LESSON 1- GLOBALIZATION

What is Globalization???
■ A trend toward grIt is a process by which goods, services, capital, people, information and ideas
flow across national borders. (Grewal\Levy).
■ Greater economic, cultural, political, and technological interdependence among national
institutions and economies. (Wild\Wil\Han).
■ It is the process of trade, communication, and cultural exchange in which it promotes wealth of
all nations that increase growth in the economy.
■ A term used to describe the changes in societies and the world economy that are the result of
dramatically increased trade and cultural exchange.
■ Globalization is a word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies,
cultures, and populations, brought about by cross border trade in goods and services, technology,
and flows of investment, people, and information.
Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways. These aspects
include:
■ Industrial globalization – development of worldwide production markets and broader access to a
range of foreign products for consumers and companies involving particularly movement of
material and goods between and within national boundaries.
■ Financial globalization – development of worldwide financial markets and better
■ Economic globalization – establishment of a global common market, based on the freedom of
exchange of goods and capital.
■ Political globalization - creation of international organizations to regulate the relationships
among governments and to guarantee the rights arising from social and economic globalization.
Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways. These aspects
include:
■ Informational globalization – increase in information flows between geographically remote
locations. (This can also be seen as a technological change related to the advent of fibre optic
communications, satellites, and increased availability of telephone and Internet.)
■ Cultural globalization - sharing of ideas, attitudes and values across national borders. This
sharing generally leads to an interconnectedness and interaction between peoples of diverse
cultures and ways of life. Mass media and communication technologies are the primary
instruments for cultural globalization.
ELEMENTS OF GLOBALIZATION
Anderson and VAN Wincoop (2002) enumerated the different elements of globalization:
1. Trade Agreements- bilateral, regional or multilateral economic arrangements designed to reduce
or eliminate trade barriers.
 2. Capital Flow- measurement of increase or decrease in a nation’s domestic or foreign assets.
3. Migration Patterns- impact of labor market fluidity on production costs through the loss
(emigration) or gain (immigration) of potential workers especially those with particular skills.
4. Information Transfer- communication trend that helps mitigate the asymmetric functioning of
markets and economies.
5. Spread Technology- rapid diversion of the means and methods of producing goods and services.
TRENDS IN GLOBALIZATION
There are several major trends pertaining to globalization which consists of demographic, scientific,
governance, and economic interdependence (Nye and Donahue, 2002).
■ Population trends;
■ Science and technology;
■ Increasing integration and interdependence; and
■ Governance.
INTERNALIZATION, GLOBALIZATION, AND GLOBALISM
A. Internalization
■ refers to the increasing importance of international trade, international relations, treaties,
alliances, etc. International means between or among nations, even as relations among nations
become increasingly necessary and important.
B. Globalization
■ refers to global economic integration of many formerly national economies into one global
economy., mainly by free trade and free capital mobility, but also easy or uncontrolled migration.
C. Globalism
■ Keohane and Nye, Jr. defined globalism as s state of the world involving networks of
interdependence at multi-continental distances.
■ Two (2) special characteristics of globalism:
■ 1. Globalism refers to networks of connection (multiple relationships), not simply to simple
linkages.
■ 2. Globalism doesn’t imply universality.

LESSON 2- THE STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION

THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
• Trace the origin of global economy;
• Define economic globalization;
 • Understand global stratification;
• Explain the theories of global stratification;
• Define the modern world system; and
• Articulate a stance on global economic integration.

THE STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION

THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
• A system of trade and industry across the world that has emerged due to globalization. In other
words, the way in which countries ‘economies have been developing to operate collectively as
one system.
• The origins of a global economy can be traced back to the expansion of long-distance trade
during the period of 1450-1640, which Wallerstein has labeled the “long sixteenth century”.
ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
• It is a historical process, a result of human innovation and technological process. It refers to
the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly through the movement of
goods, services, and capital across borders. It may also refer to the movement of people (labor)
and knowledge (technology) across international borders (IMF, 2008).
GLOBAL STRATIFICATION
• It refers to the hierarchical arrangements of individuals and groups in societies around the world.
Classifying Global Stratification
• According to sociology, the best way to understand global stratification, is to think of the world
composed of categories of nations, based on their degree of wealth and poverty, their level of
industrialization and economic development, and related factors.
The different typologies of global stratification are the following:
1. First Typology
• First World – The Western Capitalist democracies of North and Europe, and certain other nations
(Australia, New Zealand and Japan).
• Second World – Nations belonging to the Soviet Union.
• Third World – All the remaining nations, almost all of them from Central and South America,
Africa and Asia.
2. Replacement Typology
 • Developed
• Developing
• Undeveloped
3. Popular Typology
• Wealthy (or high income)
• Middle-income
• Poor or low- income

