Parameters: the T Circuit
Consider the defining equations of the z parameter representation.
Vi = Z1J1 + z 12 /2 (6-12)
^2 = Z 21 h + Z 22 /2 (6-13)
It isfound that there is a simple network of impedances given in Fig. 6-6

which represents a linear two port network when z 12 = z 21 This is known as .
a passive network. Mesh analysis of Fig. 6-6 justifies the use of the circuit.
Z\\- z \2 2 22 _2 12
-I I
v,
*12
FIG. 6-6. The T circuit for a passive network.
A passive circuit can be defined as one which has no energy generating source.
This circuit is not adequate for the transistor, however, since measurements
show that z 12 ^ z 21 . The transistor must, therefore, be represented by an
active circuit which contains at least one generator in addition to the im-
pedances. Rewriting the circuit equations by adding and subtracting z 12 h to
the right-hand side of Eq. (6-13), we have
Vx = z lx Ix + z 12 /2 (6-12)
V2 = z12h + z 22I2 + (z 21 - z 12 )Ilt (6-18)
Equations (6-12) and (6-18) now relate to the network of Fig. 6-7 as can be
shown by simple circuit analysis. The term (z 21 — z 12 )/i accounts for the
constant voltage generator in the circuit. When z 12 = z 21 , this generator
vanishes to give the circuit of Fig. 6-6.
— : :
SEC. 6-4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT USING z PARAMETERS: THE T CIRCUIT 145
(z 2 i-z l2 )h
z \\ ~ 2 12 222 ~ 2 12
-I I
- —0_^>
*12
FIG. 6-7. The active T circuit.
The circuit of Fig. 6-7 may be applied directly to any of the three con-
nections of the transistor given in Fig. 6-1. When the CB configuration is
selected, the three impedances may be identified with the three leads of the
transistor as shown below. At low frequencies only the resistive components
of the impedances are important and so
Z 12 ~ r e-> the emitter resistance
z 12 — r bi the base resistance
Z 22 Z 12 = ra the collector resistance
*21 Z 12 = rm the transresistance
Typical values for an alloy junction transistor are found to be
re = 20 ohms
rb = 500 ohms
rc = 1 megohm
rm = 0.98 megohms
and the circuit is given in Fig. 6-8(a). From this figure, the numerical value
of the current gain is
v2 = o
' m r t
o- ^yvv-j-^vvv-Q -p AA/V
r.
v, < v2 Vx
(a) (b)
FIG. 6-8. Two common T equivalent circuits for the CB con-

figuration.
since r e « rb « rc . The short-circuit current gain of the device in this con-

nection is known For the values given above,
as a (alpha) for the transistor.
a = shows an exactly equivalent circuit where the series
0.98. Figure 6-8(b)
(Thevenin) resistance-voltage generator combination of r c and rm /i has been
replaced by a parallel (Norton) resistance-current generator combination
formed by r c and hrm lrc Both of these circuits will be found in transistor
.
literature.The input current Iy in the CB representation is the alternating

emitter current, and the output current I2 is the alternating collector current.
These currents are defined as positive when flowing into their respective
terminals. This is opposite to the direction of current flow which is commonly
assumed in Norton and Thevenin equivalent circuits, and so the sign of the
current term must always be taken into account.
A r T ?2
w\ 1
v\a (Jhr
O
Vi
r.f
FIG. 6-9. Rearrangement of CB circuit of Fig. 6-8 (a) to make

a CE circuit.
The circuits of Fig. 6-8 are seen to be a logical development of the theory
given in Part 1 . It was shown there, that the emitter current passes across the
emitter-to-base junction, through the base region and into the collector.
Either of the arrangements fits into this pattern. However, a difficulty arises
since the CB circuit is rarely used as an amplifier because its current gain is
less than unity. In practice, the CB circuit is retained to identify the values
re , r b , r Ci and r m but the, circuit of Fig. 6-8(a) is rearranged to give the CE
circuit of Fig. 6-9. Note that the conventional symbols Vu V2 , Ilt and /2
have been retained for the two port network, but now the input is between
base and emitter and the output is taken from collector to emitter. To con-
form with Fig. 6-8(a), the current term controlling the constant voltage
generator is now Ie not I x .
The performance quantities defined in Sec. 6-3 can be calculated for the
CB configuration by substituting either circuit of Fig. 6-8 in place of the
"black box" of Fig. 6-5. For the CE circuit, Fig. 6-9 can be used. A further
rearrangement of the active T circuit is required for the CC configuration.
The resulting circuit analysis for any of the three cases is tedious but not
difficult. The results of Table 6-1. These values
this analysis are given in
have been calculated at low frequencies where the impedances can be con-
sidered as resistances.
Q0_
I
4) 0) *>•
13 OS
£ g £
.S
£ 3 tf
12 C
Ph -5
35
'3
i
60 60O
II a>
c
j u a o
60
w
ctf
3
<L>
II
< c c
3^ 5*
> U
2
6-5 Equivalent Circuit using y Parameters: the n Circuit

Equations (6-14) and (6-15) which define the y parameters are repeated here
for convenience.
h =ynV + 1 y 12 V2 (6-14)
h = y2iVi + y 22 v2 (6-15)
Figure 6-10 shows the passive -n circuit which applies when y 12 = y 21 .
-y\z
V, yz2+y\2
FIG. 6-10. The it circuit of a passive network.
The passive circuit needs only admittance elements in its network representa-
tion. Adding and subtracting y 12 V1 to Eq. (6-15) and rewriting Eq. (6-14),
we have a pair of equations relating to the active circuit.
h = ynVi + yi 2 v2 (6-14)
h= yi 2 Vi + ^22^2 + (y 2 i yi 2 )v1 (6-19)
An equivalent network of the active circuit is given in Fig. 6-11. The

term (y 21 — ^12)^1 is represented as a current generator in parallel with the
output terminals, and this circuit is sometimes used to represent a transistor.
-yw
yw +yu ^22+^1 Qfoi-yuW.
FIG. 6-1 1. An active -n circuit.
The hybrid-TT circuit is a useful representation of the CE connection of the

transistor at high frequencies. This circuit is shown in Fig. 6-12. It is an
active tt circuit with an added resistance in the input lead. This resistance,
which shown between terminals B and B\ is known as the base spreading
is
resistanceand is the ohmic resistance of the semiconducting material between

the base connection and the active part of the base, B'. The hybrid-^ circuit
is considered in detail in Chaps. 9 and 10, where it is shown to be a good
representation of the transistor at high frequencies.

SEC. 6-6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT USING h PARAMETERS 149
Base spreading
resistance R
Bo W\ AA/V oC
8 gmVfe
EO- -o£
FIG. 6-12. The hybrid-7r circuit.
6-6 Equivalent Circuit Using h Parameters:

a Two Generator Representation
The third set of parameters are the ones which are most used for low fre-
quency analysis at the present time. These are the hybrid or h parameters as
defined by Eqs. (6-16) and (6-17).
Vi - Aii/i + h 12 V2 (6-16)
h = h 21 I 1 + h 22 V2 (6-17)
where h xl is an impedance, h 22 is an admittance, and h l2 and h 21 are non-

dimensional,
hu
Q^ 1
i
h2 \ h
FIG. 6-13. h parameter equivalent circuit.
There is a two generator, two branch representation which fits the two
circuit equations. This is given in Fig. 6-13. Equation (6-16) is seen to be
the mesh equation of and Eq. (6-17) is the nodal equation
the input circuit
of the output circuit. The input contains an impedance, h lx and a voltage ,
generator, h 12 V2 in series and

, is thus the Thevenin equivalent of the device as
seen from the input terminals. The admittance, h 22 and , the current generator
h 21 Ix comprise the Norton equivalent looking into the output terminals.
There are several reasons why h parameters are preferred in transistor
circuitry over the other representations. As shown in the next section, they
are easier to measure. They also readily fit in with the usual static charac-
teristic curves as explained previously. h 21 for instance, represents the short-
,
circuit current gain of the device which is an important quantity in transistor

amplifying stages. The Thevenin and Norton theorems are important con-
cepts and simplify the circuit analysis. Finally, the h parameter representa-
tion leads to more simple algebraic expressions for the performance quantities.
The h parameter representation will be used in the next chapter to analyze
the CB, CE, and CC stages.
found in practice, that the two branch equivalent circuit is no dis-
It is
advantage in the analysis of multistage amplifiers. It is true that by using

z or y parameters a complete matrix may be set up to represent the perfor-
mance quantities of such an amplifier, but such a matrix is tedious to solve
and gives ample opportunities for human errors. In addition, it is shown in
Chap. 7 that it is wise to design an amplifier stage by stage, starting with the
output and working back to the input. For the calculation of the performance
quantities of individual stages, h parameters are the most simple to use.
6-7 Low Frequency Measurements on Transistors
The d-c measuring circuit given previously in Fig. 6-4 enables the static
characteristics to be drawn. To find the small-signal a-c parameters, a

separate measuring circuit should be used since the z, y, or h parameters
require certain specified input or output a-c conditions to be established.
Low frequency
generator
Low frequency (r^\

generator V,-/
FIG. 6-14. (a) Circuit for measuring z 22 . (b) An attempt at

measuring z u .
For the measurement of z parameters, the defining equations (6-12) and

(6-13) show that either the input or the output circuits must be open-
circuited for alternating currents. Figure 6- 14(a) shows a simple circuit
arranged to measure
Zoo — Yi
12 /i =
SEC. 6-7 LOW FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS ON TRANSISTORS 151
in the CB configuration. The input is open-circuited by means of an induct-

ance L. The reactance of the coil must be much greater than the input resist-
ance of the transistor which, in practice, is only a few ohms. Even at low
frequencies, this can readily be achieved. Figure 6-14(b) shows an attempted
measurement of
The output resistance of a transistor is usually about one megohm, and thus
the impedance in series with the output should be 100 megohms or greater.
A resistance of this magnitude cannot be employed because it would disturb
the d-c conditions. Using a choke in the position shown in Fig. 6-1 4(b) is
not satisfactory since the impedance of the choke cannot be made high
enough to approximate to the open-circuit condition. For alloy-junction
transistors, frequencies of less than 1000 cps must be used to eliminate
reactive effects in the device, and so the open-circuit output condition cannot
be achieved.
i
—VW
Low frequency
£\ V,
Cboke
generator \^s '
T^zlOOOfxf
^V cc
(a)
Choke
^ j
Lowfrequency
generator
(b)
FIG. 6-15. (a) Circuit for measuring h ie and h fe . (b) Circuit for
measuring h oe and h re .
Measurement of the y parameters requires a short-circuit a-c condition.

In the output circuit, this can be obtained by shunting a large capacitor across
the output terminals. In the input circuit, it is necessary to produce an a-c
short-circuit having an impedance much less than the input resistance of the
transistor. This condition is difficult to achieve since the input resistance is
usually only a few ohms.

Inspection of the definitions of the h parameters given in Eqs. (6-16) and

(6-17) shows that measurement of all four h parameters is relatively easy.
Determination of h xl and h 21 can be carried out when the output circuit is
short-circuited to a-cand h 12 and h 22 can be found when the input is open-

circuited. These two conditions are easy to reproduce, and so the h para-
meter measurements are the ones most frequently taken. In many cases it is
desirable to measure the CE hybrid parameters directly. This can be done by
using the circuits of Fig. 6-15. Figure 6-1 5(a) may be used to determine h ie
and h fe Assuming
. R ± is of the order of one megohm and R 2 is a few ohms,
hi„ - RiVi and h

h,e
-Mi
~ V*R,,
*8 Y S^2
In Fig. 6-1 5(b), the input circuit is open-circuited as far as a-c is con-
cerned, and
V2 -£Vs
h nP = and h re
RoV,
The relative positions of resistance R2 , battery Vcc , and generator Vs , which

are in series in the output circuit is determined by the type of supplies and the
voltmeter available. It is often necessary to ground one side of the voltmeter
terminals to avoid stray pickup. This can be accomplished by using a shielded
TABLE 6-2. Relationship between the parameters.
In terms of
y z h
Matrix
I ?22 ~Z\2 1 ~/*12
yu yi2
As Az hi fill
y
~~ Z21 Z\\ h2 i Ah
^21 yi2
A2 A2 fin fin
^22 -yi2 fl\2

Zn Z12
Ay Ay ^22 fl 22
z
-J>21 yu -h2X
z2 i Z22
A^ Ay h22 fl 2 2
1 -yi2 *L hi hn hi2
yn yu Z22 Z22
h
y2i Ay -Z21 j_ ^21 h 22
yn yu z 22 z2 2
Ay = ynyii - yizyzi
A = ZnZ 2 2 ~ ^12^21
z
A h = huh 2 2 - hi 2 h 2 i
PROBLEMS 153
1 : 1 transformer with its primary connected across R 2 and

, its secondary
connected to the voltmeter. If an oscilloscope is used as the measuring in-
strument, it may and use an audio

be advisable to ground one side of R2
generator and a power supply which can be operated above ground potential.
Table 6-2 shows the relationship between the sets of parameters and
can be used to convert between any one set of parameters and the others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hurley, Richard B., Junction Transistor Electronics, New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., 1958
Riddle, Robert L. and Marlin P. Ristenbatt, Transistor Physics and Circuits,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958
Skilling, Hugh Hildreth, Electrical Engineering Circuits, New York: John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1957
PROBLEMS
6-1 Verify the performance quantities in Table 6-1 for the common emitter
stage using the T equivalent circuit.
6-2 A CE stage has the following parameters: r b = 750 ohms, re = 13

ohms, rc = 1.5 megohms, rm = 1.47 megohms. If the resistance, Rs , of
the input generator is 1000ohms and R L = 5000 ohms, draw an equiva-
lent T circuit and find the current gain. Compare the result obtained
with the value found by substitution in the appropriate equation in
Table 6-1.
ans. 42.0, 42.6
6-3 What are the characteristics of a useful general purpose amplifier?

Explain what is meant by "small-signal" conditions. What are the
limitations placed on z n z 12 z 21 and z 22 if the device is to be a linear
, , ,
current amplifier over a wide range?
6-4 By circuit analysis, verify that Eqs. (6-12) and (6-18) apply to Fig. 6-7
and that Eqs. (6-14) and (6-19) apply to Fig. 6-11.
6-5 Derive the values of h lu h 12 h 21 and h 22 in terms of the z parameters

, ,
and check your results from Table 6-2.

6-6 Which internal equivalent impedances affect transistor operation at high
frequencies? Identify these impedances in Fig. 6-12, and justify your
answer.
6-7 Why is it difficult to measure y and z parameters? Explain why it is
easier to measure the hybrid parameters.

6-8 Describe experiments to measure the h parameters giving the values of
all circuit components used.
7
Low In this chapter, the h parameters are used in an
analysis of the single-stage transistor amplifier. The
Frequency performance quantities are calculated for the
general representation, and then the CE, CB, and
h Parameter CC stages are compared. The discussion is limited
to low frequencies, where the reactive effects of the
Representation
transistor can be neglected. Curves of the variation
in the h parameters of a typical transistor with
emitter current and collector voltage are given.
:
SEC. 7-1 THE SMALL-SIGNAL h PARAMETERS 155
7-1 The Small-signal h Parameters
In Sec. 6-2, the h parameters were defined by the two equations
V = l + h ll I1 h l2 V2 (7-1)
h = hih + h 22 V2 (7-2)
where h xl input impedance,
h 12 reverse voltage gain,
forward current gain,

!
22 output admittance.
h xl and h 21 are measured under a-c short-circuit output conditions. h 12 and

h 22 are measured under a-c open-circuit input conditions. The general small-
signal two generator representation is shown in Fig. 7-1.
h hu
IT
V, t y2 ^21 h
12
FIG. 7-1. The small-signal h parameter equivalent circuit.
Equations (7-1) and (7-2) and the small-signal equivalent circuit apply to
all three connections, CB, CE, and CC. However, the values of the para-
meters will be different for the three cases. To distinguish among them, the
lettered subscripts shown in Table 7-1 are used. The first letter of the sub-
script describes the term (input, reverse, forward, or output) and the second
letter denotes the circuit connection (base, emitter, or collector). Figure 7-2
shows the h parameter equivalent circuit for the three connections.
In this chapter, we numbered parameters for the analysis of
will use the
the general equivalent circuit, and then substitute the appropriate lettered
parameter for the actual circuit under consideration.
TABLE 7-1. Numbered and lettered h parameters.
Term Numbered CB CE CC
parameter parameter parameter parameter
Input resistance An hib hie h ic

Reverse voltage gain h X2 h rb hre hrc
Forward current gain fl 2 l h fb hfe hfc
Output admittance h22 hob hoe hoc
56 LOW FREQUENCY h PARAMETER REPRESENTATION CHAP. 7
h ib
O 1 1-
T
Vi h rb V2
Q hftli
(a)
O 1 h
v h re V2 h f^
i
Q)
(b)
o 1 V
v2 @ hfch
(c)
FIG. 7-2. /i parameter equivalent circuits: (a) CB circuit; (b) CE

circuit; (c) CC circuit.
7-2 Analysis of the General h Parameter Equivalent Circuit
Figure 7-3 shows the h parameter equivalent circuit of the transistor with
applied voltage sources and series resistances in the input and output circuits
(see also Fig. 6-5).
The five performance quantities below will be calculated at low fre-
quencies.
h An
hnh
Vi A»Va@
FIG. 7-3. General equivalent circuit of a transistor amplifying

stage.
-
SEC. 7-2 ANALYSIS OF THE GENERAL h PARAMETER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 157
Input resistance, Rx = -= Current gain, A =

t
Output R = -^ Voltage gain, Av =

resistance,
'2 y
Power gain, Ap = A Av t
For the input circuit of Fig. 7-3
Vx = hxh + h 12 V2 (7-1)
and for the output circuit
Fl ~ K2
v2h 22 + h 21 h - h -
l
or KL = // 2 i^lA + V2 (l + /r 22 * L) (7-3)
A. Input resistance. Solving Eqs. (7-1) and (7-3) for Jx gives
h 12
'.=i Vl 1 + h 22 R L
^11 *12
where D =
/j 21 /? t 1 + h 22 R L
= Ml + h 22 R L ) - h 12 h 21 R L
= A RL +
h
h lx
if Ah = /in/Zaa - /Z 12 /?2i
When FL = 0,
, Kid + h 22 R L )
1
J'1 /? L + /*n
h
A R L + hi
and so R = t 1
(7-4)
B. Vo/tage gain. When KL = 0, from Eqs. (7-1) and (7-3)
V* =
D h 21 RL A h RL + An
Thus, A -^ /*21*L
A h R L + An
(7-5)
|58 LOW FREQUENCY h PARAMETER REPRESENTATION CHAP. 7
C. Current gain. In the output circuit of Fig. 7-3 with VL = 0,
Vo = -LR = h " T
h * Jl
since the current I2 - h 2 Ji is flowing through the admittance h 22 .
Hence,
h 21
a-£-
h 1 + h 22 R l
(7-6)
D. Output resistance. In the input circuit of Fig. 7-3, when Vs = 0, K =

x
-/i/? s and so Eq. (7-1) can be rewritten as

,
= hQi^ + Rs) + /* 12 K2 (7-7)
The output equation (7-2) for the two port network is unchanged and is
h= h 21 A 4- h 22 V2 (7-2)
Hence,
/*n + Rs
h2 i h /2 (^n + Rs)
/>n + Rs ^12 (hn + ^s )/* 22 ~ h 12 h 21
h 21 ^22
giving R = Yl=
h" + Rs (7-8)
I2 A h + h 22 R s
E. Power gain.
a - a a - -HiRi
P ~ v
'
~ (A Rl
k
+ AiiXl + h 22 R L )
These results are summarized in Table 7-2.
TABLE 7-2. Performance quantities for the h parameter equivalent circuit.
Performance quantity Symbol Value
A h R L + h lx
Input resistance Ri
1 + h 22 R L
h\x + Rs
Output resistance Ro
A h + h 22 R s
h2 i
Current gain A,
1 + h 22 R L
— h 2X R L
Voltage gain Av
A h R L + An
Power gain AP
-hhRi
{A h R L + A n Xl + h 22 R L )
A h = huh 22 - h 12 h 21
SEC. 7-2 ANALYSIS OF THE GENERAL h PARAMETER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 159
Before the values of these quantities are determined for the three specific
connections, the relationship of the parameters of the three circuits will be
discussed.
7-3 Relationship of the Three Sets of h Parameters
It will be shown later that the CE circuit is the most used transistor amplifier.
Therefore the CE parameters, h ie , h fe , h re , and h oe are of most interest.
Transistor manufacturers vary widely as to which parameters they specify.
h A
h\]
YZ
h 2x I
v, V2 V, h 12 V2
Q x
FIG. 7-4. CB equivalent circuit using numbered parameters.
The current gain, h fe , will always be given since it is of great importance, but
the other three may sometimes be omitted. A few years ago only CB para-
meters were specified, and was necessary to convert from one set of para-
it
meters to the other. Figures 7-4 and 7-5 show how this conversion may be
i;
o-
vi
v; v; viQ hfe III v;
FIG. 7-5. CE equivalent circuit using lettered parameters.
The CB circuit using numbered parameters is shown in Fig. 7-4.

effected.
(Whenever numbered parameters are shown without further description, they
refer to the CB connection.) Figure 7-5 gives the similar equivalent circuit
for the CE connection where lettered parameters are used. The CB circuit
may be arranged to give a CE connection as in Fig. 7-6. This last figure
must correspond exactly with Fig. 7-5 where
v2 = v2 - v[
and lx is the current flowing upwards through h lu that is,
h = -d'i + Q
By means of this equivalence, it can be shown that
/?11
h
it ,p =
A h + h 2 i - h 12 + 1
&+h 21
Ah + 1 + h 21 - h 12
Ke = A h
+ hi - h 12 + 1
h22
flnr =
I{
FIG. 7-6. The CB numbered h parameter equivalent circuit re-

arranged as a CE connection.
For a typical transistor,
A h - h 12 « 1 + h 21 and h 21 » Ah
and these equations may be simplified to the values given in Table 7-3. The
corresponding equations relating the CC h parameters to those of the CB
connection are also given in this table.
TABLE 7-3. h parameter equivalents of CE and CC circuits

in terms of CB parameter (approximate values).
CB CE CC
parameter parameter parameter
numbered lettered
— An
hie hu
1 + h 21 1 + h 21
= A - h 12
h
hi2 hrb hre h rc = 1
1 + ^21
— h2 -1
hfe =
i
hfb hf C
1 + ^21 7 1 + h2 i
h22 ' h 22
#22 hob hoe = hnr
1 + h 21 1 + h 21
SEC. 7- COMPARISON OF THE THREE CONFIGURATIONS 161
7-4 Comparison of the Three Configurations

Three of the performance quantities which determine the properties of the
amplifying stage have been given as a log-log plot in Figs. 7-7, 7-8, and 7-9.
Curves are shown for all three connections using a typical transistor having
h parameters values as given in Table 7-4.
TABLE 7-4. Typical h parameter values.
Parameter CB value CE value CC ya/we

ftii h ib = 40 ohms h ie = 2000 ohms h ic = 2000 ohms
hi-2. h ro = 4 x 10~ 4
h re = 16 x 10- 4
Arc^ 1
^21 h fb = -0.98 hfe = 49 h fc = -50

^22 hob = 10" 6 mhos h oe = 5 x 10" 5 mhos h oc = 5 x 10~ 5 mhos
AH A hb = 432 x 10- 6
A he = 0.0218 J hc = 50.1
A. Common base circuit. In Fig. 7-7, the current gain A {

is plotted as a func-
tion of the load resistance RL over the wide range, RL = 100 ohms to
100
CB
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
Load resistance R L in ohms

FIG. 7-7. Variation in current gain with load resistance.
1 megohm. For the CB stage, A {

has the maximum value of 0.98 (magnitudes
only are shown on the curve), and this value is maintained as the resistance is
increased, up to load resistances on the order of 10 5 ohms. However, a

current gain of less than unity makes this stage unsuitable for use in a multi-
stage current amplifier.
Figures 7-8 and 7-9 show that the input resistance of the CB stage is on
the order of 100 ohms and that the output resistance is above 10 5 ohms. The
CB stage may therefore be used as a buffer stage having a low input resistance
and a high output resistance. The feedback term from output to input, h rb is ,
the lowest value for the three circuits so good isolation between output and
input can be achieved. This stage does not introduce phase reversal, and, as
will be shown later, it has a wider frequency response than the other two
connections.
B. Common collector circuit. Figure 7-7 shows that it is possible to achieve a

high current gain with one CC
However, a high current gain per stage
stage.
cannot be achieved if CC stages are cascaded to form a multistage amplifier.
The reason for this can be seen upon examination of Fig. 7-8. By comparing
the dotted line representing R = R L and the curve of input resistance of the
t
CC stage we see that the input resistance is higher than R L by at least one
order of magnitude up to R L = 10 5 ohms. Thus for identical, cascaded CC
io 6
/
/
^CC /
/
/
io 5
/
/
/
/
/
10"
05
/
/
y /
a
CQ
W
1 103
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
10 2 /
CB
10 2 IO 3 IO 4 IO 5 IO 6
Load resistance Rl in ohms
FIG. 7-8. Variation in input resistance with load resistance.
stages, the load resistance of a stage will bypass the input resistance of the
next stage to such an extent that less than 10 per cent of the current will pass
into the succeeding stage. This reduces the overall current gain of the stage
to a value close to unity and makes the cascaded stages of little use.
One feature of the CC circuit is that the reverse feedback term, h r0 , is close
to unity. This means that the output and input voltages will be approxi-
mately equal. Thus, however the input alternating voltage from base to
collector alters, the output voltage from emitter to collector will follow. For
this reason, the CC circuit is often known as the emitter follower. Although
this circuit is unsuitable for cascading in a multistage amplifier, it does find a
SEC. 7-4 COMPARISON OF THE THREE CONFIGURATIONS 163
use where its high input resistance and unity voltage gain characteristic can
be utilized.
C. Common emitter circuit. The CE stage is seen to have a high current gain
and input and output resistances which are intermediate between the values
found for the CB and CC stage. When used in a cascaded amplifier, the out-
put resistance of the CE stage given here is between 10 4 and 10 5 ohms, and
the input resistance is about 2000 ohms. From Fig. 7-7, the current gain per
stage in a cascaded amplifier where the input resistance of one stage forms the
load of the previous stage approaches the short-circuit a-c value, h fe . Unlike
the CC stage, the load resistance can be made higher than the succeeding in-
put resistance (2000 ohms), and so almost all of the alternating current leaving
the stage enters the base lead of the following transistor.
io 6
CB
105
_ CE
10 3
y^CC
2
10
~~"
10
10 5 10 3 10 4
10 5 10 f
Source resistance Rs in ohms
FIG. 7-9. Variation in output resistance with source resistance.
The CE stage introduces a phase reversal of 1 80° between output and input
currents similar to a vacuum tube operated in the conventional manner. The
frequency response of the CE stage is not as high as the CB stage, but, by
selection of a suitable transistor, multistage amplifiers having a response up
to hundreds of megacycles may be obtained.
7-5 Variation in h Parameters with U and Vce

In general, the values of the h parameters are dependent on the quiescent
operating point of the transistor. It is difficult to predict these variations with
accuracy since there are many factors to take into account. Figures 7-10 and
164 LOW FREQUENCY b PARAMETER REPRESENTATION CHAP. 7
A oe
/C
-
hfe
1.0
a II
TO K«h
^ h ie
0.6
s
-
0.2
0.2 1.0
7£ in milliamps
FIG. 7-10. An example of the variation in CE parameters with

emitter current.
7-1 1 show h ie h oe h re and h fe

, for an alloy-junction transistor as a function of
, ,
IE and VCE
These curves were drawn from data supplied by the manu-
.
facturer. In Fig. 7-10, h fe is shown to increase with IE For values of IE .
higher than shown in this graph, h fe would reach a maximum and decrease
3.0
2.0
O ;£
s g
s^*„ ^reX/
1.5
as
h oe ^^^^
hfe Jy n oe
- ;gg
]
i i i
volts — *•
FIG. 7-1 1. An example of the variation in CE parameters with

collector voltage.
SEC. 7-5 VARIATION IN h PARAMETERS WITH /
£ AND VCE 165
(see Sec. 9-7). In Fig. 7-11, h ie and h fe steadily increase with VCE , whereas
h re and h oe have a minimum value at about VCE = 8 volts. It is usually
unwise to attempt to extrapolate curves of this nature much beyond the stated
limits.
There are wide variations in the values of the parameters of transistors

which have the same type number. There are also substantial variations in
the form and the relative positions of the curves shown in Figs. 7-10 and
7-11. Manufacturers commonly specify only the average values of the h
parameters at one operating point. If it is necessary to know the exact value
of a particular transistor parameter, a measurement should be taken under
the desired conditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fitchen, Franklin C, Transistor Circuit Analysis and Design, Princeton,
N.J. : D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1960
Joyce, Maurice V., and Kenneth K. Clarke, Transistor Circuit Analysis,

Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1961
Riddle, Robert L., and Marlin P. Ristenbatt, Transistor Physics and Circuits,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958
PROBLEMS
7-1 A transistor has the following parameters: h xl = 45 ohms, h 12 = 4
x 10~ 4 , h 21 = -0.98, h 22 = 10" 5 mhos. From Table 7-3, find the
parameters of the CE and CC circuits.
7-2 Using Fig. 7-2(c) as the equivalent circuit for the CC connection with a
source resistance Rs and a load resistance RL , write down the circuit
equations and solve for the power gain.
7-3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using h parameters for

transistor specification.
7-4 The transistor of Prob. 7-1 is operated in the CE connection with a load
resistance RL
and with a resistance R A between the collector and the
base terminals. Find the current gain of the circuit.
7-5 Find the input resistance, the output resistance, and the current gain
for a CE circuit with Rs = 1000 ohms and R L = 5000 ohms. The CB
~4
specification of the transistor is h ib — 40 ohms, h Th = 4 x 10 ,
hfb = -0.97, h ob = 10~ 6 mhos.
7-6 A crystal microphone requires a load resistance of about one megohm

and the output from the microphone is to be fed into a CE amplifying
stage of input resistance 2000 ohms. Design a "buffer" stage to go
:
between the microphone and the amplifier. Use a transistor with

specifications given in Table 7-4 and explain the reasons for your choice
of circuit.
7-7 A transistor is operated as a CE amplifier with a resistance in the emitter

lead. If the parameters of the transistor are h iei h re h fe and h oe find the , , ,
h parameters of a two port network which includes the transistor and

the resistance.
7-8 Two CE stages are coupled in series so that all of the alternating current
from the collector of the first transistor flows into the base lead of the
second transistor. If the two transistors are identical and have h
parameters h ie h re h fe and
, , , /? oe , what are the h parameters of the two
port network which includes both transistors?
7-9 Explain why CB or CC stages are never cascaded in a multistage

amplifier. What are the chief features of a CE multistage amplifier ?
7- 1 Show that for the CE configuration
"ie
= rb ~^~ '
"re ~
~i
1 - « '
r„ - r„
1
nfe — _ ' n oe a
t
i a 'c 'm
7-11 A transistor having h parameters as given in Table 7-4 is used in a CC

circuit. If the load resistance is 10,000 ohms and the source resistance
is 1 megohm, calculate Rh R A u Av , , and Ap .
8
Single The CE transistor circuit, although not perfect, has
considerable merit as an amplifier. It has a rela-
and Multistage tively high current gain, it is small and light, it
requires low voltage supplies only, and it has a high

a-c Amplifiers efficiency. There are two undesirable features,
however, which must be taken into account. The
more important of these is the variation which is
exhibited by almost all transistor characteristics and

parameters as the temperature of the device
changes. A second adverse property of present-day
transistors is the large variation which exists
:
168 SINGLE AND MULTISTAGE A-C AMPLIFIERS CHAP. 8
between characteristics of different units of the same type number. These two
shown to determine the circuits used for obtaining the d-c bias
factors will be
to the transistor.
The operation of the transistor as an a-c amplifier in the manner indicated
in the two preceding chapters is conditional upon obtaining and main-
taining a suitable quiescent operating point. Thus it is desirable to have the
transistor operating with the same a-c gain, and with the same direct current
and voltage in its output circuit, even though the input and output transistor
characteristics depend upon temperature. In this chapter, it is shown that
operating point stability can be achieved by careful design of the d-c biasing
circuit. We will limit the analysis to the two most-used circuits at low
frequencies: (a) a small-signal CE amplifier where current gain is of the
and (b) a
greatest importance, CE amplifier which is designed for maximum
power output and where current gain is of secondary importance.
8-1 The Characteristic Curves
Figure 8-1 shows the direct currents which flow in the three transistor leads.
The transistor is assumed to be in the CE connection. From Chap. 5 it has
been shown that the transistor satisfies the
ic equations
*C = *E ~ *B (8-1)
'c — a *E "1"
*CBO (8-2)
t'. and by eliminating IE ,
a Icbo
t
JC — T
IB
,
— (8-3)
i directions i
1 — a
1 i
1 a
of current.
where ICBO is the reverse-biased collector-
junction current which flows when the emitter current is zero. We may
write
P (8-4)
- 1 - a
1
-BP (8-5)
l-«
when Eq. (8-3) becomes
Ic = rIb + Iceo (8-6)
where j
*CEO = (P+ WCBO
If it is assumed that the quantity a is independent of Ic and that ICEO can
be neglected, Eq. (8-6) indicates that the collector current of a transistor is £
SEC. THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES 69
times the base current. In the small-signal two port network theory de-
veloped in Chaps. 6 and 7, it was shown that the small-signal short-circuit
current gain of the transistor in the CE connection was h fe . Hence, j8 « h /e .
However, h fe is a function of Ic , VCB , and temperature, and Eq. (8-6) relates

to the d-c operation of the transistor so that j8 in this equation cannot simply
be replaced by the small-signal value h fe . Therefore, we will use the symbol
h FE (using capital subscripts) to denote the d-c or large signal value of j8, where
it is necessary to distinguish between the a-c and the d-c case. Similarly, h fb
FIG. 8-2. Output characteristics of a typical pnp germanium

alloy junction transistor.
which has been defined previously as the short-circuit small-signal current

gain in the CB connection will be replaced by h FB for d-c operation. The
symbol a wilt be retained when no confusion will arise. Both a and p are
terms in common usage in transistor circuitry.
The output characteristic curves of Fig. 8-2 can be explained by reference
to Eq. (8-6). The curve labeled IB = 0, represents the current ICEO , sl current
j8 +times ICBO If j8 and ICBO were constant in Eq. (8-6) all the curves
1 ,
would be equally spaced, straight lines parallel to the VCE axis. At low values
of Vce, such that the collector-to-base junction is just biased in the forward
direction, the current falls to zeroand transistor action ceases. In this region,
Eq. (8-6) cannot be applied. Over the rest of the range, j8 and ICBO are seen
to be dependent on VCE and Ic The value of j8 (h FE ) can be calculated from
.
the figure to be Alc jAIB to give an average value between the points A and B.
There is little significant difference between the output characteristic of a
silicon and a germanium transistor. For silicon, the value of ICBO is much
smaller but the form of the curves is similar. The input characteristics of
germanium and silicon transistors are different, however, as shown in Fig. 8-3.
For both diagrams, the base current reverses for VBE « 0. This is due to the
flow of current in the base lead (~ —IC bo) when the collector to base is re-
verse biased. The input voltage required to produce IB > is considerably
700 /
600 /
200 50°
m
CO
3.
/
.2 400 /
^ I
300
\
10 volts
200
JvCE = - 10 volts
•0.1 -0.2
100
0.2 -0.4
y-0.6 -0.8 -1.0
(a)
VBE in volts
(b)
VBE in volts
FIG. 8-3. Input characteristic of pnp alloy junction transistors:

(a) germanium; (b) silicon.
different in the two types of transistors. It is of the order of 150 millivolts for
germanium and 500 millivolts for silicon devices. The input curves lose their
exponential form and become approximately straight lines at high values of
base current. This occurs when the current is so high that most of the base-
to-emitter voltage drop takes place across the ohmic resistance of the base.
8-2 The Load Line
Figure 8-4 shows the circuit of a CE amplifying stage. The supply battery
Vcc is in series with the load resistance RL and the collector-to-emitter
terminals. This is similar to the output
ic circuit of nearly all electronic devices.
As far as alternating currents are con-
cerned, the resistance of the supply can
be ignored, and RL is the load into
which the transistor is working. Ic is
dependent upon the supply voltage Fcc ,
the load R L and the collector-to-

emitter voltage VCE as given in Eq.
FIG. 8-4. The simple CE circuit. (8-7). If we designate all the voltages in
SEC. 8-2 THE LOAD LINE 171
the conventional manner with the terminal indicated by the first subscript as
positive, we can write
Vcc = -IC R L + VCE {
(8-7)
where the supply voltage, Vcc and the voltage, VCE are negative values for
, ,
thepnp transistor. Equation (8-7) can be written in the form
CE Vcc
Ir = (8-8)
R, Rl
and is plotted in Fig. 8-5 where, by convention for a pnp transistor, the
negative values of VCE are plotted. On these axes, Eq. (8-8) is the equation of
a straight line of negative slope (l/R L ), of intercept on the Ic axis of — VCC /R L ,
600 p a
500 pa
400 pa
300 pa
inusoidal variation
in I n
200 pa
100 pa
7n =
VCE in volts
FIG. 8-5. The load line plotted on the output characteristic.
and which intercepts the — VCE axis at Vcc The . output characteristics shown
are those of a medium power alloy-junction transistor with Vcc = — 8 volts
and RL = 160 ohms. The straight line representing Eq. (8-8) is known as the
load line, and its intersection with the output characteristics gives a set of
quiescent operating points (Q points) for the device. Points Q , Qu Q2 ,
Q3 , . . . are obtained as IB is changed. In the case shown in Fig. 8-5, the

corresponding values of IB are 0, 100, 200, 300 /xa respectively. At all of the
Q points, the circuit equation (8-8) is obeyed, and the device is operating on
one of the characteristic curves shown in the diagram.
In Fig. 8-5, IB = 200 /xa has been fixed to give a Q point at Q 2 Then
.
a sinusoidal variation of amplitude 100 /xa has been impressed upon IB .
During this time, the circuit must still obey Eq. (8-8), and so the operating
point moves from Q 2 up to Q 3 down to Q 1 and back to Q2 remaining on the

load line all the time. The output current Ic as a function of time is shown
to the left of the characteristic curves.
The selection of the Q point is decided upon by reference to the purpose
of the stage. For a small-signal amplifier where power is to be conserved, a
Q point would be chosen so that the quiescent value of Ic is as low as possible,

provided that the output remains a faithful reproduction of the input signal.
For an amplifier which is required to deliver a substantial amount of power
into a load, the Q point should be selected so that the quiescent current
is about one half of the maximum permissible collector current of the tran-
sistor. In this case, the allowable current swing above and below the Q point
before distortion occurs is at a maximum (see Sec. 8-5).
The analysis which has been given in this section may be applied to the
output circuit of many electronic devices. In the case of a transistor, how-
ever, the establishment of the quiescent operating point by fixing the base
current results in a circuit having poor temperature stability. The reason for
this is explained in the next section.
8-3 Operating Point Stability
It has already been shown in Part 1 of this book that many properties of
semiconducting materials are dependent upon temperature. A transistor is
usually operated so that its temperature is above that of its surroundings.

The thermal capacity of the device is low because it is small and light. Thus
the transistor will soon reach its operating temperature which is a function of
its power dissipation, its thermal capacity, and the ambient conditions. Since
many transistor parameters and characteristics are markedly temperature
sensitive, the quiescent operating point should be established with the purpose
of stabilizing the gain and output of the stage. The methods of achieving
such a design will be explained. It will also be shown that, by poor design,
the transistor can be made to heat itself up to such a temperature that it is
destroyed. This process is known as thermal runaway and can be carried to

completion only once for each transistor.
An increase in temperature has an important effect on three transistor
quantities: ICBO , a, and VBE In addition, there are likely to be significant
.
differences in the measured values of ICBO and a between transistors of the

same The spread in the values of these quantities is troublesome in
type.
circuit design, and the manufacturers are continually trying to reduce it. It
will be shown that circuits can be devised that will reduce the effect of changes
in ICBO or a whether these are the result of changes in temperature or of the
replacement of the transistor by another of the same type.
The typical variation of ICBO with temperature is given in Fig. 8-6 for
siliconand germanium transistors. A considerable spread will be found in the
values of ICBO and in the slope of the curves when measurements are taken on
SEC. 8-3 OPERATING POINT STABILITY 173
1000
100
.9 Ge rmanium^
o
4>
10"
Silicon
10
10 20 30 40 50
Temperature, °C
FIG. 8-6. Value of IC bo for silicon and germanium transistors.
several types of transistors. This is because surface effects in the transistor

and leakage currents across the junction contribute to ICB0 and make it
dependent upon the manufacturing techniques. Transistors made of silicon

have a much smaller value of ICBO than those made of germanium because of
the larger energy gap between the valence and conduction bands of the former
material. Inmany cases, ICBO for silicon transistors can be neglected without
appreciable error being incurred even for high temperatures, and then the
1.2
1.0
0.8
20 30 40
Temperature, °C
FIG. 8-7. Current gain (h FE ) as a function of temperature

(normalized to 25° C).
variation in a or VBE becomes of paramount importance. Measurements on

both silicon and germanium transistors show that an increase in temperature
of about 10° C results in ICBO being doubled, whatever its initial value.
In a CE circuit, the quantity h FE (the d-c value of ]8) determines the direct
current gain. Furthermore, j8 [= a/(l —
a)] is more sensitive to changes in
temperature than is a, and so the temperature variation in j8 is more likely to be

given by the manufacturers. In Fig. 8-7, this value has been normalized to
25° C and is given only over the temperature range 0° to 50° C. Maximum
and minimum values of h FE (or possibly h fe ) for a given transistor at 25° C will
usually be given in the data sheet supplied by the manufacturers. Thus a
typical transistor may have the following specifications:
'
h FE at C 25°
Ic = ma 1 > 20 (minimum) 35 (typical) 60 (maximum)
VCE = -lv .
The base-to-emitter voltage necessary to produce a given emitter current

for a germanium or a silicon transistor exhibits a temperature coefficient, and
the voltage decreases at the rate of about 2.5 millivolts per degree centigrade.
This is predictable from simple theory in the case of germanium, but the
theory predicts a somewhat higher value for silicon which is not found in
practice. There is little variation in this temperature coefficient between

different transistors. For pnp transistor operation, the base-to-emitter voltage
is negative. Thus, as the temperature rises, VBE becomes less negative, and so
the temperature coefficient is a positive quantity.
From Figs. 8-6 and 8-7 and from the information in the last paragraph,
we may summarize the variation in 7CBO h FE and VBE over the temperature
, ,
range 0° to 50° C in the following three equations.
AIcBO C\C\1T ampsT" 1

(8-9)
T°C
Equation (8-9) states that there is a change in ICBO of the order of 7 per cent
per °C of its value at the temperature under consideration.
^ ~ 0M2h FE
25°C
C 1
(8-10)
Equation (8-10) states that there is a change in h FE of the order of 1.2 per
cent per °C of its value at 25° C.
^P ~ 0.0025 volts °C" 1 (8-11)
Equation (8-11) states that, for a. pnp transistor, VBE required for a constant
emitter current becomes more positive at the rate of 2.5 mv per °C.
Note the difference in the temperature coefficients of ICBO and h FE IC bo .
SEC. OPERATING POINT STABILITY 175
shows an exponential dependence upon temperature, and thus its temperature

coefficient increases as the temperature rises. The temperature coefficient of
h FE is constant, any temperature may be referred to its 25° C
and thus h FE at
value. For the temperature range 25° to 35° C, ICBO approximately doubles
(i.e., shows an increase of 100 per cent), and h FE increases by 12 per cent. It
will be concluded, therefore, that as the temperature increases, ICBO increases

more and more rapidly with respect to the increase in h FE as the Table 8-1
shows. These values are only approximate, but they apply to many small
germanium and silicon alloy junction transistors.
TABLE 8-1. Variation in ICB o, h FE , and IB normalized to

25°C and their typical values for a fixed-base biased tran-
sistor circuit.
Normalized to 25° C Typical value for Typical value

germanium at for silicon at
Temperature 25° C 35° C 45° C 25° C 25° C
IcBO 1 2 4 1 /xa 0.01 â

hFE 1 1.12 1.24 50 50
h 1 1.025 1.05 100 /â 100 n&
In order to estimate the effects of temperature on the operation of the

transistor, Eq. (8-12) will be used to represent the output characteristics in
the CE connection. Here h FE is used in place of j3 of Eq. (8-6).
h = h FE IB + (h FE + l)/c (8-12)
As a simplification, we shall assume an "idealized" transistor where ICBCh

h FE and IB are independent of Ic and
, VCE The output characteristics of this
.
transistor are straight lines parallel to the VCE axis and are shown in
Fig. 8-8(a) for room temperature. In this diagram, the value of(h FE + 1)IC bo
has been exaggerated for clarity. A load line has been drawn on the
\ \q
\« h FE lB
x
hFE 1!),
, . ,
v . .
(h FE + l)ICBO
'IcEO V (h' FE +
= IcEO
1)I'cbo
(a) (b)
FIG. 8-8. Output characteristics of idealized transistor showing

the load line (a) at room temperature; (b) at a higher temperature.
176 SINGLE AND MULTISTAGE A-C AMPLIFIERS CHAP.
characteristics under the assumption that the transistor is connected in the

circuit of Fig. 8-9. Now suppose that the temperature is increased so that
the new currents and parameters are c , I'B , h'FE , etc., related
I' by the equation
Ic — h FE IB + {hpE + l)-'CBO (8-13)
The output characteristics at the new temperature are given in Fig. 8-8(b).
Here (h FE + \)I'C bo is considerably greater than its previous value, and also
the spacing between the I'B1 , I'B2 curves has increased. As a result, the Q
point shifts from Q to Q '.
The circuit of Fig. 8-9 is known as fixed-base biasing. If we designate all
Rl
RB A/W-i
r^VW
vDD ^ ^v,CC
FIG. 8-9. The simplest d-c biasing circuit.
the voltages so that the terminal indicated by the first subscript is positive, we
may write the following equations.
Vbb - Vbe
In = (8-14)
= Vbb ~ V'e
and /; (8-15)
R„
Thus,
Ah Vbe ~ Ve ^ Vbe
AT
I'b
AT ATR B ATR t i™^ 1

(8-16)
where R B is in ohms, since AVBE /AT =

2.5 mv per °C for a pnp transistor
from Eq. (8-11). Thus IB is also increased at the rate of 2.5/RB ma per °C;
an effect which still further increases Ic .
Under normal operating conditions, a rise in temperature of 20° to

40° C
common. IC bo> therefore, increases to many times its initial value as
is
warms up and increases in h FE and IB also occur. The shift in

the circuit
Q point shown in Fig. 8-8 usually makes this fixed-base biasing circuit un-
acceptable.
For the simple fixed-base biasing circuit of Fig. 8-9, variations in ICBO ,
h FE and VBE all contribute to an increase in Ic with temperature. Other

,
circuits will be given which reduce this dependence of Ic upon temperature.

Since ICBO is the quantity which shows the greatest variation, the differential
SEC. 8-3 OPERATING POINT STABILITY 177
coefficient dIc l8ICBO is a useful measure of the temperature stability of a

circuit. Defining this quantity as
Stability factor, S = ~^- (8-17)
we can avoid taking temperature measurements and yet have an indication of

how With this definition, a high value of S
the circuit will behave in practice.
indicates poor and a low value of S shows good stability. The lowest
stability
value of S that can be obtained is unity since Ic must include ICBO ,
The stability factor of the circuit of Fig. 8-9 can be simply obtained since
from Eq. (8-12),
S = -^-
al
= h FE +\ (8-18)
CBO
ifIB and h FE are regarded as independent of Icbo This value of S is the .
highest that can be obtained showing that the circuit has very poor tem-
perature stability.
The stability factor S gives a measure of the change in Ic with respect to
ICBO whether the change is the result of temperature variation or due to the
transistor being replaced. For example, consider transistor A having
Icbo = 1 jâ at30° C and h FE = 49 operating in a fixed-base bias circuit with
the collector current Ic = 0.5 ma. In this circuit,
Iceo = {h FE + 1)1cbo = 50 ^ a
If the transistor were replaced by transistor of the same type having the B
same value of h FE but with ICBO = 5 /xa at the same temperature, ICEO would
rise to 250 t*a and increase Ic by about 40 per cent. Changes as great as, or
greater than, this are observed in practice for the fixed-base bias circuit
where S = h FE + 1. The performance of the stage in this respect is bad.
We have shown that ICBO varies more widely with temperature than any
other quantity, and so stabilizing with respect to ICBO will adequately stabilize
against temperature variations in h FE However, h FE may be subject to varia-
.
tion irrespective of changes in ICBO such as , when a transistor is replaced. We

will use the symbol Sh to indicate this variation in Ic where,
For the fixed-base bias circuit

5* -
of Fig. 8-9,
£ (8
~ 19)
1q = n FE I B + \h FE + 1)1 cbo
Therefore,
die
Su = Tsr- = 1b + ICBO
dh FE
Ic ~ (h FE + l)/CBO + h FE Ic
h FE
Ic ~ Icb o
h FE
Considering small changes AIC and Ah FE in Ic and h FE respectively, we may

write
Ah [cBo\
Ah FE h FE \ ic!
Ale
or (8-20)
In h FE \ Ic J
Equation (8-20) is a useful way of stating the variation in Ic as a result of

changes in h FE shows that for the fixed-base bias circuit, where ICBO « Ic
. It ,
the percentage change in Ic is the same as the percentage change in h FE .
Since the variation in h FE between units may be 4- 100 per cent to —50 per
cent, this circuit is not acceptable.
8-4 Practical Biasing Circuits
The most commonly used CE biasing circuit is that of Fig. 8-10. In this
circuit, a resistance R E and a capacitance CE are in parallel in the emitter lead.
For frequencies much higher than given by
i
_ R
the reactance of the capacitance is much smaller than the resistance RE and
may be neglected in practice. Thus for high frequencies, the stage reduces to
the circuit of Fig. 8-9.
For direct currents, the resistance RE forms a link between the input and
output circuits since both IB and Ic flow through this resistance to form the
\AAn
a-c o
input signal
V^
'cc
V„r,-=r
Rrr TC
FIG. 8-10. CE biasing circuit with a resistance in the emitter lead
current IE . Furthermore, the voltage developed across R E by the output cur-

rent opposes the input voltage from the battery supply VBB This is known as
.
current negative feedback because the reverse voltage developed in the input
circuit is proportional to the output current. Voltage negative feedback (see
SEC. 8-4 PRACTICAL BIASING CIRCUITS 179
Fig. 8-13) may be produced by feeding into the input circuit a proportion of
the output voltage in such a way that it opposes the input voltage. The
general properties of feedback circuits will not be discussed here but may be
referred to in any general textbook on electronics. We will show, however,
that the value of the stability factor can be reduced by this technique.
The following equations apply to the circuit of Fig. 8-10. For the
transistor,
Ic = h- h (8-1)
h= h FE IB + (h FE + \)ICBO (8-12)
By mesh analysis of the base-to-emitter circuit,
Vbb = -IeRe - IbRb + Vbe (8-21)
Substituting for IE and IB from Eqs. (8-1) and (8-12), Eq. (8-21) becomes
~ VBB = Ic [r e + - [^J~]Icbo(Rb +
Vbe
^J^] Re) (8-22)
If the variations in VBE and h FE are ignored, Eq. (8-22) may be differentiated
with respect to ICBO to find the stability factor.
Therefore,
+ l)(R B + R E ) =
(h FE RB + RE 1 + R B /R E
s = = _
(8 23)
+ l)R E + R B
(h FE „ RB . RB
h FE + 1 (h FE + I) Re
When R E -+ 0, S -> h FE + 1
When tf R -^0, 5->l
When R E is zero, the circuit becomes identical with the previous circuit
given in Fig. 8-9. When R B is zero and R E is finite, this circuit becomes a com-
mon base configuration as far as direct currents are concerned. Assuming
VBE is constant, IE is fixed by VBB and R E and is not temperature dependent.
Hence Ic can only increase as much as ICBO increases. This results in S = 1.
The circuit remains a CE amplifier for alternating currents since the signal is
fed to the base terminal, and CE bypasses R E at signal frequency.
In practice, a compromise between the two extreme values of S is chosen.
If R E is made very high, it will dissipate too much power from the collector
supply and will create an excessive voltage drop between the emitter and the
common lead. If R B is made too low it will act as a shunt to the input signal
current and reduce the effective gain of the stage. For low power stages,
where the rise in temperature is small, S = 10 can often be tolerated. For a
typical value of h FE = 50, this requires that R B jR E ^11 from Eq. (8-23).
*CO-
input signal
1(- ^V r
Ri
^c,
FIG. 8-1 I. A practical biasing circuit.
The variation in Ic because of changes in h FE will now be investigated.

Differentiating Eq. (8-22) with respect to h FE gives
h T° (R E + R B)
= Sh RE + (R e + * B )( "% E
)
- CBO
I. T2
rlpv
r
[HFE
,
~
,
{"FE + UJ
Thus,
e
h
= _^
8h FE
= (^ ~
h FE
W Cgg + gg)
h FE R E + R E + RB
= (Jc ~
h FE
Jcbo)
(h FE
S
+ 1)
Considering small changes in Ic and h }
Ah Ah,
I /, _IcBo\
(8-24)
Ic (ft FE + 1) V Ic J
This represents an improvement by the factor S/(h FE + 1) over the perform-

ance of the fixed-base bias circuit of Fig. 8-9 (Eq. 8-20).
To avoid having two voltage supplies, the base current can be obtained
from the collector supply Vcc Figure 8-1 1 shows a practical circuit which is
.
commonly used to achieve this. Resistances R 1 and R 2 form a voltage

divider across the collector supply and can be replaced by the Thevenin
equivalent consisting of a battery of voltage VCC R 1 I(R 1 + R 2 ) and a series
resistance of R 1 R 2 /(R 1 + ^ 2 ) as shown in Fig. 8-12. With reference to the
values used previously in this section,
VccRi
V„ n =
Ri + Ri
R1R2
R1+R2
AA/V
ft, -L
Rx CC R x
+ R2
FIG. 8-12. Two circuits which are equivalent.

SEC. 8-4 PRACTICAL BIASING CIRCUITS 181
R,R,
and R* =
Ri + R2
The circuit shown in Fig. 8-13 employs both current and voltage feedback.
As before, a resistance is placed in the emitter lead to give current feedback
under d-c conditions. The resistance RF feeds back output voltage from the
collector circuit to the base and is responsible for negative voltage feedback.
Writing the d-c equation for the circuit, we have
Vcc = -Ie(Re + Rl) - IbRf + Vbe (8-25)
Substituting for IE and IB in terms of Ic and ICBO from Eqs. (8-1) and (8-12),
(Ve Vcc)h } IC Bo{h FE + lXgg + Rl + Rf)

+
RF + (R E + R L )(h FE + 1) '
RF + + R L )(h FE +
(R E 1)
Thus,
dlc
= (hjE + l)(R E + Rl + Rf) (8-26)
dICBO R F + (R E + R L)(h FE + 1)
a-c O ^.Vt
input signal
FIG. 8-13. A biasing circuit with current and voltage feedback.
If RF » (h FE + \)(R E + R L ),
hFE + 1
If RF « (h FE + l)(R F + /2 L ),
Rf
1 +
Re + ^l
When R E = in Fig. 8-13, only voltage feedback is being applied. It will
be seen that RF provides the negative voltage feedback, and it also sets the
base current bias. Consider the case where the Q point is established so that
Vce = Vccl2. Neglecting ICBO and VBE , the following equations apply.
j = zXce = zXcc
RF 2R F
IB (h FE + 1) = IE
and /* = -Vcc
2R,
Hence,
§= = £ = (A« + 1) (8-27)
In a circuit containing a temperature sensitive device, it is usual to position the

Q point at room temperature at about the midpoint of the load line as in this
example since the maximum variation of the Q point in either direction is
permitted. The stability factor is restricted to the value given by Eq. (8-26)
with RE = and R F /R L = h FE + 1. Thus,
h FK + 2 l
FE
(8-28)
2
This value is high and so this simple circuit is rarely used.

Figure 8-14 shows one way in which the stability factor can be reduced
while keeping the base current at its previous value. An additional supply,
output signal
input signal
FIG. 8-14. A bias stabilization circuit using voltage feedback.
VBB and a resistance R ± are required as shown in the diagram. Notice also
that RF has been and that the junction point is grounded for alternating
split
currents. This prevents negative feedback from being effective at the signal
frequency and so keeps the a-c gain of the stage independent of the applied
feedback.
8-5 Power Amplifiers
The final stage of an amplifier is usually required to deliver power into a re-
sistive load. The main purpose of the output stage is the conversion of
power from the supply into useful a-c power in the load. The stage is de-
signed to maximize power efficiency and to minimize transistor dissipation.
Current and power gain are not major design factors since the overall gain
requirements of the amplifier can be satisfied by the design of the preceding
stages. For this reason, the design of an amplifier usually starts with a
consideration of the output stage.
SEC. 8-5 POWER AMPLIFIERS 83
Figure 8-15 shows the circuit and the characteristic curves of a CE

transistor amplifying stage. The load line corresponding to the series resist-
ance RL has been drawn on the characteristics. We distinguish three methods

of operation of this type of stage according to the location of the quiescent
point. Amplifying stages discussed so far have been operating in class A.
In this condition, the transistor is operating during the whole of the input and
output cycle and, if the device is linear, this results in distortion-free ampli-
fication. For power amplifiers, where maximum output is desired, the posi-
tion of the Q point for class A operation will be approximately midway up
the load line as shown in Fig. 8-1 5(a).
Class B operation is said to occur when the base circuit is biased so that
very little base and collector current flows in the quiescent state. The tran-
sistor will then conduct only during one half of the input wave and will be
s Load line
Rl
Class A
Input
signal
^lVr
Class B
point
(a) (b)
FIG. 8-15. (a) Idealized CE characteristics with load line, (b) CE

transistor circuit with series resistive load (d-c bias not shown).
cut-off during the other half-cycle. Two transistors, operating out of phase
with each other, are required to reproduce the original input signal. This is
known as a "push-pull" circuit.

In class C operation of a single transistor stage, the base is biased so
heavily that the transistor will conduct for less than 50 per cent of the signal
cycle. The output consists of a reproduction of only a small fraction of the
cycle of the input signal, and this introduces gross distortion. This type of
operation is not suitable for untuned amplifiers but is used with high effi-
ciencies for tuned amplifiers and oscillators.

If the Q point is positioned halfway up the load line as shown in the
idealized case of a class A amplifier in Fig. 8-1 5(a), it will be located at
Ct (8-29)
where Kmax and /max are the maximum permitted voltage and current for the
transistor in the CE connection (see Sec. 8-6). When the maximum input
signal is applied, the operating point swings up and down the load line so that
the maximum current is /maxand the minimum current is zero since ICEO =
,
for the idealized case. Assuming a sinusoidal signal, the peak-to-peak current
is 7max and
'™ = ^ (8-30)
The peak-to-peak swing of the a-c output voltage under these conditions is
^max, giving
The a-c power delivered to the load is
max Vmax
J/ '
(R_'\7 > \
Assuming that no distortion is produced, the power supplied to the stage is
unchanged by the presence of the signal and is given by
Im&X m&X
Ps = Ic.Vcc = (8-33)
2
The efficiency of conversion of the d-c power from the supply to a-c power in
the load is
r, = = 25% (8-34)
f-
This is the maximum efficiency that can be obtained from a class A amplifier
with a series resistive load.
TABLE 8-2. Distribution of power dissipation between

transistor and load.
Total power
supplied for
Circuit Condition Transistor Power in load a maximum Efficiency
dissipation transistor dis-
sipation of
a-c* d-c 50 units
Series Quiescent 50 50 100

resistive
load Maximum output 25 25 50 100 25%
Transformer- Quiescent 50 50
coupled
load Maximum output 25 25 50 50%
* Useful power output.
SEC. 8-5 POWER AMPLIFIERS 185
When the stage is quiescent, the voltage across the transistor is equal to
the voltage across the load, and so half the power is dissipated in the tran-
sistor and half in the power supplied to the circuit and the
load. The total
d-c power dissipated unchanged when maximum signal is
in the load are
applied since the mean value of a sine wave is zero. Thus the transistor
dissipation drops by the amount of the a-c power supplied to the load as
shown in Table 8-2.
In the preceding analysis, the load has been chosen to give maximum
power output. This requires a load of
"'
Rr = (8-35)
L
If the maximum output is required, and yet the transistor has to work into a
different load resistance, transformer coupling can be used. This circuit is
shown in Fig. 8-1 6(b) where an external load R'L is coupled by a transformer
â-c load line
N/ !>^d-c load line

Reflected load
\
k Input
n : 1
q\ signal
>§o
\
1
i
Vc ,
i
= Vcc
\ o t
(a) (b)
FIG. 8-16. (a) Idealized characteristics showing d-c and a-c load
lines, (b) CE transistor circuit with transformer coupled load.
of turns ratio n to the power amplifier. The reflected load into the collector
circuit is n 2 R'L which can be made equal to Vmax IImax by the choice of a suitable
value for n.
For direct currents, the resistance in the collector circuit is formed by the
small d-c resistance of the primary windings of the transformer. The d-c load
line is therefore almost vertical as shown in Fig. 8-1 6(a) and, for maximum
output, the Q point is located on this line to give a quiescent current of
^max/2. When the a-c signal causes the collector current to fluctuate, the
operating point moves up and down the a-c load line shown on the diagram.
The slope of this new line is — l/R L where
, R L is the reflected resistance of the
load across the primary of the transformer. The a-c and d-c load lines must
intersect at the Q point since this is the operating point for zero signal. Under
a-c conditions, however, the apparent resistance in the collector circuit is that
reflected across the transformer giving an a-c load line as shown.
The operating point will move along the a-c load line on both sides of the
Q Thus the instantaneous voltage across the transistor will exceed the
point.
supply voltage, Vcc during a portion of the cycle. The reason for this is
,
that the change in current through the transformer produces a "back-emf"

across the transformer primary winding which adds to the supply voltage
during part of the cycle.
From Fig. 8- 16(a) by considering similar triangles, the Q point is located
at
IGi = ^ VCl = VCC =

^ (8-36)
neglecting the small resistance of the transformer windings. When the

transistor is operating at maximum capacity under class A conditions, the
voltage and current swings are from Kmax to zero and 7max to zero respec-
tively. Hence,
F"--|^[ and /ras = (8-37)

^|
and the useful a-c power in the load is
P= /rm sKrms = ^1™? _

(8 38)
The total power supplied to the circuit is
ps = vcc rCl = Ys^ _

(8 39 )
The power efficiency, rj, for this circuit is
r, = £S = 50% (8-40)
r
Thus the maximum efficiency for the conversion of d-c power from the
supply to a-c power in the load for the transformer-coupled class A amplifier
is 50 per cent. The efficiency double that of the previous case because no
is
d-c power is dissipated in the load. Table 8-2 shows the power dissipation in
the load and the transistor for this circuit assuming maximum transistor
dissipation of 50 units.
Whether the load is in series with the collector or transformer coupled,
Table 8-2 shows that the transistor dissipation drops to half its quiescent
value when maximum signal is applied. This means that the transistor
operating temperature is a function of the signal amplitude for both types of
stage. Biasing circuits which stabilize the transistor stage against tempera-
ture variations, as discussed previously, are therefore a necessity.
SEC. 8-6 POWER AMPLIFIERS: PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS 87
8-6 Power Amplifiers: Practical Limitations
In an actual transistor, there are several limitations which must be taken into
account. These are summarized here under the categories : maximum current,
maximum voltage, maximum dissipation, minimum voltage (saturation).
The output characteristics of a typical transistor in the CE connection are
shown in Fig. 8-17. For high values of collector current, the curves for
Maximum current limitation
Low value of h t
Maximum dissipation
Maximum voltage limitation
VCE
FIG. 8-17. Output characteristics showing limiting values.
constant base current increments are crowded closer together because of the
drop in current gain as the collector current rises. Excessive distortion will be
produced at peak currents if the collector current is raised indefinitely.
The maximum voltage limitation is determined by the onset of collector
multiplication, excessive surface leakage, or punch-through. Collector multi-
plication is responsible for a marked rise in collector current as VCE is in-
creased. It is caused by an ionization avalanche phenomenon initiated by

collisions of fast moving charge carriers in the collector-to-base depletion
region. When a high collector-to-base voltage is present, a carrier gains
enough energy in this region to generate additional electron-hole pairs which
add to the collector current. Consideration of Fig. 8-17 shows that consider-
able distortion would be obtained if the transistor were operated in this
region. Surface leakage is another undesirable effect in transistors and is also
responsible for an unwanted increase in Ic as VCE rises. Punch-through
occurs when the depletion region at the collector end of the base is so large
that it meets up with the emitter-to-base depletion region and causes the
active part of the base to disappear. The voltage at which this takes place is
known as the punch-through voltage (see Sec. 9-11).
The transistor should not be operated with a power dissipation greater
than a certain value specified by the manufacturers. For a given ambient
temperature, the maximum dissipated power may be stated as T Vc =
Cl
constant. This equation has been plotted on Fig. 8-17, and the load line
should always below this curve. A further discussion of
lie this limitation is
given in Sec. 8-7, Thermal Runaway.
Maximum dissipation
Maximum output voltage swing

for 10% distortion
FIG. 8-18. Positioning of the load line showing Q point and

maximum output voltage swing.
The part of the characteristics marked saturation forms another limitation

for operation. Here, the collector-to-emitter voltage is insufficiently reverse
biased for normal transistor operation. The voltage at which the transistor
goes into saturation under given conditions determines the minimum allow-
able collector-to-emitter voltage for negligible distortion (see Sec. 10-7).
must be taken into account by the circuit designer in
All these limitations
deciding on a power amplifier circuit. For maximum power output and
efficiency without too much distortion, the load and the collector supply
voltage must be chosen to make good use of the output characteristics as
shown in Fig. 8-18 for the class A single transistor circuit with a series
resistive load.
A transistor operating as a small-signal class A amplifier introduces a
*
SEC. 8-6 POWER AMPLIFIERS: PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS 189
small amount of distortion into the amplified signal because of nonlinearities

in the transistor characteristics. This distortion is usually less then five per
cent and can be tolerated in many applications. When large-signal operation
takes place, the distortion is increased, and it may prove to be the limiting
Time —
Flattening due
to nonlinearity
of input
characteristics
Undistorted value
./
/ \ /-Flattening due to drop
in (3 at high values of Ic
Undistorted \ Flattening due to

value input distortion
FIG. 8-19. Diagram showing effects of input and output dis-

tortion in a CE stage.
factor in the design of the output stage. It is found, in practice, that if a large-
signal CE amplifier is driven from a low resistance source, distortion is
minimized. This is the result of partial cancellation of the separate distortions

occurring because of the nonlinearities in the input and output characteristic
curves of the transistor. This is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 8-19.
8-7 Thermal Runaway
The junction temperature Tt of a transistor is determined by the ambient

temperature TA and the power dissipation P of the transistor according to the
equation
T = TA + KP
i (8-41)
where K is known as the thermal resistance. From this equation it can be seen
that
AP
K„ =AP
AT,
°r =
1
(8-42)
Af, K
and so K is
the junction temperature rise for unit increase in the power dis-
sipation and has the dimensions °C (watts) -1 Alternatively, l//£can be ex- .
pressed as the increase in power dissipation necessary to raise the junction

temperature by 1° C. K is a function of the thermal conductivity of the
materials used in the transistor, the shape and size of the transistor, and the
method of mounting that is used.
If the collector current and voltage in a CE stage are fixed, the power dis-
sipation is constant and is approximately IC VCE . The junction temperature T,
will attain its equilibrium value given
by Eq. (8-41) within a few minutes of

switching on the circuit, assuming that
the ambient temperature remains con-
stant. The maximum allowable power
dissipation for the transistor at a given
ambient temperature (usually 25° C) will
usually be given by the manufacturers in
the data sheet. If the ambient temper-
ature is increased, the maximum dis-
sipation must be reduced according to

25° 50° 100*
Eq. (8-41) and the curve of Fig. 8-20
Ambient temperature applies. This curve shows the value of K.
in °C
Most CE amplifiers employ a
FIG. 8-20. Maximum power dissipation biasing circuit which compensates for
of a transistor as a function of ambient
changes in quiescent operating point
temperature.
with temperature variation. These
biasing circuits operate by negative feedback and inevitably introduce d-c
power losses in the stage. In output stages where power efficiency is of im-
portance, biasing circuits of only marginal stability are frequently used to
reduce these losses, and considerable changes in Ic may occur as the tem-
perature is increased. Under these conditions, the power dissipation, P, is
no longer a constant but is a function of junction temperature, T,. This

function depends upon the properties of the transistor and also upon the
external circuit.
It is possible to connect the transistor in a circuit so that the junction
temperature rises continuously and eventually exceeds the safe limit. The
effect is that a slight rise in temperature produces an increase in the power
dissipation of the transistor, and this, in turn, increases the temperature of
the junction. When the effect is cumulative, it is known as thermal runaway
and is obviously undesirable.
SEC. 8-7 THERMAL RUNAWAY 191
From Eq. (8-42), the increase in the rate of transfer of energy from the
junction (AP) for unit temperature rise (AT = }
1°
C) is l/K. This energy is
transferred through the body, the case, and the mountings of the transistor
and is a constant for a given type of mounting. However, the actual increase
in energy dissipated in the transistor because of unit temperature rise is
determined by the type of circuit and the characteristics of the transistor. If
"
(8 43)
AT, > K
more energy is dissipated in the transistor than can be transferred away from
the junction, and so this is the condition for thermal runaway to occur.
For the typical circuit of Fig. 8-9,
P= fC VcE
= Ic(Vcc - IcRl) (8-44)
The condition to prevent thermal runaway, from Eq. (8-43) is
AP 1
"
(8 45)
25j < I
or, by differentiating Eq. (8-44),
^(VCC -2I R )^± C L (8-46)
Equation (8-46) shows that for a given circuit, better stabilization of 7C a,
larger load resistance, or a reduction in K might be used to prevent thermal

runaway. Alc /ATj may be expressed as S(dICBO l8Tj), where SICBO ldTj is given
in Fig. 8-6 and Eq. (8-9). Thus, reducing the stability factor, S, may be
sufficient to prevent thermal runaway. The collector load RL also plays a
critical part in conditions for thermal runaway. Power output
which stages
are transformer coupled to the load are particularly susceptible to runaway
because of the low d-c resistance of the transformer windings. Adding re-
sistance in the collector lead, if it can be tolerated, may be sufficient to
prevent this occurring. Finally, the value of K may be decreased by mounting
the transistor with good thermal contact to a large, well-cooled metallic body
known as a "heat-sink." The value of K when an infinite "heat-sink" is used
is often given in the data sheet of the transistor.
8-8 Multistage Amplifier
Figure 8-21 shows the circuit of a CE two stage, small-signal amplifier where
the two stages are identical. Transistors T ± and T2 are assumed to have the h
parameters given in Table 7-4. Since the values of the parameters change
with quiescent operating point, the emitter current and the collector voltage
will be assumed to have the values as specified for the transistor in the table.
Typical variations in h parameters as the emitter current and collector voltage
are varied are given in Figs. 7-10 and 7-11.
The performance quantities of the single stage have been given previously
ovrr = -12v
O Output
Input
FIG. 8-21. A two-stage, small-signal amplifier.
in Table 7-2 in terms of a source resistance, Rs , and a collector load, RL .
From these tabulated values, the current gain of transistor T2 is given by
l
fe 49
« 32.5 (8-47)
1 + h oe R 7 1 + (5 x 10- 5 )10 4
In the multistage amplifier, however, the interstage coupling network must

also be considered as shown in and I2 are the alternating currents
Fig. 8-22. Ix
supplied by the collector of 7\ and supplied to the base of T2 respectively.The
impedance of the Vcc supply to alternating currents is very low so R 5 and R 6
are effectively in parallel. Assuming that the reactance of C2 can be ignored
OVr
h
(a) (b)
FIG. 8-22. (a) Interstage coupling network, (b) Equivalent circuit

at high frequencies.
at the frequency of operation of the amplifier, the a-c equivalent circuit re-
duces to resistances R3 R5
, , and R6 in parallel, as shown in Fig. 8-22(b).
Writing R for the value of this parallel combination of resistances,
(8-48)
R + R
h i2
For this circuit, R = 4760 ohms and R has i2 still to be determined.

SEC. 8-8 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER 193
The load resistance, R7 , of the second stage is 10,000 ohms and so the
input resistance of this stage is
A he R 4- h
R = 1480 ° hmS ~ 49
i* = 1 f\ P (8 )
from Table 7-4. Thus, from Eq. (8-48),
â 0.77 (8-50)
Transistor 7\ is operating into a load formed by the parallel combination of

the four resistances i? 3 , i? 5 , i? 6 , and R h as shown in Fig. 8-22. For the given
values, the effective load is 1130 ohms. The current gain for transistor T1 is,
therefore,
K- '
,
1
hfe
+,T D
h oe R Ll
= 1
1 + ,c„
, ,n-6M,™
5
(5 x 10" )1130
«
49_
47 (8-51)
In the input circuit, the current flowing into the base lead of the first
transistor is only a fraction of the input current through R s The

. input
resistance of 7\ is
Ahe D > L
Rh = = 192 ° 0hmS (8
~ 52 )
i
1 + y
/7 oe AP Ll
By analogy with Eq. (8-48), we can write
A. tf'
where R' is the parallel combination of Ru R 2 , and /? fl . Now,/?' = 9100 ohms,

and so
rbl 9ioo
* °' 82 (8 " 54)
/, 9100 + 1920
The total current gain through the circuit from the input lead to resistance
R7 is
J
f= 32.5(0.77)(47)0.82 = 960 (8-55)
The stability factor for each transistor stage can be obtained from
Eq. (8-23)
1 + RB /RE
(8-23)
1+ *
(h FE + 1)^
/**.£ will be specified by the manufacturers, and we will assume that it has the
value 40. RB is formed by R ± and R2 in parallel giving RB = 9100 ohms.
Hence,
9100
+
41(1000)
8-9 Frequency Response of the Multistage Amplifier
The frequency response of the typical multistage amplifier, shown in Fig. 8-21,
is determined partly by the circuit elements and partly by the inherent fre-
quency limitation of the transistors. At very low frequencies, the reactances
of capacitances, C\ and C2 can no longer be ignored in the interstage coupling
network, and they reduce the magnitude and affect the phase of the current
which is flowing. The reactances of capacitances C3 and C4 also increase as
the frequency is reduced and, as a and
result, the emitter resistances /? 4 R8
are no longer adequately bypassed. This causes an additional decrease in
gain.
At high frequencies, the current gain of the transistor decreases because
of the time taken for the carriers to pass across the base region. The fre-
quency at which the short-circuit CE current gain has dropped to 0.707 of

its low frequency value is known as the beta-cutoff frequency, fs In the CB .
connection, the short-circuit current gain drops to 0.707 of low frequency its
value at the alpha-cutoff frequency, fa . The relationship between the two

quantities is,
Ja ~ "fejfi
and since h fe is usually between 40 and 150, fB is much less than/a . A typical
inexpensive alloy-junction transistor has an alpha-cutoff frequency of
5 Mc/sec and h fe = 50. For this transistor, /# is only 100 kc/sec and this con-
stitutes a fundamental limitation on the use of this amplifier at high
frequencies. (See Chap. 10 for a discussion of this point.)
In addition to this effect, the time constant formed by the collector load
resistance and the output capacitance of the transistor produces a loss in
gain at high frequencies. Because of this, the gain of the stage will have
dropped to 0.707 of its low frequency value at a frequency given by
/= C oft
'
/v/
where Coe is the collector output capacitance in the CE connection. More

commonly, the output capacitance in the CB connection (Cob ) is specified.
These two quantities are related according to
C oe ~ rlfeôb
In many circuits, the beta-cutoff frequency is lower than the frequency at

which the output time constant causes a loss in gain. When a high value of
collector load, RL , is used, however, the time constant may have to be
considered.
The high frequency response of the CE stage is discussed in Sees. 10-2
through 10-5 where the hybrid-77- model of the transistor is analyzed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 195
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, Alfred J., Jr.and J. Barry Oakes, Linear Vacuum-tube and Transistor
Circuits, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961
Fitchen, Franklin C, Transistor Circuit Analysis and Design, Princeton,

N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1960
Hill Company, Inc., 1961
Hurley, Richard B., Junction Transistor Electronics, New York: John Wiley
&Sons, Inc., 1958
Joyce, Maurice V. and Kenneth K. Clarke, Transistor Circuit Analysis,

Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1961
Pullen, Keats A., Handbook of Transistor Circuit Design, Englewood Cliffs,
PROBLEMS
8-1 A transistor having the output characteristic shown in Fig. 8-5 is
operated in the CE connection with a resistive load in the collector lead

of 333 ohms and with Vcc = — 10 volts. If IB = 200 /xa, what is the
quiescent operating point? If an alternating current of 200 /xa peak to
peak is applied to the base, what is the value of the alternating output
current? What is the maximum input alternating current that could be
applied without excessive distortion?
8-2 Determine the value of h fe for the quiescent operating point of the
transistor in Prob. 8-1. If the input alternating current is 200 /xa peak
to peak, find the mean value of h oe from a knowledge of A and
t
hfe .
8-3 Explain why the output characteristics of germanium and silicon

transistors are about the same although there are significant differences
in their respective input characteristics.
8-4 A pnp transistor is operated in the CE connection with a load resistance

RL in the collector lead. A high resistance R is connected between the
±
negative terminal of the collector supply battery and the base terminal.
If Vcc = — 20 volts and a = 0.98, calculate the values of RL and R 1
to make VCE = 10 volts and Ic — 2 ma, making any reasonable assump-

tions considered necessary. What is the major limitation of this circuit?
8-5 For the circuit of Fig. 8-11 find (a) the stability factor, S, (b) Sh ,
(c)
dlc/d^BE given that R = x R 2 = 60,000 ohms, R E = 2000

20,000 ohms,
ohms, R L = 3000 ohms. Assume that a = 0.98, ICBO - 3 /xa, VBE
= —0.2 volts, and Vcc = — 16 volts.
ans. S = 6.5, Sh = 4.3 x 10~ 6 amps,
dIc ldVBE = -4.25 x 10" 4 amps volts" 1
8-6 Using characteristic curves and equations where necessary, show how
the location of the quiescent operating point is temperature sensitive.
8-7 A transistor is connected as in Fig. 8-11. If Vcc = — 20 volts, RL

= 2000 ohms, h FE =
and S is to be 12, calculate the values of the
50,
resistances to give as large an output voltage across R L as possible
without distortion. What is the minimum value for CE if the circuit is
to be used as an audio amplifier?
8-8 The transistor of Fig. 8-20 is operated in a CE connection where the

stability factor S is 20 and there is no load resistance in the collector
lead. IC Bo = 10 jâ at 25° C and Vcc = -25 volts. What is the critical
value of collector current above which thermal runaway will occur?
ans. 13.2 ma
8-9 Two transistors are connected in cascade to supply a 1000 ohm load.
Each has the following parameters: h ib = 30 ohms, h fe = 49, h rh
= -6
10~ 4 h ob
,
= 10 mhos, (a) Find the current and power gain of the
circuit if both transistors are connected in the common base con-
figuration, (b) Find the current and power gain if the first transistor
is connected in a CB configuration and the second is in a CE connection.
Design a suitable interstage coupling network in both cases.
PART 3
Further
Theory of
the Transistor,
and the
Tunnel Diode
9
Physical The continuity equation, which was derived in
Chap. 4, is applied here to the base region of the
Characteristics transistor. First, a solution is found for the charge
and current density as a function of distance in the
of the Transistor base region when the transistor is operating under
d-c conditions. This solution leads to a derivation
of the transport factor and a discussion of the
components of alpha. Then, the transistor is con-
sidered to have an applied alternating emitter
current, and it is shown that the solution of the
continuity equation under a-c conditions results in
200 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRANSISTOR CHAP. 9
an analogy with an RC transmission line. The transmission line is replaced by

a lumped RC network, and this circuit leads to the useful hybrid-™ representa-
tion of the transistor.
The effect of electric field in the base region is considered for high emitter
currents in the diffusion transistor (Sec. 9-7) and for the important case of
the drift transistor (Sec. 9-8). The chapter concludes with a brief review of
other transistor characteristics.
Solution of the Continuity Equation

in the Base Region for Direct Currents
The hole density in the base region of a pnp transistor is given by the con-
tinuity equation (4-9),
dp
dt
= PnO
*-»£fr/> + D,g (9-1)
When only direct currents are flowing, dp/dt is zero. For a transistor having
abrupt junctions, where the resistivity of the base region is constant, the
of collector-base
rEdge
y'Edge of emitter-base depletion region
* depletion region
P r ^0
FIG. 9-1. Hole density in the base region of a. pnp transistor.
passage of charge across the base under small-current conditions is the result
of diffusion only, and p v d(p£)\dx is zero. The continuity equation then
becomes
p - p n0
2
A ddx*p (9-2)
or, since D prp = L 2 , where Lp is the diffusion length,
dp 2
p - PnQ
(9-3)
dx 2 Ll
SEC. 9-1 SOLUTION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 201
A solution of this equation is of the form,
p - Pn0 =A exp (
- + B exp (9-4)
^J (^)
where A and B are constants. These constants can be determined from the
known values of p at the emitter-base and collector-base junctions. From
Fig. 9-1, at the emitter-base junction,
x = 0, p = Pe = Pn0 exp (9-5)

(~p)
where p e » p n0 with VEB » kT/e, and at the collector-base junction,
x = W, p = pc « (9-6)
where VCB « -kT/e.

At the collector end of the base region we note that both p c and p n0 are
very small quantities. From Eqs. (9-4) and (9-6), therefore,
A eXP B
\L~) + CXP \T) = Pc ~ PnO ~0
giving
A= -Bexp(Y) (9-7)
Thus,
- p n0 = - B [exp -
p
(^) exp (-^) exp
(g)]
(9-8)
At the emitter end of the base region, substituting Eq. (9-5) into Eq. (9-8),
Pe = -£[exp(^)- 1]
Hence,
B = — (9-9)
Ky y)
l-exp(2^/L p )
Substituting this value for B in Eq. (9-8)
-*
P Pn0
l-exp(2^/LWL ah (?H(if) --»(£)] <-»>
The hole current density at any point in the base region is
6JJp &
-eD
dx
Thus,
/+ = -eA>A
Lp [l -exp(2^/L,
This analysis is valid for direct currents and also for very low frequencies.
We now define /c+ to be the hole current density leaving the base region at
the base-collector junction where x = W. Similarly, J e
r +
is defined as the hole
current density entering the base region at the emitter-base junction where
x = 0. The ratio of these currents is known as the transport factor, p*,
where the subscript zero indicates that this is a low frequency value. From
Eq.(9-ll),
+
= Jc exp(W/L p ) + exp(W/L p )
R J: exp(2^/L p )+l
= cosh (W/Lp) (9-12)

exp(W/L p ) + Qxp(-W/L p )
It is desirable to make £j as near to unity as possible since it is a principal
component of alpha (see Sec. 9-2). This is achieved by making the base
region so thin that W« L p. In this case, exp (W/Lp), can be replaced by the
first three terms of the series
Lip £l-j p
and exp (— W/L p ) can be replaced by the first three terms of the series
_ W W^_
Li p £Li p
Rewriting Eq. (9-12) in this approximate form,
2
= 1 W 2
(9 ~ 13)
P* ~ 2 + W /L 2 2
1 + W /2L
2 2
P
~ l
'IL 2 .
9-2 Components of Alpha
The transport factor, j8j, which was derived in the previous section, is one
of the three factors which determine the short-circuit current gain of the
transistor at low frequencies, a . We can write,
«o = /5Jyo8 (9-14)
where y is the emitter efficiency at low frequencies, and S is the collector

multiplication factor. From Fig. 9-2, the total current density entering the
emitter is Je , the hole current into the base region is designated 7e+ and
, the
electron current is /". The emitter efficiency as defined in Sec. 5-3B is
7o = Only the hole current, //, takes part in transistor action and this
Je IJe-
current is reduced by recombination in its passage across the base. The
transport factor takes this recombination loss into account and so the hole
current reaching the collector-to-base depletion region is B*J? = p*y Je -
The collector multiplication factor, 3, is the ratio of the current leaving the
collector region to the hole current entering from the base. This factor can
SEC. 9-2 COMPONENTS OF ALPHA 203
exceed unity, even for low voltage operation, in transistors where the resis-
tivity of the collector region is high (for example, grown-junction types). The
passage of a high current through the region results in an electric field of
signal frequency, $ = J? p, where p is the resistivity of the material. This
field modulates the thermally generated minority carrier current and produces
a flow of electrons in the opposite direction to the hole flow. Thus, the col-
lector current, Jc , is higher than the hole current from the base, Jc+ and 8 is
,
greater than unity. S will increase with temperature since the number of
minority carriers rises with temperature.
When the collector-to-base voltage is high, an avalanche mechanism can
develop which enhances the value of S. Fast moving positive holes may be
Hole current density

+
into base Je = yj Collector current density
Jc =(3$yhJe = a Je
Hole current density
Total current density leaving active
entering emitter base region
region Je
Electron current density

into base (electrons
moving in opposite
direction)
I
FIG. 9-2. Hole and electron currents flowing in the transistor as

a result of an emitter current, Je .
sufficiently energetic to produce secondary ionization in the collector deple-

tion region and increase the total current. This increase in 8 is a limiting
factor in power transistor operation (see Sec. 8-6 and Fig. 8-17).
9-3 The Intrinsic Transistor
One of the purposes of transistor analysis is to devise a simple two port net-
work, which will represent the device under given conditions. The transistor
model can be split into two parts as shown in Fig. 9-3, (a) the intrinsic tran-
sistor and (b) the external elements. The intrinsic transistor, which is shown
here as a "black-box," includes elements which represent the diffusion effects
in the base region and other internal transistor characteristics. The external
elements shown are the collector and emitter junction capacitances and a
resistance, rbb >. The two junction capacitances can be simply represented as
two single capacitances connected to a common point on the active base
region, B'. Between B' and the external base terminal B is the resistance r bb >.
This is known as the base spreading resistance and is the ohmic resistance of
Eo- -oC
Intrinsic
transistor
C,.5fc ^c,-
OB
FIG. 9-3. Transistor model showing the intrinsic transistor.
the semiconducting material between the active base region and the base
connection (see Fig. 9-4). There are also ohmic resistances associated with
the emitter and collector leads, but these can usually be neglected. The base
spreading resistance is of importance since it limits the high frequency and
Collector
Base contact
(ring-shaped)
Inactive base
region
Inactive base
region Emitter
FIG. 9-4. Schematic diagram of an alloy-junction transistor

showing the inactive part of the base region which is mainly
responsible for the base spreading resistance.
pulse operation of the transistor (see Chap. 10), and the manufacturer will try
to reduce it to as low a value as possible. Values for r w range from about
ten to several hundred ohms.
9-4 The Continuity Equation

in the Base Region for Small Alternating Signals
Consider that a small alternating voltage of value V eb exp (yW) is impressed

on the direct emitter-to-base voltage VEB The. instantaneous total voltage is
then,
v eb = Veb + Ke5 exp(yW) (9-15)
Assuming VEB » kT/e, the injected hole density in the base close to the base-
to-emitter depletion region is given by
SEC. 9-4 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 205
Pe = Pno exp Wj, \vEB + Veb exp (jtot)\

j
= Pno [exp (^JJjexp [t^ Veb exp (7 W)]} (9-16)
Putting in the condition that Veb « /ciy^, i.e., Veb is restricted to well below
25.8 millivolts at 25° C, we can write exp [(e/kT)Veb exp (yW)] in the approxi-
mate form 1 + (ejkT)Veb exp (yW). Thus,
= p n0 exp + -£fVeb exp (yW)l

/7 e
(^p j [l
(^)] [t^ ^
= p n0 exp + [exp exp (yW)]
(^) /7 n0
= /? ei + j p e2 exp(yW) (9-17)
where /? ei = direct component of hole density at x = caused by voltage
p e2 = maximum value of the alternating component of the hole

density at x = as a result of the alternating voltage Veb .
When the transistor is operating with the collector-to-base junction

reverse biased, the hole density at the collector end of the base region is
approximately zero. Both the direct and alternating components of the hole
density are reduced to zero at the collector junction and, in general, we can
write the hole density at any point in the base region in the form
p = Pi + p 2 exp (Jut) (9-18)
where the subscript 1 indicates a direct quantity and the subscript 2 denotes
an alternating quantity. Substituting Eq. (9-18) into the continuity equation
(9-1), and neglecting the drift term,
ja>p 2
/•
exp (jwt)
x
= ^ — — —/* eXD(/W)
PnO FU Pi
+ D P2 } _
p
d2D 1
-£± +
d2 _
m
D_ p -^ [p 2 exp (jcot)]
/•
(9-19)
This equation can be split into two parts: a d-c equation which is similar to
Eq. (9-2),
PnO ~ Pi d<1
Pl
= £2S
t„
£± + D
r,
v
p
,
-^
dx 2 (9-20)
and an a-c equation,
jwp 2 exp (yW) = -- exp (Jcot) + Dp — 2 [p 2 exp (Jut)]
or, by dividing through by exp (jcot)
=-Pl +
jo,p 2
r n ^
Dp &£l
dx 2
(9-21)
—
Rdx
Cdx
FIG. 9-5. Leaky RC transmission line.
Equation 9-21 is similar to the equation which can be derived for the RC
transmission line shown The series resistive element has a re-
in Fig. 9-5.
sistance R per unit length of the line. The parallel resistance is most con-
veniently represented by its conductance G per unit length, and the capacitance
has a value C per unit length. For an element of length dx, and for alternating
currents and voltages defined in Fig. 9-5,
/ = ]_dV (9-22)
R dx
and, by differentiating with respect to x,
dl 1 d2 V
= (9-23)
dx R dx 2
Now, dl = = (G + ja QVdx
dl _=
so (G + ja>C)V (9-24)
dx
Combining Eqs. (9-23) and (9-24),
d V 2
KJV + — —
1
JcoCV = -GV (9-25)
R dx 2
The alternating charge on the capacitance is given by
Q = CV (9-26)
2
1 d Q
Thus, j"Q = -§ e+ CR dx 2
(9-27)
Equation (9-27) is an equation for the maximum value of the alternating

charge on the line as a function of distance. Equation (9-28) is an equation
formed by multiplying all the three terms of the a-c continuity equation,
Eq. (9-21), by the electronic charge, e.
ep 2 Z\ep 2 )
jojep 2 = + A dx 2
(9-28)
SEC. 9-4 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 207
Comparing Eqs. (9-27) and (9-28), it is seen that an analogy exists between
the alternating charge in the base region of the transistor (ep 2 ) and the
alternating charge on the line (Q).
The graphical solution of the two equations is shown in Fig. 9-6. The
solution will not be derived here, but the form of it can be seen by considering
the limiting values of the hole density at the two ends of the base region. At
Charge in active
base region
ep
(a) Distance x
Maximum alternating
charge on capacitance
Q=
Q \
(b) Distance x
W
FIG. 9-6. (a) Charge in the active base region of the transistor
showing maximum value of the alternating charge as a function of
distance, (b) Maximum value of alternating charge on analogous
transmission line as a function of distance.
the emitter-base junction, x = and/? ei and/? e2 are the direct and alternating
components of hole density having the values given in Eq. (9-17). At the
collector-base junction, x = W
and the direct and alternating values of
the hole density, p Cl and/? C2 are both approximately zero. This assumes that
,
the collector-to-base junction is reverse biased with VCB « —kT/e. The

analogous condition to this on the transmission line representation is that
Q = at x = W. The line is, therefore, short-circuited at its far end.
Between x = and x = W
on the transmission line, the conductance, G,
allows a fraction of the charge to leak away. Thus, the current flow through
G represents the loss of holes in the base by recombination. If recombination

in the base is neglected, G must be made zero.
9-5 Base Width Modulation: Transmission Line Analogy
The previous section has shown that there is an analogy between the alternat-
ing charge at any point in the base region of a transistor and the alternating
Ic = O! Ie
R
VW
Short circuit
atx=W
FIG. 9-7. Alternating currents and voltages on the line.
charge on the transmission line of Fig. 9-5. It has been shown that there is a
short circuit at the position x = W corresponding to the condition that the
alternating hole density at the collector-to-base junction is zero. The analogy
is carried further in Fig. 9-7 where the alternating currents and voltages
which are known to be present in the transistor are applied to the line. The
current entering the transmission line is the alternating emitter current, 7e ,
and the current passing through the short circuit at low frequencies is the
Alternating- \J Alternating voltage

current drop, V =I RL
C C
generator
-±-V,
'ee t
FIG. 9-8. Alternating voltage drop across load resistance, RL .
collector current IcThe amount of recombination in the base region is

.
accounted for by the presence of the conductance, G, and so the collector

current, Ic , can be written as j8j/e . When the emitter efficiency and the
collector multiplication factor are taken to be unity, then jSj = a and
So far, it has been assumed that the collector-to-base voltage is a constant.

This is not a valid assumption, in practice, since the presence of a load in the
-
SEC. BASE WIDTH MODULATION 209
collector circuit introduces a voltage drop between the collector supply and
the collector terminal as shown for the CB circuit in Fig. 9-8. An alternating
voltage between the collector and base terminals is produced here by the
alternating collector current flowing through RL . In general, therefore, we
have to consider the effect of a collector modulating voltage on the trans-
mission line analogy. This can be done by recalling that the collector-to-base
voltage determines the depletion width at the collector end of the base region,
and hence the active width, W, of the base region
In the analysis which itself.
follows, we shall distinguish and the base terminal,

between the active base, B',
B. The alternating voltage that is responsible for the change in base width is
that between the collector and the active base and is designated Vcb The >.
voltage, Vb b is across the base spreading resistance, r

>
, of Fig. 9-3 and the w ,
Base Collector
to-base
depletion region
dW
d-c plus maximum
a-c hole density
P1+P2
W W+dW
Distance —
FIG. 9-9. Enlarged view of collector-to-base junction.
sum of these two voltages is Vcb which is across the external collector and base
terminals. In some cases, VVh can be neglected and Vcb and Vcb assumed to
>
be identical. The correct notation will be retained in this section since the
intrinsic transistor is being discussed.
In Fig. 9-9 a much enlarged view of the edge of the base-to-collector de-
pletion region is shown. When no alternating emitter current is applied, the
active region of the base ends at x = W as shown. When the alternating
current reaches its maximum value, the upper curve of hole density applies
and the active region of the base extends out to W+ dW. Making the
assumptions, dW « W, p e2 «p ei and neglecting recombination, the slopes
of the two hole density curves given in Fig. 9-9 are equal and are given by
dp
— _t.fi for the d-c case (9-29)
dx W
The boundary conditions,
Pox + Pc 2 = at x = W + dW (9-30)
can be transformed to
p 2 =Pac at* = W (9-31)
by making use of the relationship
Pac dp
= Pe±
dW dx W
Thus, Pac^dW (9-32)
The boundary condition of Eq. (9-30)means that the effective base width
is a function of the collector voltage. The transformed boundary condition
given in Eq. (9-31) shows that the active base width may be considered to be
Ic
VW
^Charge -
Qac
Fixed length
W
FIG. 9-10. Voltage generator, /xKcb ', representing the effects of
base-width modulation on the transmission line.
fixed at the value Wand then the hole density at x = Wis given by Eq. (9-32).
Considering a junction of unit area, we can write the direct current entering
from the emitter as
h = -eD *
= eD p Pe x
(9-33)
w
Hence, Pac
eDp
dW
h dW d] (9-34)
eD P dVCB '
or
dW v„. (9-35)
Wdc
CB'
Returning to the transmission line analog, we see that the boundary con-
dition of Eq. (9-30) leads to a transmission line with a length that is a
SEC. 9-5 BASE WIDTH MODULATION 21 I
function of the collector-to-base voltage. This is an inconvenience which can
be overcome by using the transformed boundary condition of Eq. (9-31)

which fixes the line length at Wand introduces a charge Q ac = ep ac a.tx = W.
This is equivalent to replacing the short circuit by a voltage generator of
value fiVC b', as shown in Fig. 9-10, where
vVcvC = Q ac = ep ac (9-36)
epac
= h dW (9 " 37)
^cvr, CD p dv7,
from Eq. (9-35). To find the value of the capacitance, C, we write
c=
§ <9
- 38 >
and at the emitter,
epe 2
>2
exp (^') (9-39)

jfrP«y„
from Eq. (9-17). Hence,
c~
C
_dQ__^ CXP
leVEB .\
dVeb ~ kT Pn0
.
\ kT J
kT Pe, kTDp V w;
from Eq. (9-33). Thus,
IE dW kTD
M =
p
D p dVCB eWIE
.
kT dW
(9-41)
eWdVrn'
For a typical germanium alloy-junction transistor, the fractional change in
base width of the order of two per cent for every volt change between
is
collector and base. At 300° K,
kT dW
\i = ^jy~ ~ °- 026 (°- 02 ) - 5 x 10" 4 (9-42)
9-6 The Hybrid-n Representation
The circuit of Fig. 9-1 1 shows the transmission line representation of the in-
trinsic transistor and includes the current generator, Ic feeding the collector
,
and active base terminals. It is not yet in a practical form because no account
has been made of the power which must be drawn from the collector and
FIG. 9-1 I. Transmission line analogy showing collector circuit.
active base terminals, C and B', to supply the voltage generator, /xKcb ..
However, this circuit can be manipulated into one of several forms which are
suitable for circuit analysis. In this section, we will derive the hybrid-^
circuit which is used in Chap. 10. (See Sec. 10-1 for a discussion of this
circuit.)
The transition between the transmission line representation and the

hybrid-77 circuit is The equivalence of the
given in Figs. 9-11 through 9-16.
two circuits can be demonstrated by standard methods of circuit' analysis but
the process is long and involved. In this account, step-by-step changes will
be made in the circuit and approximations will be introduced where desirable.
In the first place, we note that the collector current, Ic is only slightly ,
smaller than the emitter current, Ie , since a ~ 1. Therefore, there is only a

small recombination loss of current in the base region. This means that the
conductance, G, of Fig. 9-11 is low and its resistance is high. Because of this,
it is possible to draw a simple circuitwhich approximates to the transmission
R2 Ic
Eq A/W
rS zk Cl rS ic 2 0/xVc* K,
iBT
(a)
R2 £
AAA
Rx< ^ 0mK 6
.
/„"
^s/m> ^r»c2 vcb .
6B'
(b)
FIG. 9-12. (a) Replacement of transmission line by -n equivalent

circuit, (b) R 3 and C2 transferred to output circuit.
SEC. 9-6 THE HYBRID-* REPRESENTATION 213
line. In Fig. 9-1 2(a), a 77 circuit is used in place of the line. i?i and R 3 now
account for the recombination loss of current, and R2 is the equivalent series
resistance of the line. C x and C2 are the capacitance elements across the
parallel resistances as before. and C 1 = C 2 and so the recombina-
R — R3
±
/tionjoss and the effective capacitance of the line have been divided into two
equal parts; one at each end of the line.
In Fig. 9-1 2(a), the power to operate the voltage generator, pVcb is >,
obtained from the collector-to-base voltage, Vcb Since R 3 and C 2 are con- >.
nected in parallel across the constant voltage generator, they have no effect on
the input circuit. Thus R 3 and C 2 can be transferred to the output circuit
where they become of value R 3 /fx and i*C2 respectively, in order to keep the ,
power and phase requirements the same. The circuit now appears as in
Fig. 9- 12(b).
Before proceeding further, the values of the resistances and the capacit-
ance will be found. When the output is short-circuited to alternating currents
(Kb' = 0), the collector current, lc , the emitter current, Ie , and the base
current, Ib are given
, by the equations,
h = <*h (9-43)
and Ib = Ie {\ - a) (9-44)
Furthermore, at low frequencies where the effects of capacitance can be

neglected, the low frequency value of alpha, a , can be used and
= re (9-45)
?f
where r e is the emitter resistance which is the incremental resistance of the
forward-biased emitter-to-base junction defined in Sec. 4-7. In Fig. 9-12(b),
the recombination current flowing through R x is the base current, Ib . Hence,
*» = nr =
/ft
m—
I e {l
Veb
'
cc \
)
= r^
-
1 a
< 9 " 46 )
Also, R2 = ?f = i% = H (9-47)
lc a a le
Finally, we see from Sec. 5-3F that
d = C 2 = CD (9-48)
where CD is the diffusion capacitance. For a base region of constant resis-

tivity, Eq. (5-15) gives the diffusion capacitance of the junction to be
eW 2
c° = 9 - 49 >
Wtdp i* <
where IE is the total emitter current across the junction.

(a)
FIG. 9-13. (a) Resistance and capacitance values shown on the

circuit of Fig. 9-1 2(b). (b) Replacement of components in dotted
box in part (a) by their Norton equivalent.
r<0
B'Q- AA/V
/(l-ao)
a Q»Vcb -
Cn ^ !JiC D
(a)
v<B±
B'Q- A/VV
A<(1 - «o)
V„,
1-a,
Cn ^ lxCL «0M
6E
(b)
FIG. 9-14. (a) Figure 9— 13(b) redrawn in the common emitter

connections, (b) Approximation of the current generator in the
input circuit.
SEC. 9-6 THE HYBRID-77 REPRESENTATION 215
The values found in the preceding paragraph are shown in Fig. 9-1 3(a).
The voltage generator and the resistance shown in the dotted box in this
diagram can be replaced by their Norton equivalent circuit to give Fig.
9-1 3(b).
Figure 9-1 3(b) can be redrawn as a common emitter circuit to give
Fig. 9-1 4(a). The input current generator will next be considered and two
approximations will be made. In the first place, the current is proportional
to the voltage across the CB' terminals. However, for a transistor operating
in the common emitter connection, the voltage gain is considerably greater
than unity, and so we can write Vcb a Vce The value
> . of the current generator
now becomes « /zKce /r e and it will load the collector and emitter terminals as
A*(l-"o)
6E
/u(l - ao)
B'O
cD 8n,Vb
V,.,
l-«o
Cn^ «0M
(b)
FIG. 9-15. (a) The circuit of Fig. 9-1 4(b) with the current genera-
tor divided into two parts, (b) The -n circuit for the intrinsic
transistor in the common emitter connection.
if it were a resistance of value rj(a fi) as shown in Fig. 9-14(b). Secondly, we

note from Eq. (9-42) that [x is very small. In the input circuit, therefore, the
generator current can be neglected in comparison with Ic which , is flowing in
a connecting lead. The two approximations are shown in Fig. 9-14(b).
The remaining current generator in Fig. 9-1 4(b) has been divided in
two generators which have a common junction at the emitter.
Fig. 9-1 5(a) into
The two circuits are electrically identical since a constant current generator
may be split in this manner without altering its effect on the circuit. From
Eq. (9-47),
'c
" eb' Sm * eb' (9-50)
where g m = a /r. Thus the generator now in the input circuit supplies a
current which is proportional to the voltage across its terminals. This
generator can be replaced by a resistance, and, because of the direction of
current flow, the resistance is negative and has the value
f.
(9-51)
6m ' e Sm
This negative resistance cancels out the existing positive resistance of the
same magnitude already across the input terminals. The final circuit for the
intrinsic transistor is given in Fig. 9-1 5(b). It is a tt representation of the
approximated transmission line for a common emitter circuit. The direction
r6 -
c =2.5M
Bo -A/W- -OC
8m VVe =
C6 c = 10pf
.
0.039 Vb .
— = e
r b'e
1250 n
Vb -
e ^z Cb e = - r"
K
amps
1500 pf 50
-OE
(b)
FIG. 9-16. (a) The hybrid-vr circuit for the common emitter con-
nection, (b) Typical values for the hybrid-^ circuit.
of the current generator and the polarity of the voltage to which it is related
have both been changed to conform to current practice.
The complete hybrid-vr circuit is shown in Fig. 9-1 6(a). Here, the three
important components outside of the intrinsic transistor, namely and r w C
, je ,
Cjc , have been added. (Compare this com-common emitter circuit with the
mon base circuit given in Fig. 9-3.) In addition, a has been replaced by
unity where this approximation causes little error. Figure 9- 16(b) shows the
common designations for the various elements of the circuit. Values given in
this diagram apply to a typical medium frequency, alloy-junction, pnp
transistor operating at IE = 1 milliamp and VCE = — 5 volts.
The quantity, g m = a /r, has the dimensions of mhos or amps per volt.
It is sometimes called the "intrinsic transconductance." From Sec. 4-7,
SEC. 9-6 THE HYBRID-77 REPRESENTATION 217
r€ = 25.8/Tb ohms, where IE is in milliamps. Thus g m is known for a given

emitter current and, in the typical case shown in Fig. 9-1 6(b), gm = 39 milli-
amps per volt when IE = 1 milliamp.
The elements of the hybrid-77 circuit are substantially independent of fre-
quency in the usable range of the transistor. In addition, the variation in the
values of the components of the circuit as the quiescent voltage or current
are changed can readily be calculated. These advantages are further discussed
in Chap. 10.
9-7 Variation of Alpha with Emitter Current
The value of alpha for the majority of transistors lies in the range 0.95 to
0.995.The CE short-circuit current gain, j8, is given by p = a/(l — a) and so
50
40
Si
C H
O <JQ
I.S
» 20 '
II
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Collector current IE in ma
FIG. 9-17. Variation in h fe with emitter current for a pnp tran-

sistor. Considerable variation in this curve is found for different
transistors.
the corresponding range of values of ^ is 19 to 199. More specifically, since
a
J8- -
1 a
dp 1 1
da (1 -af 1 - a
48 da
or (9-52)
p + 1 1
-
Since alpha is close to unity, Eq. (9-52) shows that the CE current gain is
extremely sensitive to small changes in alpha. In this section, the variation of
alpha with quiescent emitter current is discussed.
There are three mechanisms which account for the change in alpha.
1. At very low current densities: recombination in the emitter-base de-

pletion region causes a reduction in current entering the base.
2. At high current densities: the number of majority carriers in the base

rises,and an electric field is produced which aids the passage of
minority charges through the base region. This results in an increase
in alpha.
3. At very high current densities: the large number of carriers in the base
increases the base conductivity and decreases both the emitter efficiency
and the lifetime of the carriers in the
base region. This causes a drop in
n-type
alpha as the emitter current is increased
(see Fig. 9-17).
At low current densities, it is found

that recombination in the depletion
regions of the emitter-to-base junction
forms a high proportion of the total
emitter current. This is responsible for
a small value of alpha when the emitter
current is low. As the emitter current
is increased, recombination processes
capture a smaller proportion of the
emitter charge carriers and alpha
rises.
Up to now, it has been assumed

that small-current conditions applied
to the transistor and that the majority
carrier density was substantially con-
stant with distance. When the emitter
current is high, this condition cannot
o w be accepted and the variation of the
Distance in active base region — * majority carrier density with distance
FIG. 9-18. Carrier density in the base in the base region must be considered.
region when the emitter current density Figure 9-18 shows the majority and
is high. minority carrier density in the base
region under large-current operation.
This carrier density profile is obtained by the condition for charge neutrality
in the base region
n + Na =p + Nd
(9-53)
and, assuming Na ~ 0,
P = N d (9-54)
Under small-current conditions, p is assumed to be small everywhere, giving

n = N d (a constant), as shown previously. Under large-current operation,
SEC. 9-7 VARIATION OF ALPHA WITH EMITTER CURRENT 219
the value of p at no longer can be neglected in comparison with Nd

x = ,
and so Eq. (9-54) applies as shown in Fig. 9-18.

Charge neutrality is not exactly obeyed in the base region. The conditions
shown in Fig. 9-18 lead to a diffusion current formed by electrons moving
across the base region from left to right because of the concentration gradient.
Since the emitter efficiency is close to unity, the net electron current is ap-
proximately zero and some mechanism must be operating to cause an equal
current in the opposite direction. This mechanism is that of drift of electrons
in an electric field. The produced by the diffusion of electrons which
field is
produces a small imbalance of the charge neutrality condition and produces

a field £. The difference between the positive and negative charge density
distributions is very small, and Eq. (9-53) can still be used in the analysis
except where the electric field is to be calculated.
Since the total electron current is zero and both drift and diffusion take
place,
/- = enpj + eD n ^=
or g = -Ejl^L (9-55)
n[i n dx
Since dn/dx is negative, the field is from left to right. Assuming that the de-
parture from charge neutrality is small, we may differentiate Eq. (9-54) with
respect to x and write
^ = * (9-56)
dx dx
From the Einstein equation of Sec. 4-8,
(9-57)
and so
(9-58)
nfjip dx
This electric field also affects the hole current which is flowing, since
/+ = epii p £ - eD p -£
dp
'dx
(9-59)
Under small-current conditions, p « n and the current flow is wholly by

diffusion. As/? increases, part of the total current is carried by drift and, from
Eq. (9-59), this can be considered as an apparent increase in the diffusion

constant, D p In the limit, p -> n, and D p apparently doubles. The field is
.
responsible for aiding the holes in their passage across the base and less re-
combination takes place since they spend less time in the rc-type base region.
This effect is responsible for an increase in alpha as the emitter current is
raised.
In Sec. 5-3 B, the emitter efficiency was given as
y-i-?£ (9-60)
where a b and o e are the conductivities of the base and emitter regions re-
spectively. Under large-current conditions, there are many charge carriers
present in the base region as shown in Fig. 9-18. Thus the base conductivity,
o- b , increases and the emitter efficiency falls. The lifetime for holes in the base
region, r p , is also decreased by the presence of a large number of electrons and
this reduces the transport factor, j8j. As the emitter current increases to very
large values, these effects take control, and alpha decreases.
9-8 The Drift Transistor
So far in this book, the transistor has been assumed to have a base region of
constant Under small-current conditions, it has been shown that
resistivity.
the injected minority carriers move across the base by diffusion and that no
appreciable electric field exists in the base. For this reason, we may use the
term "diffusion transistor" for the device although recognizing, from
Sec. 9-7, that an electric field will be present when the emitter current density
is high.
In the diffusion transistor, the transit time for minority carriers across the
base forms an upper limit on the frequency of operation of the device. Re-
ducing the thickness of the base decreases the transit time and increases the
usable frequency range of operation, but if the base is made too thin, other
limitations arise. For example, the base spreading resistance increases as the
base thickness is reduced and, whatever changes in thickness, conductivity,
and area of the regions are made, a point is reached where it is uneconomical
to seek a higher frequency of operation for the diffusion transistor.
The overcomes some of the limitations of the diffusion
drift transistor
transistor and can be operated at frequencies up to a few thousand mega-

cycles per second. Devices are commercially available which give substantial
gain in a common emitter circuit at several hundred megacycles per second.
This is accomplished by reducing the transit time of the minority carriers in
the base region and by ensuring that the collector capacitance is small.
The drift transistor is manufactured with a nonuniform base conductivity.
As shown below, this results in a "built-in" electric field which aids the
SEC. 9-8 THE DRIFT TRANSISTOR 221
minority carrier motion across the base region. Both drift and diffusion occur
in the drift transistor, and the combination of the two current-carrying
mechanisms reduces the transit time and so increases the upper frequency
response. In a pnp transistor of this type, the /7-type impurity is diffused into
the base region under very carefully controlled conditions of temperature and
pressure so that an impurity gradient is produced in the base region. In many
cases, the impurity density in the base can be assumed to drop approximately
exponentially from the emitter to the collector junction and this results in a
constant "built-in" field. There are many methods of producing a drift
transistor; all of them involve the diffusion of an n- or/?-type impurity from a
vapor into the base region of a transistor. The manufacturers' literature should
be consulted for the method used for any
particular type (see also Sec. 5-6).
The way in which the impurity den-
sity varies with distance in a typical
drift transistor is shown in Fig. 9-19.
Near-intrinsic
Close to the collector junction, the base
resistivity
near-intrinsic.
is high and the material
The charge depletion
is
r
material
region at the collector

junction extends well into the base as
shown, and this results in
end of the
a low collec- Exponential

PT
doping-^ Collector-
tor-to-base junction capacitance [Eq.
to-base
(3-24)]. This an important character-
is depletion
istic of the drift transistor and is partly region
responsible for its good high frequency Fl G. 9- 1 9. Structure of drift transistor.

performance.
The which is present by virtue of a nonuniform base con-
electric field
ductivity can be calculated by considering the majority charge distribution in
the base. ¥ ox a. pnp drift transistor, the majority carrier density has the profile
shown in Fig. 9-19, and so electrons will diffuse in the direction of decreasing
concentration, that is, from left to right. As previously discussed in Sec. 9-7,
this slightly unbalances the condition of charge neutrality and results in an
electric field, *f , which produces a drift of electrons in the opposite direction.
Writing the equations for the total current density of electrons in the base
region, we see that
_ _ dn
,
J- = ni
e\Ln 4- eD n ^-
(9-61)
since no net majority carrier flow occurs in the base. Thus,
Dn dn
(9-62)
\h n n dx
From the Einstein relation of Sec. 4-8,
^=— (9-63)
and so
_kTdn
# =
en ax
If $ is to be made constant throughout the base, Eq. (9-64) can be integrated

to give
n = n txp^-~^x )
(9-65)
j
where n = n at x = 0. Furthermore, if n = nw at x = W, we can solve

Eq. (9-65) for <f to give
-
'-^(Si) (9 66)
This is the constant "built-in" field that is produced by the exponential

majority carrier density distribution. It has a positive value since n > nw
and is acting in the direction from emitter to collector. For the majority car-
riers (electrons), as we have and
seen, the currents attributable to drift
diffusion are equal and opposite and the net current is zero. For minority
carriers (positive holes), the drift and diffusion currents add and the total hole
current density is
J* = M * - eD f
e p
x
(9-67)
where dpjdx is a negative quantity. The total hole current density across the
base, 7+ , is a constant. Therefore, the first order differential equation (9-67)
can be solved to give
"
p -^r { t
1
~ ^Yx ~ ^W\ (9 68)
where the constant of integration has been evaluated by noting that p = at
x = W. From Eqs. (9-64) and (9-66)
Thus,
P =
At the beginning of the base region, where x « W,

SEC. 9-8 THE DRIFT TRANSISTOR 223
if n w /n « 1. In practice, the doping is such that n w/n is of the order of 1/8.
Thus, nearly 90 per cent of the current is carried by drift at the beginning of
the base region but as x -» W, diffusion increases. The transit time of the
holes across the base is much reduced by the presence of the "built-in" field,
and so the transit time is reduced.

The term " diffused-base transistor" has come into general use in the
semiconductor device industry. The process of diffusion, which is now
standard in the production of high frequency units, results in a base region
with a nonuniform impurity density (approximately exponential). The an-
alysis of the drift transistor applies to some extent to all diffused-base
transistor constructions. Whenever the base conductivity is nonuniform, an
internal electric field will be developed in the base region. Diffused-base
transistors are now designed for particular applications. By varying the base
width, conductivity values, junction areas, etc., the important properties of
the transistor which determine its high frequency and pulse characteristics can
be suited to the application (see Chap. 10).
9-9 Transistor Noise
The random noise generated in a device determines its ultimate sensitivity as

an amplifier. There are three sources of noise in a transistor: resistance noise
caused by thermal agitation ; shot noise caused by the discrete nature of the
charge carriers and modulation or semiconductor noise.
;
Resistance noise is due to the random motion of the holes and electrons
in a material and can be represented by a mean square noise voltage of the
1? = AkTR Af (9-72)
form where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is in °K, R is the resistance of the

material and Af is the band of frequencies over which the noise is measured.
This is known as "white" noise since it has a constant frequency spectrum,
that is, for a constant bandwidth, Af, v 2 does not depend on frequency.
Shot noise produced wherever a current is flowing in the transistor, and
is
it also is "white" noise. The current is carried by individual carriers (holes

or electrons) and so it fluctuates slightly about its mean value. The mean
square fluctuation in the current is
?= lelAf (9-73)
where /is the average current. If this mean square current is flowing through
a resistance, R, it will produce a mean square voltage across the terminals of
v
2
= 2eIR 2 Af (9-74)
Modulation or semiconductor noise is also known as flicker noise. It is
entirely a low frequency phenomenon and is of considerable importance in

low frequency and d-c amplifiers. Its origin is thought to lie in the semicon-
ductor crystal imperfections and in surface effects. It is not "white" noise,
but can be represented by a mean square voltage of the form
~s AI'Af
(9-75)
f
where A is a constant and / is the current flowing. Thus, the mean square
voltage is inversely proportional to the frequency, /. This type of noise is
predominant below about 1 kc/sec in most transistors.

The transistor adds a certain amount of noise power to any signal that it
amplifies. However, the input signal to the transistor includes thermal noise
of its own, generated by the source resistance, R s An assessment of the .
Region 1 Region 3
10
Region 2
C
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Frequency in kc/sec — *
FIG. 9-20. Noise figure of a transistor as a function of frequency.

Source resistance, R s = 500 ohms.
transistor's noise performance can be obtained by finding the fractional in-
crease in noise caused by the transistor. The noise figure, F, is defined to be

the ratio of the total noise output power to the noise output power attribut-
able solely to the thermal noise in the source. Hence,
Ptn
1 + (9-76)
ApPsN AP,
where PTN is the internally generated transistor noise power, PSN is the thermal
noise in the signal, and A p is the transistor power gain. The value of PSN per
unitbandwidth does not vary with frequency as shown by Eq. (9-72), assum-
The power gain, A p and the transistor noise, PTN are
ing a resistive source. , ,
frequency dependent, and thus the noise figure of the transistor will vary with
frequency.
SEC. 9-9 TRANSISTOR NOISE 225
The noise figure is usually quoted in decibels where
F«-101og, (l
+J7T;) (9-77)
Figure 9-20 shows a curve of the noise figure versus frequency for a typical
transistor. Between about 1 kc/sec and 100 kc/sec, the noise figure is 6 db.
From Eq. (9-77), this means that the total noise power at the output terminals,
under these conditions, is composed of one part determined by the external
noise source (R s ) and three parts generated in the transistor. Noise figures as
low as 1 db can be obtained using selected transistors under ideal conditions.
The three regions of Fig. 9-20 can be identified from Eqs. (9-72) through
(9-77). In region 1, the modulation noise is high in the transistor, and the
noise figure increases as the frequency decreases. In region 2, modulation
noise can be ignored, and thermal and shot noise predominate. The noise
figure increases in region 3 mainly because the power gain of the transistor
decreases as the frequency is raised. The demarcation frequency between
regions 2 and 3 is approximately the geometrical mean of the alpha and beta
cutoff frequencies. The "spot" noise figure given by many manufacturers is
measured at 1 kc/sec.
Figure 9-20 has been drawn for a source resistance of 500 ohms. For
most transistors, the noise figure is found to be at its lowest value when R s is
between 100 and 1000 ohms. For low noise operation, the transistor should
be operated with emitter current and collector-to-base voltage in the low-to-
medium range.
9-10 Surface Effects in Transistors
Transistors are very sensitive to the conditions existing on the semiconductor

surfaces, and surface contamination in device manufacture is a major
problem. In the early days of transistors, surface contamination caused a
slow deterioration of the transistor characteristics. This problem has been
largely overcome by extensive surface treatment and elaborate encapsulation
of the device, but the surface properties still play some part in determining
the characteristics of the transistor.

If the surface of a semiconducting crystal is rough, there will be many re-
combination centers present and the lifetimes of the charge carriers will be
reduced (see Sec. 1-20). Since the lifetimes in the bulk material are unchanged,
the hole and electron densities close to the surface are reduced and there will
be a flow of carriers towards the surface. The net current flow is zero since
both types of carrier are involved. Conditions at the surface are charac-
terized by the surface recombination velocity, s, defined by
e(Ps ~ Po)
where p s and p are the thermal equilibrium hole densities at the surface and
in the bulk material respectively, and Js is the hole current density flowing to
-1
the surface. Values of s vary from about 2000 cm sec (for a sand-blasted
-1
surface) to less than 200 cm sec (for an electrolytically etched surface). In
the base region of a pnp transistor, any positive holes which travel to the
surface and recombine are lost from the collector current. This loss maybe
reduced by making the surface recombination velocity small and by ensuring
that the collector subtends a large solid angle to every point on the emitter.
The diffused-base transistor is good in this respect since the drift field aids
the minority carriers to pass directly from the emitter to the collector.
Many substances which are present in the atmosphere, e.g., water, form
a surface layer on germanium or silicon which is only a few molecules thick.
This layer readily becomes charged and produces a high electric field at the
surface of the semiconductor and alters the conditions in the device. Manu-
facturing processes are now being used which "passivate" the surface to
reduce the effects of surface films and so prevent the variation of transistor
characteristics with time.
The collector cutoff current, ICB o, is markedly dependent on the surface
conditions of the semiconducting material. The wide variation in ICBO
between transistors with apparently the same construction is often the result
of differences in surface conditions.
9-1 1 Punch-through
In Sees. 5-3C and 9-5 base width modulation in a diffusion transistor was
discussed. Itwas shown that a change in collector-to-base voltage, VCB is ,
responsible for a change in the active width of the base region, W. The
width of the depletion region at the collector end of the base is proportional
to Vc B where n
, is — \ for the alloy-junction diffusion transistor,
approximately
and — J for the diffused-base drift transistor. When a high reverse collector-to-
base voltage is applied to the transistor, the depletion width may be so large
that the active base region disappears entirely and the emitter-to-base and
collector-to-base depletion regions merge. Transistor action is no longer
possible under these conditions. This phenomenon is known as punch-

through and the particular collector-to-base voltage at which it occurs is the
punch-through voltage.
Punch-through is one of the conditions which determine the upper limit
of allowable collector-to-base voltage. This voltage will be specified by the
manufacturer. Punch-through is not necessarily harmful to the transistor.
However, if the resistance in the external circuit permits an excessively high
current to flow under punch-through conditions, the transistor will be
damaged.
9-12 Epitaxial Films
Starting in 1960, several manufacturers added the epitaxial process to the pro-
duction of diffused-base transistors. In transistor parlance the term epitaxial
.
SEC. 9-12 EPITAXIAL FILMS 227
refers to the deposition of a thin, highly resistive layer of single crystal semi-
conducting material on a low resistivity substrate where the crystal orienta-
tion of the upper layer issame as that of the substrate. The principal use
the
of epitaxial films has been to improve the collector saturation voltage and
speed of diffused-base transistors.
The epitaxial film is deposited by a vapor process. The semiconductor
material in the form of a compound is vaporized and a chemical or thermal
decomposition is made to occur in the vicinity of the single crystal substrate.
The is heated and semiconductor atoms from the vapor deposit
substrate
epitaxially on the substrate surface. By adding compounds of doping elements
to the vapor stream, deposition of the doping element also occurs, and an
epitaxial film of the desired resistivity and thickness is grown on the substrate.
In the conventional mesa transistor (see Fig. 5-15), the collector material
is of fairly high resistivity to avoid collector-to-base breakdown at low
voltages. However, this means that the ohmic resistance of the collector
Emitter contact Base contact

^71 1 mSL
Epitaxial collector region
J*- Low ssistivity substrate

resistivity s
(collector)
V Ohmic contact
FIG. 9-21. Epitaxial mesa diffused-base structure. Compare
with Fig. 5-15.
region is appreciable and the collector-to-emitter saturation voltage is corres-

pondingly high. In addition, the high resistivity material has a long lifetime
and minority charges will, therefore, be stored in the collector region for a
comparatively long time and over a large distance. This causes a limit to be
set on the switching time of the transistor.
The epitaxial mesa transistor is shown in Fig. 9-21. It employs a collector
wafer of low resistivity, on top of which is deposited the epitaxial high re-
sistance layer as shown in the diagram. The reduced resistance of the col-
lector region ensures that the collector-to-emitter saturation voltage is small
and it may be as low as one tenth of its value for the conventional structure
(e.g., down to 0.4 volts for Ic = 100 ma). The lifetime of minority carriers in
the high resistivity epitaxial layer is much smaller and so switching times are
reduced. Other advantages are lower collector-to-emitter capacitance and the
retention of high current gain at high current levels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, Alfred J., Jr., and J. Barry Oakes, Linear Vacuum-tube and Transistor

Gartner, Wolfgang W., Transistors: Principles, Design and Applications,

Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1960

Pettit, Joseph Mayo, and Malcolm Myers McWhorter, Electronic Amplifier

Circuits, Theory and Design, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., 1961
Wolfendale, E., ed., The Junction Transistor and its Applications, London:
Hey wood & Company Ltd., 1958
PROBLEMS
9-1 Explain the meaning of the base transport factor, j8*. Find j8* as a
function of frequency and calculate the frequency at which fi* drops to
90 per cent of its low frequency value if WjL p = 0.0785 and r p = 60
jusec.
ans. 870 kc/sec
9-2 Given the hybrid-77- circuit of Fig. 9-1 6(b), find the value of the four h
parameters.
9-3 Explain in words, equations, and diagrams the phenomenon of base

width modulation.
9-4 A pnp germanium transistor has abrupt junctions and is operated at

room temperature. The following details of the transistor are known.
Emitter: pp = 0.07 ohm cm; Base: p n = 1.6 ohm cm; Collector:
PP = 0.40 ohm cm; Metallurgical base width = 2 x 10~ 3 cm;a =0.98
(assumed equal to /?*); Collector-to-base area = 5 x 10" 3 cm 2 ;
VCB = 10 volts (reverse bias); IE = ma. Determine the following

1
quantities, (a) contact potential between collector and base, (b) collec-
tor-to-base depletion width, (c) r b >
ei (d) jjl from Eq. (9-42).
ans. 0.268 volts, 4.16 x 10~ 4 cm, 1290 ohms, 3.25 x 10~ 4
9-5 For the transistor of Prob. 9-4, calculate (a) Cb e

>
with the condition
CD > Cje ,
(b) r b
c c taking
,
,
(c) Cb
/xCD into account, (d) r ce (e) g m
.
,
.
Draw the hybrid-77 circuit for the transistor showing the numerical
values for all the components.
10
High The hybrid-7r equivalent circuit, which was derived
in Chap. 9, is used here to determine the upper
Frequency and frequency response of the transistor stage. The
analysis is limited to the common emitter con-
Pulse Operation figuration and includes a calculation of the gain and
bandwidth for an iterative stage. The hybrid-vr
of the
model is then compared with the actual transistor,
and it is shown that a simple, empirical modifica-
Transistor
tion of the circuit leads to a more exact representa-
tion at high frequencies.
230 HIGH FREQUENCY AND PULSE OPERATION OF THE TRANSISTOR CHAP. 10
The hybrid-77 circuit is also used initially in the analysis of pulsed opera-
tion of the transistor. However, the concept of charge control is briefly de-
veloped and it is shown that this new approach offers advantages in analyzing
and understanding the transient conditions of switching.
10-1 The Hybrid-K Circuit
Figure 10-1 shows the hybrid-77 model of the transistor that will be used in
the first part of this chapter. It is an active tt circuit with the base spreading
rb ,=2.5M
£0- ^VW -oC
Q, c =i0pf g m vb e =-
125012 1500 pf 50 K 0.039 Vb .
v amps
e
EO- OE
FIG. 10-1. The hybrid-7r circuit with typical values. (IE = 1 ma).
resistance, r w , added to the input lead. This circuit is developed from the
transmission-line analog of the transistor in Sec. 9-6.
The important elements of this circuit are identified below.
r bb >, the base spreading resistance, is the ohmic resistance between the base
y lead and the active base region. It is substantially independent of operating
conditions.
rb >
e is the a-c resistance between the active base, B', and the emitter terminal,
E. Its value is given by rj{\ — a ) where r€ — kTleIE = 25.8//£ mhos at
300°K where IE is in milliamps. In the region where a can be considered
a constant, r Ve is inversely proportional to IE .
C b e is
> the sum of the emitter junction capacitance, Cje , and the emitter-to-base
diffusion capacitance, CD . In many cases CD predominates. From Eq. (5-15),
CD is proportional to IE .
Cb >
c is the sum of the collector junction capacitance, and a small fraction Cjc ,
of the diffusion capacitance, CD Cjc . and is propor-

usually predominates
tional to Vqb where n is between — \ and — \ depending on the type of
transistor (see Sec. 3-4).
gm is the transconductance and is of magnitude a /re . It is, therefore, approxi-

mately proportional to IE and has the value of 0.039 mhos when IE = 1
ma at 300°K.
All of these values should be considered approximate and considerable

deviations will be found in practice. To the first order of accuracy, all the
SEC. 1
0-1 THE HYBRID-77 CIRCUIT 23
elements are independent of frequency, and the change in the major com-
ponents of the circuit can be calculated as IE or VCE is changed. These two
factors provide major advantages over other transistor representations which
might be used.
An analysis of the CE stage at high frequencies will be carried out using
the hybrid-77- circuit. This gives an adequate representation for most transis-
tors at frequenciesan order of magnitude less than the alpha-cutoff frequency.
For higher frequencies, modifications must be made to the circuit if it is to be
used with accuracy. These modifications are briefly discussed in Sec. 10-6.
10-2 The Miller Effect
Figure 10-2(a) shows the a-c circuit of a transistor amplifier in the CE con-
nection with a load RL and a constant current input source. Figure 10-2(b)
(a)
73, Cb
' >c
bb-
\h
<>
/, \g m Vb
Vu;
(b)
FIG. 10-2. (a) The a-c circuit of a CE amplifier, (b) Simplified

hybrid-^ equivalent.
shows a simplified hybrid-77- equivalent. Two components have been omitted

from the complete hybrid-?! circuit of Fig. 10-1. These are: r ce which is ,
significantly larger than the load resistance, and rb which is usually so high
>
c,
that its effect can be neglected. Typical values for these components are given
in Fig. 10-1.
This section will consider the simplified hybrid-rr circuit and show that the
effective capacitance between B' and E is increased by the presence of C >
b c,
and that a new equivalent circuit can be drawn (Fig. 10-3). This is analogous
to the Miller effect in vacuum tube circuitry.
From Fig. 10-2(b),
h=h+h (10-1)
and h = j<*>Cb V >

e
>
b e (10-2)
Furthermore,
h= {Vb e - >
V )ja>C b (10-3)
In practice, I3 « I and so
K = -gmVb >eR L (10-4)
Therefore,
h =]«>c ,y + ja>c c (vb - v )

b
.
b e b
, ,
e
= ]<»Vv iPv + (1 +gm R L)C . ,

b c] (10-5)
and
-u- =i*e + (l +gm Ri)C b c]

. (10-6)
Thus, as far as the input side of the transistor is concerned, the effect of the
feedback current, 73 , is to increase the capacitance to the value C, where
C= Q e + (1 + gm R L)Cb c .
(10-7)
This effect was first noted by J. M. Miller for the case of vacuum tubes in 1919.
'66'
/,- SmVb'e
FIG. 10-3. Simplified equivalent circuit showing effective capacitance, C.
When the collector load, R L , is so small that the output circuit is unaffected
by the feedback current, I3 the equivalent , can be drawn as in Fig. 10-3.
circuit
This is the usual case for an iterative resistance-capacitance coupled stage.
Using the values given in Sec. 10-1 and Fig. 10-1, with an emitter direct
current of 1 ma, and with R L = 1000 ohms,
C= 1500 + (1 + 39)10
= 1900pf (10-8)
This capacitance is in parallel with r b >

e and the two elements form a CR
circuit which will be shown to limit the frequency response of the transistor
stage.
SEC. 10-3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE TRANSISTOR: HYBRID-77 MODEL 233
10-3 Frequency Response of the Transistor

inthe Common Emitter Connection: Hybrid-n Model
From Fig. 10-3, the impedance of the parallel resistance-capacitance com-

bination, rb eC. at
> an angular frequency a> is
Z= ~ ^—- = *-p (10-9)
The current gain of the transistor in the common emitter connection is
*i = T= gmVve #- = r+TTr (1(M0)
from Eq. (10-9). Now, g m = a jre , and r Ve — rj(l - a ), hence,
î = T-^-l r ?,=! h—^ (10-11)
At low frequencies, Eq. (10-11) shows that A = t j8 . Recalling that
C= C .
h e + (1 + gm R L )C b c
,
Eq. (10-11) gives the frequency response of the transistor in the CE con-
nection, that is,
y
'
1 + jwrb e [Cb e + , -
(1 + gmRL)Cb c .
]
'
Under short-circuit conditions with R L -» 0,
a - i!° (10-13")
At an angular frequency, c* 0i where
».
= 2 ^* =
r re '+
c i
~ rV (1(M4)
the current gain of the stage will have fallen to 1/V2 of its low frequency
value. The short-circuit current gain as a function of angular frequency can
be written as
«-> = (1 °- 15)
r+fea " r+fcro
Figure 10-4 shows a plot of the magnitude of the short-circuit current gain
The current gain in the figure is
versus frequency for a hybrid-77- circuit.
given in decibels (db) where the number of db = 20 log 10 (hlh)- At low
frequencies, p = 50 corresponds to 34 db of gain. At the frequency /^ the
gain has fallen to ft/V2 which corresponds to 31 db or a loss of 3 db. The

frequency where there is a 3 db loss of gain is a measure of the useful
band-width of the transistor when used in a stage with a low frequency gain
of j8 It will be shown in the next section that this does not limit the operation
.
of the common emitter stage to frequencies lower than f fi9

provided that a
lower value of gain at low frequencies can be tolerated. f is known as the
beta-cutofffrequency of the transistor.
At frequencies considerably in excess of/^, the imaginary term in Eq. (10-
15) becomes much greater than unity. The drop in gain for one octave in-
crease in frequency is then 6 db, and the curve shown in Fig. 10-4 becomes a
(31 db)
FIG. 10-4. High frequency response of a typical hybrid-^ circuit

showing fe and fT j8 is assumed to be 50.
.
straight line. The frequency where \A t \

is unity is named fT and can be ,
obtained from Eq. (10-13) by noting that co T rb > e (Cb e +

> Cb >
e) » 1. Thus,
= 2tt/t = £o _ Po
(10-16)
rb i\Cb'e
>
+ Cb'c) r b'eCb' e
From Eqs. (10-14) and (10-16),

Pof,=fr 00-17)
for the hybrid-7r circuit, and so fT is the gain-bandwidth product for the
transistor in the CE connection. fT isalso a useful parameter in pulse opera-
tion of the transistor and it will be discussed further in Sees. 10-6 and 10-10.
The calculations shown above, starting with Eq. (10-13), apply only
when the output terminals are short-circuited to alternating currents. If a
high collector load is inserted so that the capacitance C [Eq. (10-7)], includes
an appreciable contribution due to the term gm R L Cb c then the angular >
,
frequency corresponding to a loss in gain of 3 db will occur at
" 3db 1
rb ,
e [Cb e ,
+ (l +gm R L)C .
b c]
SEC. 10-3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE TRANSISTOR: HYBRID-tt MODEL 235
from Eq. (10-12). Assuming g m R L » 1
1 1
'3 db
r b'eCb' e + fb'eSm^-LCb'c r b'e^b'e + Po^b'c^L
when the values for r h e and g m are substituted from Sec. 10-1. The 3 db
>
frequency is, therefore, shown to include a time constant term, p Cb c R L in the >
,
denominator. Cb >
c is the measured output capacitance in the CB configura-
tion and is commonly designatedCob in manufacturers' data sheets. The out-
put capacitance in the CE connection (sometimes designated Coe is p Cob and )
the resultant output time constant Coe R L = Q C R L appears in the denomi- fi b c

>
nator of the equation. To obtain maximum bandwidth from a transistor

amplifier, RL is chosen so that fi Q C RL «
b c
-
rb .
e C -
b e. Note that reducing RL
slightly increases the current gain of a stage but materially reduces the
voltage gain. In a multistage amplifier, it is the current gain which is of
importance and RL is usually small enough that the inequality is satisfied.
10-4 Frequency Response of the Iterative

Common Emitter Stage: Hybrid-n Model
Figure 10-5 shows the equivalent circuit of a transistor stage where the
resistance Rs shunts the input current generator. In a multistage transistor
FIG. 10-5. Equivalent circuit of typical CE iterative stage.
amplifier, Rs will be composed of the load resistance of the previous stage in

parallel with resistances in the interstage coupling network. The presence of
Rs has an effect on the frequency response of the stage as shown below.
If Ib is the alternating current entering the base terminal of the transistor,
h = Rs_
(10-18)
Z+ r bb . + Rs
where Z is given in Eq. (10-9). The voltage across Z is V >
b e, hence,
Vb'e _ yh _ ZR S
(10-19)
I t
I t
Z+ + Rs
r bb ,
Substituting for Z from Eq. (10-9), and putting R = R s + t

rb ,
e + rbb >, we
have
VjSe
Ii
= Rsfo'eKl
r b e j(\
, +jur b e C) + ,
+ M b e
.
r bb
C)]
, + Rs
_ Rsfb'e
(10-20)
Rt + J«>r C(R s + b e
.
r bb )
The current gain of the stage is
a gm j_ b'e gm^-S'b'e / 1 rv_o \

A '_o_ i
'-I - l
I, ~ R + j<orb C(Rs +
t
,
e rbb .)
UU_/1J
The current gain of the stage is 3 db down from its low frequency value at an
angular frequency, co 3 db , given by
Rs "F ?bb' r b'e^ Rs + r bb'
The low frequency gain from Eq. (10-21) is
A i0 = ^£^ (10-23)
Rt
The product of the low frequency gain and the angular frequency is given by
gmRsfb'e R t
1
(10-24)
Rs + r w C
If Rs » r bb /, î co 3db = gm /C and this value can be used as a. figure of merit
for the transistor.
A consideration of Eqs. (10-22) and (10-23) shows that the transistor can
be used at frequencies in excess of the beta-cutoff frequency provided that a
lower current gain can be tolerated. For the transistor of Fig. 10-1,
t = 2^~C = 277(1250)1900 = 67 ° kc
(
f* = / sec
IfR s = oo, the low frequency gain, A i0 = gm rb e = >

49 and ct»
3db = o) .
When R s = 1000 ohms,
0.039(1000)1250
21
2320
and
3dh w 2320
/3db = -$£ = • 670,000 = 1.44 Mc/sec
Joto
If i? s is further reduced, the stage gain decreases and the 3 db frequency

increases. Note that the stage gain includes the shunting effect of R s .
10-5 Frequency Response of the Transistor

inthe Common Base Connection: Simple Model
The calculations which have been made on the CE hybrid-77 representation

of the transistor suggest a simple means of comparing the frequency response
SEC. 10-5 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE TRANSISTOR: SIMPLE MODEL 237
-A/W oC
B'i>
/,
^r-iiCu Vcb-
ao-"^c6' J"(l-»o).
(b)
FIG. 10-6. (a) Transmission line analog of base region, (b) A

simplified representation of the transmission line analog.
of the CB and CE connections. In Fig. 10-6(a) we repeat the transmission

line analog of the base region of the intrinsic transistor previously given in
Fig. 9-11, and Fig. 10-6(b) shows the simplified representation given before
in Fig. 9- 13(b). This circuit can be used to find the frequency response of the
transistor in the CB connection.
Figure 10-7 has been drawn for the intrinsic transistor operated under
short-circuit output conditions. When the emitter-to-base junction capacit-
ance is included, the input capacitance, Cb >
e , is given by
(-'b'e — ^D i (-j (10-25)
where Cje is the junction capacitance from emitter to base. The combination
of the two resistances, rj(\ - a ) and rja in parallel is r€i and so
,
= 1 ^
1 + jwC b e re
> a
QC
Short
l-a (
^C T circuit
OB'
FIG. 10-7. The intrinsic transistor operating in the common
emitter connection with short circuited output. Emitter-to-base
junction capacitance shown with dashed line.
and the current gain in the short-circuited common emitter connection is
a°
A = i
a(co) = If = (10-26)
I t
1 +jcoCb >
e re
The alpha-cutoff frequency, fa , is defined as the frequency where A t

has
dropped to 1/V2 of its low frequency value. Thus,
oj a = 2nfa = -±- (10-27)
from Eq. (10-26) and that equation can be written as
= (10"28)
«("> 1
1 4. W
+J{a>/a)
I \
a)
By comparison with the value for the beta-cutoff angular frequency [Eq.
(10-14)], and noting that rb <
e = rj(l — a ),
= 1 - «, 3 ~ "cc
top (10-29)
the hybrid-77 circuit, therefore,
Ja £ l
f ~ Pofp (10-30)
10-6 Comparison of the Hybrid-n

Circuit with the Actual Transistor
The hybrid-77 circuit is a simplified representation of the transistor which

serves as a starting point for electronic circuit design. When the transistor is
operated at high frequencies or under pulse conditions, however, the hybrid-n-

circuit provides only an approximate model for the analysis of transistor
behavior. Fortunately, this model can be improved with some simple
modifications, and it is then adequate for most types of circuit design.
When measurements of transistor parameters are attempted, the experi-
menter becomes aware of a considerable spread in the quantities that he is
trying to measure. Variations in materials and manufacturing techniques are
responsible for most of these deviations, and the circuit designer must
account for the resulting spread in the characteristics. Thus, electronic
circuitcomponents are seldom specified to an accuracy of better than
10 per cent, and the designer endeavors to produce a circuit which will
operate even when all the parameters and conditions take their most un-
favorable values. This is known as the "worst-case" design philosophy and

is important in the design of large-scale electronic equipment where the
failure of any circuit must be avoided. It is for this reason that circuit
electronics is not an exact subject and, consequently, a model of a solid state
SEC. 10-6 COMPARISON OF THE HYBRID-tt CIRCUIT 239
or vacuum device is usually adequate if it represents the device to within an

accuracy of about 10 per cent within the frequency band considered.
The alpha-cutoff angular frequency has been given by Eq. (10-27) as
We can substitute for CD and r€ from Eqs. (5-15) and (4-45), to give
_ 2kTD p eIE 2D P
Wa (10-31)
eW 2 IF kT W 2
The hybrid-77- circuit was derived by simplifying the transmission line equi-
valent to the transistor. When the a-c continuity equation (9-21) is solved,
the exact relationship for the diffusion transistor is
». = 2.43
^§ (10-32)
Therefore, the hybrids circuit shows an error of about 20 per cent in its
prediction of the alpha-cutoff frequency from the physical constants of the

intrinsic (diffusion) transistor.
/
/
/
/
100 /
/
<U
0> /
/
g> 80
Diffusion transistor-^ /
G
<o 60 -
/ S
a
CS
£ 40 S^r
>''/'
^-Simple model
of Fig. 10-7
20
L
.11 1 1 . 1
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
fife
FIG. 10-8. Phase difference between output and input current in

the common base connection as a function of f/fa for a diffusion
transistor and for the model of Fig. 10-7.
The measured phase between and the input current for a

the output
diffusion transistor also varies considerablyfrom that predicted by the simple
model. This is shown in Fig. 10-8 where the diffusion transistor and the
hybrid-77- model are compared. The difference in phase angle between the
two curves is approximately proportional to fjfa Empirically, we may account .

for this phase difference by an additional term in the short-circuit current

gain [Eq. (10-28)], to give
exp (-jmo)/a) a)
<") = s
(10-33)
1 +j(oJ /w a )
where m has a value of about 0.2 for a diffusion transistor. The additional
term has a magnitude of unity so the magnitude of the current generator is
Bo-
rbf
AAA
B'
ch OC
gm=^r-exp(-jmw/Wa )
l-a exp (-jmu/ua )
-T* Cb'e-
Eo- -OE
(a)
OC
OE
(b)
FIG. 10-9. (a) Phase-modified hybrid-Tr circuit based on Eq. (10-33).

(b) Hybrid-7r circuit based on a> T .
unaltered, and only its phase is changed. For a drift or diffused-base transis-
tor, the value of m is between 0.2 and 1 according to the value of the aiding
field.
A phase-modified hybrid-77- circuit based on Eq. (10-33) is shown in

Fig. 10-9(a). In this circuit, the extra phase difference is considered to be
contained in the a term so that wherever a appears, a exp (—jma)/a> a ) must
be substituted. Thus, the current generator has the value of
gm = —Qxpi-jmaj/oja) (10-34)
and rb >
e is given by
rv (10-35)
1 - a QXp(-jmco/aj a)
From Eq. (10-26), the alpha-cutoff frequency can be calculated.
a exp ( —jmoj/aj a )
A; = (10-36)
1 +jwC b e re
>
SEC. 10-6 COMPARISON OF THE HYBRID-tt CIRCUIT 241
Since the magnitude of the numerator is unchanged,
^b'e r e
as before and Cb >

e can be chosen to conform with the measured value of wa .
The current gain of this modified hybrid-77 circuit corresponds to the empirical
formula, Eq. (10-33). In this way, we can retain the hybrid-77 circuit and also
account for the difference in phase between the output and input current.
The value of m is chosen to be appropriate to the transistor in use. In the
analysis that follows we will consider only the diffusion transistor and put
m = 0.2.
For the common emitter stage, the value of fT is important. This is the
frequency at which the magnitude of the CE current gain drops to unity.
From Eqs. (10-11), (10-35), and (10-27),
a exp ( —jm<x>lco a )
1 — a exp ( —jma>loj a )
1 +j )«[! - a Qxp(-jmoilw a )]
a exp ( —jmco/co a )
(10-37)
1 - a QXp(-jmo)/aj a) + j(oj/co a)
when \Ai\ = 1, and so
ao exp (Z&2*) +y(2S) = L exp (b&2&) (10-38)
From the hybrid-77 circuit we know that a> T ~ a> a and, since m = 0.2, the
exponentials can be replaced by the first two terms of a series expansion.
Thus,
or
1 -«o+y(l +0.2a )(^) ,-y0.2a N

When a 1, 1 - a ->0, 1 + 0.2a -> .2, and |a - j 0.2a (co r /a> a)| a 1.
Hence,
(10-39)
1.2
From Eqs. (10-39) and (10-32), therefore,
OJ T zz
~ (10-40)
1.2 W 2
The more simple circuit of Fig. 10-9(b) is often used for high frequency
and pulse analysis. The elements g m and r b e do not include a phase term and .
the capacitance Cb >

e has a value which is determined from the measured value
of co r , according to the equation
1
(~b'e — We i
(~D ~ ^-D ~~ (10-41)
It is, therefore, a simple hybrid--^ circuit based on the measured parameter

a> T . In practice, wT will not be measured directly but will be inferred from
measurements of gain in the CE connection at high frequencies. fT is then K
times the frequency where the gain is K, and where K is less than 10. This
assumes a 6 db per octave loss in gain with frequency.
In the previous equations, we have neglected Cje in comparison with
CD When the hybrid-77 circuit is used under small-signal, class A, amplifying
.
conditions with a large emitter current, this is a justifiable assumption. If the

emitter current is low, however, the emitter-to-base voltage is small and Cje
can no longer be ignored. In this case, as the emitter current is decreased, co T
will fall.
10-7 Saturation
Saturation of a transistor can be explained by reference to Fig. 10-10. In

part (a) of the figure, a pnp transistor is operating with a collector supply,
A/W
= Vr
\>>
(a)
(b) VCE (reverse bias)
FIG. 10-10. (a) Operating circuit for a pnp transistor, (b) Load
line showing saturation conditions.
SEC. 10-7 SATURATION 243
Vcc and
, a collector load resistance, R L The
. output characteristics in part (b)
show the load line corresponding to the circuit. All currents and voltages
shown are d-c values.
When the transistor is operating normally, VCE is negative and the col-
lector-to-base junction is reverse biased. As the base current is increased, the
operating point moves up the load line from, say, Q to S. Saturation is said
to occur at S where an increase in IB causes no significant change in Ic . Now,
using the sign convention of Chap. 8,
h= Ic + h (10-42)
and
Vce = Vcc + IC R L (10^3)
Distance in base Distance in base
(a) (b)
FIG. 10-11. (a) Variation of hole density with distance in the base
region of a pnp diffusion transistor operating just below satura-
tion, (b) The same transistor in saturation.
The value of VCE at saturation is called Vcs (see Fig. 10-10), and it is
usually a fraction of a volt. The critical value of Ic when saturation occurs is
ICSi where
L* Vce ~ Vcc „ - Vcc (10-44)
R,
from Eq. (10-43). Neglecting ICE0 we can , write,
Ic = h FE IB (10-45)
which applies only when IB is at, or below, the saturation value, IBS . Thus the
base current at which the transistor goes into saturation is
-/r.9
— h -Vc<
(10-46)
hprR,
Saturation is usually avoided in amplifiers because it produces distortion. In

pulse operation of the transistor, may sometimes be desirable to operate in
it
saturation when the device is switched "on" since the power which has to be
supplied to keep the transistor in this condition is low.
Conditions in the base region under normal transistor operation (just

below saturation) are shown in Fig. 10-1 1(a). The hole density decreases
across the base region and falls to approximately zero at the collector-base
junction at the right of the diagram. In Fig. 10-1 1(b), the transistor is shown
in saturation. The saturation collector current, Ics , is proportional to the
slope of the hole density curve at the collector-base junction as before, since
current is still transferred across the base region. However, this current is
limited to /cs under saturation conditions, whereas IB and IE are above the
values necessary for saturation to occur. Thus more charge is entering the
base region via the emitter lead than is being removed via the collector lead.
The charge stored in the device rises to the value shown in Fig. 10-1 1(b) until
the recombination current has increased sufficiently to give the necessary
balance between Ics IE and IB , , .
The horizontal dashed line drawn on Fig. 10-1 1(b) divides the stored
charge into two parts. Q A is approximately the same as in part (a) of the
figure if the effects of increased recombination are neglected. Q BX is the extra
stored charge in the base region of the transistor under saturation conditions.
When the saturated transistor is switched off, this charge must be removed
from the base region before the collector current drops below its saturated
value. The time for this to take place is known as the storage time and is
discussed in Sees. 10-9 and 10-11.
10-8 Switching the Transistor on:

Use of the Hybrid-rc Model
As a starting point in the discussion of the pulse operation of the transistor,

consider the circuit of Fig. 10-1 2(a). Assume that the emitter-to-base junc-
tion is initially biased with a reverse voltage so that no emitter current is
flowing in the transistor. At t = 0, the base current assumes a value Tbl , as

shown in Fig. 10-1 2(b). Saturation does not occur in this circuit because
RL = 0. Part (c) of the figure gives the hybrid-77- circuit which was derived for
small-signal operation of the transistor at high frequences. This model will
be used to predict how Ic varies with time. Since we are using a small-signal
model under large-signal transient conditions, we cannot expect a high
accuracy. In this section, therefore, we shall be content to derive the form of
the variations in output current, and so prepare for the charge control
method of analysis given in Sec. 10-10.
In order to switch the transistor on, the direct voltage across the base-
emitter junction must reach a sufficiently high forward value to cause current
to flow. This is about 0.2 volts for a germanium transistor and 0.6 volts for
a silicon device. The capacitance in the input circuit, in the general case, has
previously been given as
C = CVe + (1 + gmRj)Ch c . (10-7)

SEC. 10-8 SWITCHING THE TRANSISTOR ON 245
+
t/.
t =
Time
(a) (b)
r bb-
b
Bo W\ .
o OC
Vv .
^m V b \'<
Eo- 6E
(c)
FIG. 10-12. (a) pnp transistor circuit, (b) Input current wave-
form, (c) The simplified hybrid-7T circuit.
where
^b'e — *~sje i
^D (10-47)
During the time required to achieve forward conduction, however,
gm = CD =
because IP — 0. Therefore
C — ^b'e + Cb'c — (->je + ^jc ~ ^H (10-48)
Cje will usually dominate Eq. (10-48) because the voltage across the emitter-
to-base junction is very low (see Sec. 3-4). The resistance, r b e becomes in- >
,
finite because IE = 0, and so the input circuit reduces to r bb in series with Cje >
as in Fig. 10-13.
The capacitance, C determined by the emitter-to-base voltage and if
je , is
VR is the reverse voltage on the emitter-to-base junction corresponding to a

capacitance Cjel , the charge initially on this capacitance is VR Cjel When the .
transistor is operating with a forward volt-

age Vb >
e and its input capacitance is Cje2 ,
Bo
the charge on the capacitance (of the
opposite sign) is Vh e Cm
> . Since the flow
of current in the base lead, Ibl , is res-
ponsible for this change in charge, the

delay time before collector current flows Eo- OE
can be found from
FIG. 10-13. Input circuit of the tran-
V-V b 9
.
Cm + VR Cjel (10-49) sistor before initiation.
For a small time delay, both VR and the emitter-to-base junction capacitance
should be small. The variation in C je with voltage will be specified by the
manufacturers for a particular transistor. When Ibl is supplied from a
voltage source with a finite source resistance, Rs , the product of Cje and
Rs + f"bb' is the time constant of the circuit which represents the transistor
while it is still in the "ofT" state.
After emitter current starts to flow in the transistor, the simplified hybrid-^
circuit of Fig. 10- 12(c) can be applied. When the base current, Ibx> is constant,
h-FE h j
FIG. 10-14. Rise o collective current with time (h FE and co T
assumed constant).
vh .
e rises to a final value of Ibl r b -
e with a time constant of rh >
e C. From
Eqs. (10-7) and (10-47) we see that C is a function of emitter current and
hence of time. The collector current at any time is given by
h = gmVb'e = gmhjb'e U ~ exp ( - —^Jj

*[•—(-£)] (10-50)
from Eqs. (10-1 1) and (10-16). Since we are dealing with large-signal opera-
j8, which was used in the previous sections, has been replaced by h FE
tion, In .
Eq. (10-50), the time constant, h FE la> T varies as the current , rises, since both
C and h FE are functions of IE . This variation is considered in more detail in
Sec. 10-10 and, in the remainder of this section, h FE and co T will be considered
constant so that we may derive the form of the rise in output current.
Figure 10-14 shows the collector current as a function of time, starting
from the instant that the collector current starts to flow and ignoring the time
delay before initiation. From the figure, t x and t 2 are the times when the
:
SEC. 10- SWITCHING THE TRANSISTOR ON 247
collector current reaches 10 per cent and 90 per cent of its final value. The
rise time, tr , is defined to be
(10-51)
From Eq. (10-50), we see that the final collector current is h FE Ibl and so
,
0.
--OS?) (10-52)
and
/ - f2 cu r \
0.9 - 1 - exp (10-53)
\ h FE )
giving
h ^log e 0.9 = 0.1^ E (10-54)

a> T to T
and
t2 = — log. 0.1 = 2.3^ (10-55)
Hence,
U to. - U 2.2 (10-56)

cd t
It is seen from Eq. (10-56) that, for a given large-signal gain, a high value of
fT produces a low rise time.
There are three major omissions in this very simple analysis. It does not
account for variations in a> T and h FE with voltage and current changes; it
does not consider the effects of a load in the collector circuit; it is not directly
applicable when the transistor goes into saturation. The waveforms which
are obtained experimentally when switching the transistor on and off when
saturation is reached are given in the next section: a more complete analysis
which takes the omissions into account is presented in Sec. 10-10.
10-9 Definition of Switching Times

for the Transistor: Saturation Case
A common method of pulsing the transistor is to control the base current

in a CE circuit so that the transistor can be turned on or off. Figure 10-1 5(a)
shows a schematic circuit that will produce a suitable base current waveform.
When the switch is in position A, a constant current, Ibl , flows in the base
lead, and when the switch is in position B the base-emitter junction is reverse
biased. If lbl is high enough to saturate the transistor, the collector current
waveform of Fig. 10-14(b) is obtained. There are four time intervals indicated
on the figure
*
AA/V
QB
^rVr
Vr
(a)
J
S3
en C
Time —
(b)
FIG. 10-15. (a) Switching circuit for a pnp transistor, (b) Input
and output current waveforms when saturation achieved.
td , the delay time, is the time which elapses between the onset of base current
and the rise of the collector current to 10 per cent of its final value.
tr , the rise time, is the time it takes the collector current to increase from
10 per cent to 90 per cent of its final value.
ts , the storage time, is the time required to remove excess charge (Q B x m
Fig. 10-1 1) from the base region before the transistor comes out of satura-
tion. It is defined as the time which it takes the collector current to fall to
90 per cent of its saturation value after the base current is switched off.
//, the fall time, is the time for the collector current to drop from 90 per cent
to 10 per cent of its saturation value.
If the transistor is not allowed to saturate, the storage time is very small.
Since the total time required to switch the transistor off is / s + tf , it would
appear that the transistor should never be operated in saturation for fast
switching off. However, many applications arise where it is desirable to have

SEC. 10-9 DEFINITION OF SWITCHING TIMES FOR THE TRANSISTOR 249
the "on" condition of the transistor in saturation since this usually results in
more simple circuitry and less power loss in the device. Overdriving the base
circuit, which is necessary for saturation, also has the advantage that it re-
duces the rise and fall times as shown in Sec. 10-1 1.
10-10 Charge Control of the Transistor
In this section, the elementary concept of base charge control of the transistor
is developed. This method of analysis leads to a greater understanding of the
operation of the transistor and is of great value in predicting switching times.
FIG. 10-16. Minority and majority charge in a diffusion pnp

transistor under three conditions of operation.
Figure 10-16 gives the minority and majority charge distributions in the
base region of a. pnp diffusion transistor under three conditions of operation.
When both the collector-base and emitter-base junctions are reverse biased,
part (a) of the figure shows that the minority carrier density is small over the
whole width of the base and that it falls off close to the two reverse-biased
junctions.Under small-current conditions the majority charge density is
assumed to be unchanged across the base region as shown in Fig. 10-16(a).
Assuming that no acceptor atoms are present in the ft-type base material, we
can write
"nO = PnO + Nd x Nd (10-57)
since n n0 » p n0 in practice. The majority carrier density in the base is
constant at approximately the value Nd .
Figure 10- 16(b) shows the base charge when the transistor is operating
with a high emitter current. This current is injected into the base from
the emitter region and substantially increases the minority charge density
close to the emitter-base junction. The current is carried across the base
entirely by diffusion, and so the minority charge drops linearly with distance,
falling to a value of almost zero at the collector-base junction. Because of
charge neutrality, the majority charge density has the profile shown in Fig. 10-
16(b), that is, it is everywhere increased above its thermal equilibrium value
by an amount equal to the increase in the minority charge density. (See
Sec. 9-7 for a brief discussion of charge neutrality under these conditions.)
We can write,
nn = Pn + Nd (10-58)
and so from Eq. (10-57),
"n - n n0 = Pn - PnO (10-59)
The final diagram, Fig. 10- 16(c), shows the base charge density when the
transistor is in saturation. In this case, the minority charge at the collector
end of the base region is not zero, and there is a large amount of minority
charge stored in the base region. Equation (10-59) is still obeyed, giving the
charge profile shown.
When the transistor is switched from the "off" to the "on" state, the
charge contained in the base region must be changed from the value shown
CL
He-
-WW
Rl
Ooff
h:'
FIG. 10-17. Circuit for switching the transistor on.
in Fig. 10-1 6(a) to the value shown in part (b). The transient operation of the
transistor is studied here by analyzing the way in which the charge in the base
region changes from one state to another. In our analysis, we shall neglect
the effects of transit time and concentrate on the times required to build up
or remove the base charges Q A and Q BX .
When &pnp transistor in the CE connection is switched "on," the current

in the base lead results in a flow of electrons into the (n-type) base region. The
majority charge density is increased by the current flow in the base lead since
no appreciable electron flow occurs at the two junctions. To obtain the
collector current, Ic , appropriate to the conditions shown in Fig. 10-1 6(b),
sufficient majority charge (electrons) must have entered the base region (via
the base lead) to build up the required charge profile. This is the dominant
SEC. 10-10 CHARGE CONTROL OF THE TRANSISTOR 251
factor in determining the rise time. As

the majority charge in the base region
increases, the minority charge rises so
that charge neutrality is still obeyed.
The increase in minority charge density
results in the flow of emitter current
(i.e., holes across the emitter-to-base
junction) and so there is little delay
between the rise in majority charge
density and the corresponding rise in
the minority charge density. The col-
lector current rises in unison with the
increase in minority and majority charge
densities until the final collector current Distance in base —
is reached. FIG. 10-18. Active charge in the base
The rise time for the collector cur- region for a diffusion transistor.
rent can be determined by computing
the amount of charge which is supplied to increase the active majority charge,
QA . All of the charge supplied by the base current is not used for this purpose,
however, because the junction capacitances and the recombination mechan-
ism require additional charge. For the circuit of Fig. 10-17, the base current
supplies five components of charge during the rise time of the collector
current. These five components are listed and discussed below.
1. Active charge in the base region, QA .
2. Charge on the emitter-base junction capacitance necessary to change

the junction potential to its operating value.
3. Charge on collector-base capacitance to correspond with the change

in Vcb .
4. Charge to replenish that part of the active charge lost by recombina-

tion.
5. Charge required to change the voltage across the stray capacitance of

the load (see Fig. 10-17).
1. The active charge in the base of a diffusion transistor is shown in

Fig. 10-18. Neglecting recombination, the emitter current for a base of area
A is
Pe
h = eAD p w (10-60)
where p e is the hole density at the emitter end of the base region. The active
charge from Fig. 10-18 is
ep e AW W 2
_
Qa = (10-61)
2D,
and so the amount of active charge in the base region is proportional to the
flow of collector current. Assuming W /2D2
P is constant (i.e., neglecting base
modulation),
dQA= S~ dic (io_62)

P
From Eqs. (4-45) and (5-15), we can write
CD r =
W 2
(10-63)
e
jo-
Hence,
dQ A = CD r e
dlc (10-64)
This value will be used in the next paragraph.
2. As soon as the collector current starts to flow, the base-to-emitter

voltage has a small magnitude which will increase throughout the rise time.
During this period, charge is being supplied to the base-to-emitter capacitance,
C je . Neglecting recombination in the base, an increase in emitter current,
dle causes a change in emitter-to-base voltage of
, re dle and so the increased
,
charge on the capacitance is
dQje — Cje r e dle & Cje r € dlc (10-65)
The sum of the charges in paragraphs 1 and 2 gives
dQ A + dQ je = (CD + Cje )r e dlc
= — dl c (10-66)
from Eq. (10-41).
3. A change in collector current of dlc causes a voltage change of R L dlc

at the collector terminal. The change in charge on the collector-to-base
junction capacitance, Cjc , is therefore
dQJC = Cjc R L dlc (10-67)

assuming Vbe « Vce .
4. When a transistor is operated with a constant current /c , the base

current is given by IJh FE where h FE is the large-signal value of the current
gain. Thus a base current of Ic /h FE must be supplied to the base lead to re-
plenish the active charge lost by recombination. In a time dt, the charge
supplied to the base for this purpose is dQ R , where
dQ R = ^-dt (10-68)
n FE
5. If the load resistance is shunted by the stray capacitance CL as shown in

Fig. 10-17, a change in collector voltage of RL I C requires a change in charge
SEC. 10-10 CHARGE CONTROL OF THE TRANSISTOR 253
on the capacitance of CL R L dl c. This charge is supplied from the collector-to-

emitter circuit. Therefore, the charge which has to be supplied to the base
region to change the charge on the load capacitance by CL R L dl c is
dQ = c ^dI c (10-69)
All five components of charge are supplied by the base current, therefore
Ib dt = dQ A + dQ je + dQ ic + dQ R + dQ c (10-70)
Substituting from Eq. (10-66) through (10-69),
h =
t + (i +c A+£&)§ >
(10 - 71)
In this equation, h FE , co T , and Cjc are functions of Ic . If we assume that at

t — 0, Ib rises instantaneously to a value Ibl then over a small range of values
,
Ic such that h FE , to T , and Cjc can be considered constant, Eq. (10-71) can be
solved to give
/.-A„/tx [l-«p(jg)] (10-72)
where
1 ^ . CL R L
+ C]C R L + ^P-
. .
(10-73)
CO
Equation (10-72) can be compared with the solution for the simple hybrid-?!
circuit given in Eq. (10-50).
The time constant, r, will vary as the collector current rises. In general,
t is not a strong function of Ic and, as a first order approximation, we may
write,
r RE = f (10-74)
where f is the mean value of r. Experimentally, r RE can be measured for a

particular transistor by finding the rise time under given conditions. (See
Eig. 10-20 in Sec. 10-11 for a curve of r RE measured under saturation con-
ditions and for comments on the variation in t re with Ics .) From Eqs. (10-50)
and (10-56),
tr = 2.2h FE r RE (10-75)
where h FE is the mean value of the current gain over the current range
concerned.
It is possible to calculate the variation in the individual terms of rRE as
Ic or is varied. This can be done if the curves of oj t h FE and Cjc are
Vcc , ,
known. The method can then be used to provide a specification of the transis-
tor under pulsed conditions of operation.
The fall time of the transistor is almost the same as the rise time since the
transistor is operating over the same part of its characteristics. The delay
l
time is composed of two time periods. The first of these is the time elapsing
between the switching on of the base current and when the base-to-emitter
voltage just reaches the forward direction. This time was calculated in
Sec. 10-8. To must be added the time taken for the collector current to
this
rise to 10 per cent of its final value, which can be calculated from a knowledge
Of r RE .
Fromthis brief account, it can be seen that this is far from being an exact
method of analysis. Transistors have so many interrelated parameters, how-
ever, that approximations must always be made and errors of up to 20 per
cent are permissible. Further details of the transient response characteriza-
tion of transistors can be found in the two papers by Ekiss and Simmons
cited in the bibliography at the end of the chapter.
10-1 1 Switching Times for a Saturated Transistor
The transistor shown in Fig. 10-17 will saturate if
h FE Ibl > Ics * -^ (10-76)
In this case, the rise time of the collector current is the time elapsing between
the attainment of 10 per cent and 90 per cent of the saturation current Ics .
From Eq. (10-72), and substituting r RE for the average time constant, we have
0.1/« = W*. - exp (10-77)

['
(j^~j\
and
0.9/cs = knit, [l - exp (10-78)

(j^)]
Thus,
tr = U
For the case when the transistor is driven well into saturation so that h FE IH >
5 cs , Eq- (10-79) can be written in an approximate form by using a series
expansion and retaining only the significant terms. Then,
rr = 0.8rB£
^ (10-80)
Figure 10-19 shows the rise in collector current when the transistor is well
in saturation. The collector current follows the dotted line of the initial slope
until Ics is reached. Increasing the base drive (Ibl ) for a given saturation
current decreases the rise time.
The variation of r RE with Ics is shown in Fig. 10-20 for a medium fre-
quency, alloy-junction transistor. The curve was obtained by measuring the
SEC. 10-11 SWITCHING TIMES FOR A SATURATED TRANSISTOR 255
Inital slope = h EE t re
Time — *
FIG. 10-19. Rise of collector current when transistor is well in

saturation. Rise time, t r , is time between 10 per cent and 90 per
cent Ics .
rise time for the saturated case as a function of Ics - The ratio IC s/hi was
constant throughout the measurements. At small values of Ics r RE is high ,
because the term Cjc R L dominates Eq. (10-73). As Ics increases, r RE dimi-
nishes because wT increases and the other terms decrease. When Ics is large,
r RE slightly increases again. At the vicinity of the broad minimum ofr REi the
term Cjc R L is typically about 10 per cent of the total value. R L CJh FE is
assumed to be negligible in this case.
140
100 -
8 volts
80
60
20 -
20
*a
FIG. 10-20. Variation in r RE with Ics for a low frequency tran-

sistor.[From J. A. Ekiss and CD. Simmons, "Junction Transistor
Transient Response Characterization," Solid State Journal, 2, 1
(January 1961), p. 20.]
When a saturated transistor is switched off, the excess charge Q BX (shown
in Fig. 10-11) must be removed from the base region before the collector
current will fall again. The base current which will just saturate the transistor
is
Ibs = jf < 10- 81 >

n FE
Therefore, the transistor may be brought out of saturation (though it will not
be switched "off") if the base current is dropped below IBS . If the base current
isdropped to zero, the transistor will eventually return to the "off" state.
However, there is a third possibility. This is that the base current may be
reversed for a short time to remove the charge in the base region more quickly
and so reduce the storage time. All three possibilities are accounted for in the
following equations.
Let Q be the total charge in the base region at any time, r, where Q includes
QA and Q BX of Fig. 10-1 1. When a current Ib is flowing in the base lead, we
may write
where t s is the lifetime of the charge carriers in the base region, and we have
neglected the charges on the capacitances. When a current Ibl is flowing and
the transistor is saturated, dQjdt — 0, and
V. = Q = Qa + Qbx (10-83)
We shall now examine the conditions during the storage time. Let base
current Ib2 flow in the same direction as Ibl . Equation (10-82) can now be
written as
$ + ?-'- <«"«
and a solution is of the form
Q = h 2 r + Cexp(^)
s (10-85)
where C is a constant to be determined. Assume that Ib2 starts to flow at

t =and that up to this time current Ibl was flowing. Then by comparing
Eqs. (10-83) and (10-85), at t = 0,
h{rs = Q = h 2T + C s
giving,
C= (Ibl - Ib2 )r s (10-86)
Equation (10-85) now becomes
Q = V. + (Ibl - Ib2 )rs exp (10-87)

(^)
SEC. 10-11 SWITCHING TIMES FOR A SATURATED TRANSISTOR 257
The comes out of saturation when

transistor just Q BX = and Q = QA .
From Eqs. (10-81) and (10-82),

Qa = IbS ts (10-88)
Hence,
Ws = h2r + s (Ibl - hz )r s exp (-— s
j
or
= r s log, (10-89)
ts
Vbs - I J
where t s is the storage time.
Equation (10-89) is only approximately obeyed in practice. The lifetime,
rs , is the value applying to the saturated condition of operation of the
transistor. It is usually measured by finding the storage time, /s , when
^-Ji (negative value)
Time
FIG. 10-21. Storage time when Ib2 = and when Ib2 is negative.
Ibl Ib2 , , and IBS are known. r s is usually below a microsecond for high
frequency transistors and varies somewhat with IBS .
The effect of changing the switching-off base current, Ib2 , is illustrated in

Fig. 10-21. The full line shows the condition Ib2 — 0, and the dotted line
shows that the storage time is reduced when Ib2 has a negative value as can be
seen from Eq. (10-89).
The circuit of Fig. 10-22 illustrates the use of a "speed-up" capacitor C.
When an input step voltage is applied, the initial base current is high, and the
rise time of the circuit is reduced. This type of circuit can also be used to
=V C
Time
FIG. 10-22. Use of "speed-up" capacitor to reduce rise time.
reduce storage time by effectively removing the stored base charge when the
transistor is switched off.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hybrid-7T circuit
Cote, Alfred J., Jr. and J. Barry Oakes, Linear Vacuum-tube and Transistor
Joyce, Maurice V., and Kenneth K. Clarke, Transistor Circuit Analysis,

Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1961
Pettit, Joseph Mayo, and Malcolm Myers McWhorter, Electronic Amplifier

Circuits, Theory and Design, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., 1961
Pulse operation
DeWitt, David and Arthur L. Rossoff, Transistor Electronics, New York:

Ekiss, J. A., and C. D. Simmons, "Junction Transistor Transient Response

Characterization," Parts I and II, Solid State Journal, 2, 1 (January 1961),
17-24; 2, 2 (February 1961), 24-29
PROBLEMS
1 0-1 Calculate the Miller capacitance C for the transistor of Prob. 9-4.
What is the gain-bandwidth product for this transistor?
10-2 Find the collector load resistance for the hybrid-7r circuit of Fig. 10-1 at
which oj 3db = oj /2.
ans. 3900 ohms
10-3 Fig. 10-1 shows the value of the components of the hybrid-77- circuit
when IE = 1ma and VCE = — 5 volts. What are the component values
when IE = 10 ma and VCE = - 10 volts? What effect does this have
on a>„?
PROBLEMS 259
10-4 A manufacturer makes a diffused base transistor which can be ade-

quately represented by a modified hybrid-77 circuit where
1 — a exp (— j0.5oj/co a )
gm = -
«o
exp
(=5*0
Assuming that the frequency of operation is considerably smaller than
co Ti show that there is a frequency range where the gain of the transistor
drops at the rate of 6 db per octave and compute the phase shift through
the device as a function of frequency.
10-5 How would you expect the value of w T to vary with VCE for an alloy
junction transistor? Give a physical reason for all the factors which
are discussed and briefly define all new terms that are introduced.
10-6 A CE transistor stage can be represented by a hybrid-77 circuit. Assign

typical values to all the elements and then consider how this equivalent
circuit can be used to determine gain and frequency response of a

multistage amplifier. Calculate these two quantities using typical values
of resistances and capacitances, (a-c circuit only required.)
10-7 Explain how the methods of charge control can be applied to the
understanding and specification of transistors for pulse operation.
10-8 Using the information given in Sees. 10-10 and 10-11, calculate the
rise time for a transistor having the r RE characteristic shown in Fig.
10-20, under the following conditions: (a) Ibl = 10 ma, Vcc = — 8 volts,
RL = 320 ohms, (b) Ibl = 10 ma, Vcc = - 8 volts, RL = 4000 ohms. If
h FE is considered to be a constant of value 50, what is the maximum
capacitance that can be added across the load to increase the rise time
by 10 per cent in both cases?
10-9 The transistor of Prob. 10-7 is operating in saturation with Vcc = — 8

volts, RL = 320 ohms and Ibl = 10 ma. When the base current is
suddenly reduced to zero, the storage time is 200 nsecs. What is the
value and direction of the base current necessary to reduce this time to
100 nsecs?
11
The The tunnel diode is an important solid-state device
that was discovered by Esaki in 1958. It consists of
Tunnel Diode a heavily doped /?-« junction in which the transition
from p- to fl-type material occurs over a distance of
-6
less than 10 cms (100 A). As is shown later in
can be used as an amplifier,
this chapter, this device
an oscillator or a switch. The tunnel diode has
many applications in fast electronic circuitry since
it is capable of operating at a frequency in excess of
10 10 cycles per second and of switching in a time
~9
less than 10 seconds. Among the advantages of
SEC. Il-I QUANTUM MECHANICAL TUNNELING 261
the tunnel diode are its small size, its low voltage and power requirements, a
very wide temperature range of operation, low cost and ease of fabrication,
and its extremely high speed of operation. The principal disadvantage of the
device is that it has only two terminals, and so its equivalent circuit over part
of its characteristic is a one port active network. Thus, the input and output
circuits cannot be isolated and precautions must be taken to avoid unwanted
high frequency oscillations.
The tunnel diode getsname from the "tunnel" effect which is a pheno-
its
menon that can only be explained by quantum mechanics. Accordingly, the

first section of this chapter gives a brief quantum mechanical picture of an
electron "tunneling" through a potential barrier.
Il-I Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
In classical physics, a particle with total energyE cannot pass into a region
where the potential energy, U, has a higher value. Thus, a ball of mass m with
kinetic energy \mv can travel up a hill to a height h given by \mv = mgh,
2 2
Potential
barrier ~~\
Incident Transmitted
electrons electrons
U
Reflected
electrons
FIG. I Diagram of electrons incident on a potential barrier.
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, but cannot exceed that height. How-
ever, many phenomena and atomic physics can only be explained
in nuclear
by assuming penetration of such a high barrier by a subatomic particle. Using
quantum mechanics, it can be shown that there is a small but finite proba-
bility of a particle passing through a higher energy barrier. This is known as
the tunnel effect.
Figure 1 1-1 shows a beam of electrons of energy E incident on a barrier
of potential energy U. As shown in the diagram, E < U. By referring back
to Sec. 1-8,we see that the behavior of the incident electrons can be de-
scribed by the wave function, The wave function in the x direction is the
ifj.
solution of the Schrodinger wave equation [Eq. (1-15)]. This equation is

repeated here for convenience.
d2 ijj %ir
2
m fr . .
(n-i)
:
262 THE TUNNEL DIODE CHAP. II
Particles traveling in the positive x direction in free space may be rep-

resented by waves having the alternative forms
ifj = A exp [j(wt - ex)] (11-2)
or i/j = A exp [-j(<ot - ex)] (11-3)
We will use the second form and suppress the time-dependent term. Electrons
traveling in the positive x direction will, therefore, be represented by
ijj = A exp(jcx) (11-4)
Electrons moving in the negative x direction can be represented by
+ = Bexp(-jcx) (11-5)
On the left-hand side of the potential barrier of Fig. 11-1, we can postulate
that A 1 is the amplitude of the incident wave and that B1 is the amplitude of
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

Incident + reflected wave
FIG. 11-2. Diagrammatical representation of tunneling.
the wave reflected from the potential barrier. We can, therefore, write the
wave function in the form
0! = Ax exp (jc ± x) + B1 exp (-jc ± x) (11-6)

where
r2 — %7T
2
mE
(11-7)
since U= in this region. The energy of the incident electrons (E) is
positive, and so c1 is real and the wave motion is as represented in region

1 (x < 0) in Fig. 11-2.
The x =0 and x =a and is designated as
potential barrier exists between
region Here the value of E — U is negative, and so the exponents in the
2.
solution of the wave equation are real. Writing
4 = *p(U-E) (11-8)
where c 2 is defined in such a way as to be real, we have
ifj 2 = A2 exp (c 2 x) + B2 exp ( — c 2 x) (11-9)

SEC. Il-I QUANTUM MECHANICAL TUNNELING 263
We note that in many practical applications (such as the tunnel diode),

c2 a » 1. Hence, A 2 « B 2 since ^->0 as a-> oo. Note that the electrons
cannot be detected in this region since the wave function is not oscillatory.
In region 3, x > a, U— and there will be a transmitted wave only in
the positive direction of x. Therefore, the solution of the Schrodinger wave
equation is
03 = A 3 Qxp(jCl x) (11-10)
where cx = %-n
2
mE\h as before.
From Eq. (11-10), we see that A3 is the amplitude of the wave function
representing the transmitted beam of electrons. Provided A3 ^ 0, there will
be some probability of electrons "tunneling'' through the potential barrier
2
since \A 3 \
is proportional to the number of transmitted electrons (see
Sec. 1-8).
The relationship of the amplitudes A 1 , Bl9 A 2 B 2, , and A 3 can be found by
applying the conditions that and dift/dx are continuous at the boundaries
between the regions. This is a necessary mathematical condition relating to
Eq. (11-1) since ip, E, and U are finite, i/j must be finite since it is related to
the probability of finding particles at a particular location;E and U are finite

in all practical cases. Applying these conditions at x = and x — a and
eliminating B l9 A 2 and B 2 from the resulting equations allows us to determine
,
the ratio of A 3 to A x We will not carry out this procedure here, but it can be
.
shown that the ratio of the intensities of the transmitted and reflected waves,
when A 2 « B 2 ,
gives a transmission coefficient T, where
2
\M _ 4exp(-2c 2 a)
T m-in
U1 11;
m,I
2
i + i(c2 /c x - cjc 2y
Thus, T is the fraction of the electrons in the incident beam "tunneling"

through the barrier.
Equation (11-11) shows that there is a finite but small probability that
particles will cross a potential barrier even though their initial energy is
smaller than the barrier height. This probability decreases exponentially with
the width of the barrier (a) and also decreases as the barrier height increases
[Eq. (11-8)]. Figure 11-2 shows the wave functions diagrammatically in the
three regions. It should be noted that both the incident and the transmitted
electrons have the same energy E. Tunneling will only take place when
electrons possess the same energy on each side of the barrier.
11-2 Energy Bands of the Tunnel Diode
The energy bands of a tunnel diode can be obtained by reference to those of a

conventional p-n junction. If the acceptor and donor densities on the two
sides of a junction are less than about 10 18 cm -3 , Fig. ll-3(a) applies. On
each side, the Fermi level (defined as that energy where the probability of
occupation is one half) lies in the forbidden gap (see Sees. 2-4 and 2-5).
Figure 1 shows the energy bands for the tunnel diode. On the
1— 3(b)
/7-type side, the donor density is greater than 10
19
cm -3 and thus a large ,
number of electrons is present in the conduction band. The Fermi level for
this case lies within the conduction band. Similarly, the acceptor atoms on
the p-type side are so numerous that there are many holes in the valence band
and the Fermi level is within that band.
At room temperature, the presence of the Fermi level within the con-
duction band of the n-type material means that most of the electron states
at the bottom of the band will be occupied. The distribution of filled states
can be calculated from Fermi-Dirac statistics (see Chap. 2). However, the
Boltzmann factor that was used in Chap. 2 as an approximation to the
p-type "-type p-type n-type
Partially unfilled
at room
temperature Conduction
Fermi
band y- Fermi
Fermi z/7 level
level Fermi
level
Z2ZZZ^
level //A
Partially filled
at room
temperature
Valence
band
Distance Distance
(a) (b)
FIG. 11-3. (a) Energy bands for a conventional p-n junction (zero
applied voltage and room temperature), (b) Energy bands for the
tunnel diode where both impurity densities are greater than 10 19
cm -3 (zero applied voltage and room temperature).
Fermi-Dirac distribution is no longer applicable since there are now states

close to the Fermi level. Thus, the Fermi factor as given in Eq. (2-10) must
be used. This is a condition known as degeneracy. By this definition, it is
seen that both the n- and/?-type material used in a tunnel diode are degenerate.
Whatever the temperature, the Fermi levels on the two sides of the junc-
tion will line up. For the tunnel diode, therefore, tunneling will take place
where the two bands overlap in their energy ranges. This has been indicated
on Fig. 1 1-4. Here, it is possible for electrons to tunnel through the potential
SEC. 11-2 ENERGY BANDS OF THE TUNNEL DIODE 265
barrier separating the conduction band of the tf-type material from the valence
band of the/?-type material. The tunneling current will be proportional to the
product of the probability of occupancy on the side the electrons leave, the
probability of nonoccupancy on the side they reappear, and the transition
probability. When there is no applied voltage, the net tunneling current is
zero since the probability of occupation on the two sides is the same at the
same energy level and the probability of tunneling in either direction is the
same.
A calculation of the tunnel current flowing in either direction can be made
by the application of quantum mechanics. The analysis must take into
account the variation in the height of the potential barrier with distance, since
p-type "-type p-type n-type
&
a>
C
H
Potential ^
barrier""^ I
\,
I
\ Fermi
Fermi I
\
level -*
zzzr™ V777/7/7 -^™
level
Distance -»> Distance —
FIG. 11-4. Energy bands of the tunnel FIG. 11-5. Energy bands of the tunnel
diode showing tunneling at room temper- diode at room temperature and reverse
ature and zero applied voltage. bias condition.
the barrier is formed by the lower edge of the conduction band across the
junction (shown dotted). For tunneling to be appreciable, the width of
the junction must be small. This condition can be achieved in an abrupt
p-n junction which is doped to degeneracy on both sides of the junction.
M-3 Forward and Reverse Characteristics
When a voltage, V, is applied to the junction, the Fermi levels on the two sides
are spaced eV apart on the energy band diagram. Figure 1 1-5 shows the case
where V is negative. Here, the reverse voltage has depressed the Fermi level
on the tf-type side by an energy eV relative to that of the /?-type Fermi level.
The number of electrons which can tunnel to the right is much increased from
the case where V= 0. This is because electrons from the numerous occupied
states close to the Fermi level on the left-hand side, and above the Fermi level
of the right-hand side, can tunnel into the relatively unoccupied states at the
same level on the right. Thus, the reverse current of the tunnel diode is high,
as shown below in Fig. 1 1-6.
Fermi
level
Fermi
level
Distance —+~ Distance-
(a) (b)
Forward
Electron current i"
injection
current
Conduction band
n-type
w///'i"'
Reverse Forward
voltage voltage V
Reverse tunneling
(Fig. 11-5)
Reverse
current /
(d)
FIG. 11-6. Detail of energy bands and tunnel diode characteristic.
When the junction is biased in the forward direction with a voltage of a

few millivolts, the tunneling current of electrons from n- to /?-type is greatly
increased. This is shown in Fig. 1 l-6(a). In this case, there are many filled
states at the bottom of the conduction band of the w-type material in line
with unfilled states in the valence band of the/7-type. The number of electrons
tunneling in the opposite direction is much smaller.
In Fig. 1 forward voltage has been applied. Consequently,
l-6(b), a higher
the amount by which the two bands overlap in energy has been reduced.
SEC. I 1-3 FORWARD AND REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS 267
There is a corresponding reduction in the tunnel current since some of the

filled energy states just below the Fermi level in the «-type conduction band
are now above the top of the p-typt valence band. Electrons in these states
cannot tunnel since there are no available states on the opposite side to receive
them. Therefore, a further increase in forward voltage results in a decrease in
tunneling current in the forward direction. As the voltage is increased,
tunneling ceases and eventually the conventional injection current of the p-n
junction predominates as shown in Fig. 1 l-6(c).
The characteristic curve given in Fig. 1— 6(d) shows the values Ip and V
1
p
for the peak tunneling current and voltage, and also Iv and Vv for the current
and voltage at the "valley" of the curve. The voltage swing, Vs is also de- ,
fined on this characteristic. It is the voltage between the two points on the
curve where the current is equal to Ip The value of Vs is a characteristic of
.
the material as shown in Table 1 1-1.
TABLE 1
1
-I Properties of tunnel diodes.
Material Peak-to-valley V s Energy gap

current ratio (volts) Eg in ev
IP /Iv
Ge 10-30 0.45 0.72

Si 3-5 0.7 1.1
GaAs 30-60 1.0-1.2 -1.4
The reduction in tunnel current as the voltage is increased results in a

negative resistance region. In this region, power is transferred from the supply
to the external circuit. It is this property of the tunnel diode which makes it
useful as an amplifier, an oscillator or a switch (see Sec. 11-4).

Tunnel diodes can be made of the semiconducting elements, germanium
or silicon. However, gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other group 3-5 com-
pounds are also used. These are materials where the group 3 and 5 atoms
form crystalline compounds having properties similar to the group 4 semi-
conductors. All types of tunnel diode exhibit basically similar characteristics;
for example, the value of the peak current increases with the junction area.
Peak currents above one hundred amperes have been obtained in germanium
units of large area. The voltage range of the tunnel diode depends on the
particular semiconductor used, and little variation is possible for any one
type of material. Values of the peak-to-valley current ratio, the voltage swing,
and the energy band gap for three types of tunnel diode are tabulated in
Table 11-1. It is seen that the negative resistance region occurs below one
volt for all three types.
Since tunnel diodes are fabricated with very heavily doped semiconductors,
it is not absolutely necessary to use very pure material in their manufacture.
In addition, in many cases, surface conditions are much less critical than in
transistor fabrication. Thus, many types of tunnel diodes are easier and
cheaper to manufacture than transistors. However, special types of tunnel
diodes with tight parameter tolerances and special performance properties
can be as expensive as any other semiconductor device.
The negative resistance characteristic of the tunnel diode may be ob-
served over quite a wide temperature range. Both high and low temperature
operation are possible since the device is heavily doped on both sides of the
junction and no appreciable (temperature-sensitive) minority carrier injection
occurs during tunneling. For germanium units, a temperature range of 4.2° K
to 250° C has been observed; for silicon, the upper temperature limit is ex-
tended to about 350° C. The peak-to-valley current ratio is temperature
sensitive and varies widely among different units.
11-4 The Tunnel Diode as a Circuit Element
There are two important factors which govern the use of the tunnel diode in
electronic circuits. In the first place, the limitations in switching time and
frequency of operation are those imposed by the equivalent and external
L s
AA/V
External
circuit
-G
(a)
(b)
Rt
AyW ^ffuTP r
Zf
(c)
FIG. 11-7. (a) Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode, (b) Tunnel

diode and external circuit, (c) Equivalent circuit of the combina-
tion.
circuit of the diode, and the inherent limit set by the tunneling mechanism is
never approached. Nevertheless, switching times of less than 10~ 10 seconds,

and oscillation frequencies above 10 10 cycles per second are possible in units
SEC. 11-4 THE TUNNEL DIODE AS A CIRCUIT ELEMENT 269
having high peak current to capacity ratios, Ip /C (values as high as 200ma/pf
have been achieved in germanium. Secondly, the tunnel diode is a one port
(two terminal) network and this raises difficulties in operation since the input
and output circuits cannot be separated.

When the tunnel diode is operated in the negative resistance part of its
characteristic, the equivalent circuit for small-signal operation shown in is as

Fig. 11 -7(a). R s
is the ohmic resistance of the semiconducting material, and
the construction of the device determines the small series inductance, L s . C is
the junction capacitance due to the depleted charge regions on the two sides
of the p-n junction. The negative resistance has been represented by a con-
ductance — G. Typical values for these quantities are: R s = 2 ohms, L s =
10~ 2 microhenries, C = 10 picofarads, — G = —0.01 mhos.
Assume that the tunnel diode is operating with an external circuit having
a series resistance R 1 and a series inductance L x as given in Fig. 1 1— 7(b). In
part (c) of this figure the equivalent circuit of the combination is shown,
where L = L\ + L s and R — R 1 -+- R Note that this final circuit is
t t s -
similar to the equivalent circuit of the tunnel diode alone, where R s is re-
placed by R and L s is replaced by L Thus, the analysis of the complete
t t
.
circuit applies equally to the tunnel diode under short-circuit a-c conditions
when R s and L s are substituted for R and L t t
.
The impedance, Z h at an angular frequency co, is given by
!
Z = R + jcuL +
t t t
. (11-12)
(-G) + jojC
or
Z = R + (IM3)
> >
G^%> + i"L >
- (FT&c*)
Note that both the real (resistive) and imaginary (reactive) parts of the ex-
pression are frequency dependent.
There are two important frequencies for this circuit. wR is the resistance
which the resistive part of Z becomes zero. Above
cut-off angular frequency at t
this frequency, the tunnel diode cannot amplify. a» x is the self-resonant

angular frequency where the imaginary part of Z becomes zero. From t
Eq. (11-13),
wB =
m
I G
t
G*\K
-c>)
= Gl
cfe-
1 A*
1
)
(ll - l4)
, f1 1/1x
U) X = /J__^Y
\L Ct
C 2
)
2
= ^^-lf
C\G L V 2
t
(11
K _i5)}
The system stability may be investigated by determining the distribution

of the poles and zeros in the complex S-plane. Writing Z t
in terms of the
complex frequency, S, we have
ym - SLC +
2
(R C - L G)S + - Rfi ml ^
Z {S) _
1
t t t
{U
t
SC-G }
The zeros are given by
s-- -
6_ 1
2 e-S*B'(S-S)'-T2T <"-"
The condition for stability is that the zeros are in the left-half side of the
S-plane. From Eq. (1 1-17), S will have a negative real part only if
~>l
u
(11-18)
1
and *«< (11-19)
+ Imaginary
Z-plane
FIG. 11-8. Nyquist diagram for the tunnel diode circuit.
Thus the conditions for stability may be written in the form
G
>R >JC >
(11-20)
The stability conditions when substituted in Eqs. (11-14) and (11-15) give
< oj r < oj x (11-21)
The Nyquist plot of this case is shown in the lower curve of Fig. 1 1-8.
we can say that

Physically, an energy source
the negative conductance is
which becomes zero at the resistance cut-off angular frequency, cu R For .
stability, this angular frequency must be real and positive (a> R > 0) and less
than the angular frequency where the reactance of the circuit becomes zero
(co R < U) X).
Equations (1 1-18) and (1 1-19) give the two requirements for tunnel diode
amplifier stability. In terms of the total circuit values, R t
and Lu the expres-
sions can be rewritten to give
*<£ (11-22)
SEC. 11-4 THE TUNNEL DIODE AS A CIRCUIT ELEMENT 271
RC
and u < t
(11-23)
It is of interest to see what will happen if these requirements are not

For instance, if R > l/G, a> R is no longer real, and the device
fulfilled. t
cannot be used as an amplifier but may be used as a switch. When L > t
Tunnel
50 ohm line diode 50 ohm line
16 Q 0.05-0.1 (xh
A/VV rfftfu"v
FIG. 1 1-9. Circuit of 100 Mc/sec amplifier.
CRJG, oj r > and the circuit becomes a nonlinear relaxation oscillator.

oj x
This case is shown in the upper curve of Fig. 1 1-8. Sinusoidal oscillations
occur when co R = o» x , i.e., when L = CRJG. t
Figure 11-9 shows the circuit of an amplifier having a bandwidth of

20 Mc/sec centered on 100 Mc/sec and a gain of 32 db. This shows the
use of the tunnel diode as an amplifier at high frequencies.
In Fig. 1 1-10, a d-c load line has been drawn on the tunnel diode charac-
teristic. The load line corresponds to
the where the total d-c
case load Load line
Ri < l/G, and there is only one inter-

section with the device characteristic.
For the tunnel diode to operate reliably
in this condition, the intersection point
must be kept constant. Thus, E x must
be accurately controlled.
The load line drawn on Fig. 11-
11(a) shows the case when R 2 > l/G.
This corresponds to the circuit of Fig.
11-1 1(b). There are three intersection
points on the tunnel diode characteris-
FIG. 11-10. Tunnel diode characteristic
tic, A, B, and C. A and C are stable with load line where the load resistance
and B unstable. When a trigger voltage is less than — l/G.
is placed in series with the supply,
E2 ,
point A rises up the diode characteristic until it reaches the peak of the
curve at a current Ip and a voltage Vp The. operating point then follows the
R2
Trigger
voltage
Tunnel
diode
(b)
FIG. 11-11. Tunnel diode characteristic and circuit when used as

a switch.
path shown by the dashed line. Thus the tunnel diode switches from A to C
~9
A switching time of less than 10 sec can be achieved by a circuit of this type.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Quantum mechanical tunneling
Bohm, David, Quantum Theory, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1951
Van Name, F. W. Jr., Modern Physics, 2d ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:

Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962
Tunnel diodes
Davidsohn, U.S., Y. C. Hwang, and G. B. Ober, "Designing with Tunnel

Diodes," Electronic Design, 8, 3 (February 3, 1960), 50-55; 8, 4 (February
17, 1960), 66-71
Hall, R. N., "Tunnel Diodes," I.R.E. Transactions on Electron Devices,

ED-7, 1 (January 1960), 1-9
Lesk, I. A. and J. J. Suran, "Tunnel Diode Operation and Application,"

Electrical Engineering, 79, 4 (April 1960)
Todd, C. D., "Tunnel Diode Applications," Electrical Engineering, 80, 4

(April 1961), 265-271
PROBLEMS
1 1- 1 Derive the value of Tas given in Eq. (11-11).
1 1-2 Calculate T for U-E= 1 ev where the particles are electrons and
a = 100 A.
PROBLEMS 273
1 1-3 Draw the S-plane, Z-plane diagrams and a rough plot of R and X
versus frequency for the three cases : cu x < a> R , w x = w R and
, co x > co R .
1 1-4 Analyze the circuit of Fig. 11-9 showing that amplification will be
obtained at a frequency of 100 Mc/sec and that stability is attained when
L is less than 0.084 microhenries. For the tunnel diode: R =
s 2 ohms,
C= 5 pf, L s = 5 x 10~ h, -G = -0.007 mhos.
9
-
APPENDIX
Useful constants
19
Electronic charge e 1.602 x 10- coulombs
Electronic mass m 9.1085 x 10- 31 kg
Planck's constant h 6.625 x 10- 34 joule sec
Boltzmann's constant k 1.380 x 10- 23 joule K~ 1
No. of atoms of germanium per cc 4.42 x 10 22

Permittivity of free space e (36tt x 10 9 ) 1
farads
m- 1
Relative permittivity of germanium 16

Relative permittivity of silicon 12
Index
Abrupt junctions, 72 CE circuit, 126-128, 167-196
a-c operation, 139-142 Characteristics, static, 137
Acceptor state, 34 Charge control, 249-254
Active circuits, 144 Charge depletion region, 73
Alloy-junction transistors, 129-130 Charges, mobile and immobile, 58-61
Alpha-cutoff frequency, 194 Collector-to-base cut-off current, 121-122
Alternating-current gain, 127 Collector current, 115-116
Amplifiers, electronic devices as, 136-139 Collector multiplication, 187
Amplifiers, single and multistage, 167-196 Collector multiplication factor, 202-203
biasing circuits, 178-182 Common base circuit, 123-126
CE circuit, 167-196 Common base connection, 236-238
characteristic curves, 168-170 Common emitter circuit (CE), 126-128,
class A, B, and C
operation, 183 167-196
frequency response of multistage, 194 Common emitter connection, frequency re-
limitations of power amplifiers, 187-189 in, 233-235
sponse
load 170-172
line, Conduction band, 22
multistage, 191-193 Conductors, 25
operating point temperature stability, 172— Conductors, defined, 4
178 Contact potential, 72
power
amplifiers, 182-186, 187-189 Continuity equation, 89-111, 199-200
thermal runaway, 189-191 abrupt p-n junctions with constant current,
Atomic binding, and valence, 17-18 94-99
Atomic number, 15 base region for direct currents, 200-202
Atomic structure, wave-mechanical theory, base region for small alternating signals,
14-15 204-208
Atomic table, 15-17 charge densities at edge of depletion re-
Atomic table for 36 elements (table), 16 gions, 99-101
Avalanche breakdown, 86 derivation, 90-94
diffusion of charge, 91-94
drift of charge in electric field, 91
Einstein equation, 108-109
(3(beta), 128 electrons, equation for, 94
Band theory, energy levels in crystals, 20-23 electrons and positive holes, 91
Bardeen, 113 forward-biased abrupt p-n junctions, 104-
Base charge control, concept of, 249 107
Base region, current flow across, 117-123 incremental resistance of forward-biased
Base region, recombination in, 121 p-n junction, 108
Base spreading resistance, 148, 203-204 p-n junctions, 107
Base width modulation, 120-121, 208-211 positive holes, equation for, 93
Beta-cutoff frequency, 194, 234 reverse-biased abrupt p-n junctions, 101-
Bias, 137 104
Bias, in junctions, 79 Covalent binding, 18
Biasing, fixed-base, 176 Crystal detectors, early, 112-113
Biasing circuits, 178-182 Crystal unit cells, 19-20
Body-centered cubic cell, 19 Crystals, 18-20
Bohr, Niels, hydrogen atom theory, 5-7, 10, Crystals, electronic mobility, 28-29
11, 14, 15, 31, 32, 34 Current amplifier, transistor as, 139
Boltzmann factor, 48, 52, 99-100, 223, 264 Current gain, 124-128
Brattain, 113 Current negative feedback, 178
"Built-in" field, 220-221, 223 Cut-off current, 122
276
)
Davisson, 12 Epitaxial mesa transistor, 227

d-c conditions, 133-196 Esaki, 260
De Broglie, 12 Exclusion principle, Pauli, 17, 45, 48
Degeneracy, 264 Extrinsic semiconductors, 26
Diamonds, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24
"Diffused-base transistor," term, 223
Diffusion, 91-94
Diffusion, current flow by, 117-119
Diffusion capacitance, 122-123, 213 Fermi level, 48-58, 68-70, 72, 76, 100, 264-
Diffusion length, for electrons, 99 267
Diffusion length, for positive holes, 98 Fermi-Dirac statistics, 43, 70, 264
Diffusion techniques, in manufacturing, 130- Fixed-base biasing, 176
131 Flicker noise, 223-224
Diffusion transistor, term, 220 Forbidden gap, 22, 25, 26, 27, 31, 44, 52, 53,
Dirac, 12, 14 54, 56, 58, 128
Distribution of power dissipation (table). Forward bias, 79
184 Frequency response, 229-259
Donor state, 32-33 charge control, 249-254
Doping, 35 common base connection (simple model),
Drift of charges, in electric fields, 91 236-238
Drift transistor, 220-223 common emitter connection, 233-235
components of charge, 251-253
hybrid-jt circuits, 230-231, 233-236, 238-
242, 244-247
iterative common emitter stage, 235-236
Effective mass, concept of, 47 Miller effect, 231-232
Effective width, of junctions, 73 saturation, 242-244, 247-249
Einstein equation, 108-109, 219, 222 switching, 244-247
Ekiss, J. A., 254 switching times, defined, 247
Electron energy levels, in crystals, 20-23 switching times for saturation, 254-258
Electron volt, 10
Electronic mobility, in crystals, 28-29
Electrons:
continuity equation for, 94
diffusion length for, 99 Gain-bandwidth product, 234
energy states, 15 Gallium arsenide, 267
and positive holes, 26-28, 91 Generation, of electron-hole pairs, 35^40
Elements, atomic table, 15-17 Generation rate, 39
Emitter current, 115 Germanium, 4, 18, 25, 31, 33, 128 (also
Emitter efficiency, 119, 202 passim
Emitter follower, 162 Germanium and silicon, common donor and
Emitter resistance, 213 acceptor elements (table), 32
Energy bands, density of states, 44-47 Germanium and silicon, properties of (ta-
Energy density of states, defined, 47 ble), 28
Energy levels in crystals (band theory), 20- Germer, 12
23 Goudsmit, 14
Energy state densities, and temperature, 47- Graded junctions, 72
51 Group 4 materials, 30
Energy states, 15, 44-47 Group 5 substances, 30
Epitaxial films, 226-227 Grown-junction transistors, 129
277
H
h, Planck's constant, 6, 14 Junction transistors, 112-133
h parameter equivalents of CE and CC cir- Junctions:
cuits (table), 160 between metals, 70-72
h parameter representation, low frequency, bias, 79
154-166 breakdown region of p-n junctions, 86
analysis of general equivalent circuit, 156— capacitance, 79-82
159 effective width, 73
common base circuit, 161-162 flow of current across a p-n junction, 82-
common collector circuit, 162-163 86
common emitter circuit, 163 incremental capacitance, 81
current gain, 158 nonlinear incremental capacitance, 81
input resistance, 157 rectifier equation, 82-86
output resistance, 158 with applied voltage, 79-82
power gain, 158 with no applied voltage, 72-78
relationship of three sets of, 159-160
small-signal, 155-156
three configurations, comparison of, 161—
163
variation with I E and V CE 163-165
,
Lattice constant, 20
voltage gain, 157 Lifetimes, 38
h parameters, equivalent circuit using, 149- Load line, 170-172
150 Low frequencies, 133-196
Hall effect, 61-64 Low frequency measurements, 150-153
Heat-sink, 191
Heisenberg, 12, 13-14,45
Hybrid (h) parameters, defined, 149 (see
also h parameter representation)
M
Hybrids circuit, 135, 143, 148-149, 200, Majority carriers, 33, 34
211-217,229-259 Manufacture:
Hydrogen atom: alloy-junction transistors, 129-130
Bohr's theory of, 5-7 diffusion techniques, 130-131
energy of electron orbits, 7-9 grown-junction transistors, 129
energy level representation, 10-11 materials, 128-129
simple theory of, 4-5 point-contact transistors, 129
transitions between orbits, 9-10 zone refining, 128
Mass action, law of, 58-59
Matter, wave nature, 11-14
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, 52
Impedance terms, 141 Mesa diffused-base transistors, 130-131, 227
Impurities, 18, 25-26, 29-35, 58 Metals, junctions between, 70-72
Incremental resistance, 108 Metals, work function, 68-70
Insulators, 24 Miller effect, 231-232
Insulators, defined, 4 Minority carrier lifetimes, 38
Intrinsic germanium, 60-61, 77 Minority carriers, 33, 34
Intrinsic material, 29 Mobility of electrons and holes, 28-29, 36,
Intrinsic semiconductors, 25, 34, 51-53 37
Intrinsic transistor, 203-204 Modulation noise, 223
Ionic binding, 18 Momentum space diagram, 44, 46
Ionization energy, 10 Multistage amplifiers, 191-193 (see also
Iterative common emitter stage, 235-236 Amplifiers)
278
npn transistors, 113-116 p- and n-type semiconductors, 29-35
n-and p-type semiconductors, 29-35 p-n junctions:
n-type, term, 33 breakdown region, 86
«-type germanium, 104 conditions of operation, 96
«-type material, 97-98 continuity equation {see Continuity equa-
>?-type semiconductors, 54-55 tion)
Noise, 223-225 discussion of, 107
Noise figure, defined, 224 flow of current across, 82-86
Norton, 125, 146, 149, 150 as rectifiers, 35
Numbered and lettered h parameters (table), pnp 116-117
transistors,
155 common base 123-126
circuit,
Nyquist plot, for tunnel diode, 270 common emitter circuit, 126-128
current flow across base region, 117-123
hole density in base region, 200-202
Point-contact germanium diode, development
Ohmic contacts, 107 of, 113
Operating point temperature stability, 172- Point-contact transistors, development of,
178 113
Point-contact transistors, manufacture of,
129
Poisson equation, 74-76
it 148-149
circuit, Positive holes:
Parameters, z, y, and h, 135, 141, 142-144 continuity equation for, 93
"Passivate," term, 226 diffusion length for, 98
Passive circuits, 144 effectivemass of, 47
Pauli exclusion principle, 17, 45, 48 and electrons, 26-28
Perfect crystals, 18 Potential barriers, 78
Performance quantities for CB, CE, and CC Power amplifiers, 182-186
circuits (table), 147 Properties of tunnel diodes (table), 267
Performance quantities for h parameter p-type germanium, 104
equivalent circuit (table), 158 p-type semiconductors, 55-56
Photon, 10 Punch-through, 187-188, 226
Physical characteristics, 199-228 Punch-through voltage, 226
alpha, components of, 202-203
base width modulation, 208-211
continuity equation {see Continuity equa-
Quantum mechanical tunneling, 261-263
tion)
Quantum numbers, 14-15
drift transistor, 220-223
Quantum theory, 5-7
epitaxial films, 226-227
hole density in base region, 200-202
hybrid-jt; representation, 211-217
intrinsic transistor, 203-204 Radiation, relation to matter, 11-14
noise, 223-225 Recombination, in base region, 121
punch-through, 226 Recombination, of electron-hole pairs, 35-40
small alternating signals, 204-208 Rectifier equation, 82-86
surface effects, 225-226 Relationship between parameters (table), 152
transmission line analogy, 208-211 Resistance noise, 223
variation of alpha with emitter current, Reverse bias, 79
217-220 Rise time, defined, 247
Planck, Max, quantum theory, 5-7, 14 Rutherford, 4
279
Saturation, 188, 242-244, 247-249 Tunnel diode (con't)
current density, 83 limitations, 268
switching times for, 254-258 Nyquist plot, 270
Schrodinger, 12-13, 15, 261, 263 oscillation frequencies, 268-269
Semiconductors: quantum mechanical tunneling, 261-263
defined, 4 resistance cut-off angular frequency, 269
electrical conduction in, 3-42 self-resonant angular frequency, 269
electrons and holes, 43-66 switching times, 268
Shockley, 113 Two port network, transistor as, 135-153
Shot noise, 223 Typical h parameter values (table), 161
Silicon, 4, 18, 25, 128-129 (also passim)
Simmons, C. D., 254
U
Single crystals, 18
Solid-state devices, 4 Uhlenbeck, 14
Sommerfeld, 11, 68 Uncertainty principle (Heisenberg), 13-14,
Space charge region, 73 45
Speed-up capacitors, 257-258 Unfilled energy states, 33
"Spot" noise figure, 225 Unit momentum cells, 45
Stability factor equation, 177
Step junctions, 72
Storage time, 244
Surface effects, 225-226
Vacuum level, 69
Surface leakage, 187
Valence, and atomic binding, 17-18
Surface recombination velocity, 225-226
Valence, Fermi level, and work function for
Switching, 244-247
five metals (table), 70
Switching times, defined, 247
Valence band, 22
Switching times, for saturation, 254-258
Variation in I CB0 h FE and I B (table), 175
, ,
Voltage gain, 125, 126
T circuit, 144-147
Temperature:
W
and energy state densities, 47-51 Wave packet, 13
limit placed by, 56-57 Wave (quantum) mechanics, 11-14
stability, 172-178 "White" noise, 223
variation of Fermi level, 56-57 Work function, of materials, 69
Thermal agitation, 223 "Worst-case" design, 238
Thermal equilibrium values, 35
Thermal resistance, 190
Thermal runaway, 172, 189-191
Thermionic emission, 70 y parameters, equivalent circuit using, 148-
Thevenin circuits, 146, 149, 150 149
Thomson, G. P., 12
Transmission line analogy, 208-211
Transport factor, 202
Traps (recombination centers), 38 z, y,and h parameters, 135, 141, 142-144
Tunnel diode, 260-273 z parameters, equivalent circuit using, 144-
as circuit element, 268-272 147
energy bands, 263-265 Zener breakdown, 86
forward and reverse characteristics, 265- "Zener" devices, 86
268 Zone refining, 128
280
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Prentice-Hall Electrical Engineering Series

William L. Everitt, Editor

© 1963 by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-7561

Printed in the United States of America 93017-C

frequency operation of the device, and hybrid (or

marily for engineers, cannot derive all the physical

for a course oriented towards solving numerical

John Yarwood of London, England and Eugene J.

1 Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors 3

2-1 The density of states in an energy band, 44. 2-2 En-

J Junctions between Materials 67

3-1 Work function in a metal, 68. 3-2 Junctions between

4 The Continuity Equation 89

4-1 Derivation of the continuity equation, 90. 4-2 Ap-

J The Junction Transistor 112

PART TWO: TRANSISTORS AT LOW FREQUENCIES

The Transistor as a Two Port Network 135

6-1 General considerations of electronic devices as am-

7-1 The small-signal h parameters, 155. 7-2 Analysis of

Single and Multistage a-c Amplifiers 167

8-1 The characteristic curves, 168. 8-2 The load line,

PART THREE: FURTHER THEORY OF THE TRANSISTOR,

y Physical Characteristics of the Transistor 199

9-1 Solution of the continuity equation in the base region

iU High Frequency and Pulse Operation of the Transistor 229

10-1 The hybrid-jt circuit, 230. 10-2 The Miller effect,

11 The Tunnel Diode 260

11-1 Quantum mechanical tunneling, 261. 11-2 Energy

group of materials included all the metals. Insulators were considered to

1-2 Simple Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

Circular electron orbit

Central, positively charged

FIG. 1-1. Simple picture of the hydrogen atom.

where r is the radius of the orbit in meters, and s is the permittivity of a

Equation (1-1) is seen to be a result of the application of the classical laws

1-3 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

In 1913, Bohr suggested that these difficulties could be overcome by a direct

units of energy, the energy in each quantum is a function of frequency and is

where E is the energy of one quantum, in joules; h is Planck's constant,

1. The radius of the orbit is limited to certain fixed values, and no

2. When the electron jumps from an orbit of one allowed radius to

where n is a positive integer known as the principal quantum number. This

where r„ is the radius of the «th orbit.

7*4 \6r B etc. (1-8)

three electron orbits.

1-4 Energy of the Electron Orbits of the Hydrogen Atom

The kinetic energy of an electron revolving in an orbit with velocity v is

FIG. 1-3. Plot of the total energy of an electron close to the

K.E. + P.E. (1-11)

Substituting for rn from Eq. (1-6),

where En is the energy of the nth orbital state (radius r n ).

1-5 Transitions between the Orbits

Ionized state (electron free from the atom)

in an atomic system. The single orbital electron of a hydrogen atom can be

equal to the energy difference of the two orbits. A quantum of electro-

It is found that a photon of energy of this wavelength is absorbed by only

one atom causing the electron to move from n — 1 to n = 2. In this sense,