THEORIES OF GLOBAL STRATIFICATION

• Modernization Theory – According this theory, rich nations became wealthy because early on
they were able to develop the correct beliefs, values, and practices.
• Dependency Theory – According to this view, the poor nations never got the chance to pursue
economic growth because early on they were conquered and by European ones.
• World System Theory- This theory states that that some nations become modernized by
exploiting other nations.
Five Institutions in the Modern World System
Wallerstein (2006) enumerated the five institutions that are existing in the Modern World System
1. Market
2. Firms
3. States
4. Household
5. Classes

LESSON 3- MARKET INTEGRATION

MARKET INTEGRATION
- It is defined as by Koester, (2000), is a state of affairs or a process of involving attempts to
combine separate national economies into larger economies. It is a means of stimulating trade
and improving the division of labor between participating countries.
 Two Types of Market Integration

1. Negative integration – reduces non-tariff and tariff barriers to trade as main tool for integrating
markets.
2. Positive integration- adjust domestic policies and institution s through the creation of
supranational arrangements.

Five forms of Market Integration (koester, 2000):

1. Preferential Agreement – It involves lower trade barriers between those countries., which have
signed the agreement.
2. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) – Reduces trade barriers among member countries to zero, but
each member still has autonomy in deciding on the external rate of tariff for its trade with non-
member countries.
3. Custom Union- Represents a higher stage of economic integration. In this form, countries agree
to abolish tariff and non-tariff to trade in goods flowing between them. They agree a common
external tariff.
4. Common Market – Free movement of labor and capital within the member-countries. Hence, the
intention of a common market is to integrate both product and factor markets member-countries.
5. Economic Union – It is the highest form of economic integration. In addition to the conditions
of a common market, member-countries also agree to integrate monetary fiscal, and other
policies.

INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

There are currently the three major international/financial economic institutions. The
World TradeOrganization, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank.

 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)

- The WTO is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between
nations. The goal is to ensure that the trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as
possible.

 INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)

- It is an autonomous organization affiliated to the UNIO. From an initial strength of 31 members,
it now commands a 125 strong membership. The functions of IMF include:
1. Works as short-term credit institution;
2. Provides for the orderly adjustment of exchange rates;
3. Acts as a reserve member-countries to borrow from;
4. Provide foreign exchange loans against current transaction, and;
5. Provides international financial consultancy service.

 WORLD BANK (WB)

It is an international intergovernmental organization for providing long-term loans on easy
term for specific developmental projects. The functions of the World Bank may be grouped into
five major categories:
1. Provides loan services to member governments;
2. Provides development loans on soft term to poor member nations;
3. Provides support to private or joint sector projects;
4. Provides insurance guarantees to foreign investors;
5. Setting-investment-related disputes among member nations through conciliation and arbitration.

GLOBAL CORPORATIONS
- These are integral part of economic growth.
- The contemporary global corporation is simultaneously and commonly referred to either as a
multinational corporation (MNC), a transitional corporation (TNC), an international company or
a global company (Steger, Battersby&Siracusa, 2014).
a. Multinational Corporations (MNC) – have investment in other countries but do not have
coordinated products offering in each country.
b. International Companies – are importers and exporters, typically without investment outside of
their home country.
c. Global Companies – Have invested in and are present in many countries
d. Transitional Corporations (TNC) – more complex organization, which have invested in foreign
operations, have a central corporate facility but give decision-making, research and development
and marketing power to each individual foreign market.
Power of Global Corporations
a. Economic control
b. Political influence
c. Social and cultural influence
d. Environmental impact

MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS (MNCs)

The Role of Multinational Corporations (MNC)
Lapko (2005) discussed the different role of multinational corporations:
1. MNCs act as modernizers of the world economy;
2. Promote efficiency and growth of the world economy;
3. Promote regional agreement and alliance; and
4. Increase of money circulation in the economy.

LESSON 4- GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM

 GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM
- It is the fundamental basis of the competitive commodity economy at global system level.
- A system of international relations. (International Relations (IR) is defined as the study of
interconnectedness of politics, economics and law on a global level.)

 Economic Interdependence
- A relationship between countries in which each country is dependent on another for necessary
goods or services (Surugui and Surugui, 2015).

 Economic Integration
- A process whereby countries cooperate with one another to reduce or eliminate barriers to the
international flow of products, people and capital.

 Political Integration
- It refers to the integration of components within political system.
- The integration of political system with economic, social, and other human system; the political
process by which social, economic and political become integrated.
- It includes the creation of regional political institutions. It is a process that developed much more
slowly outside of Europe.
REGIONAL AND ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIPS / INSTITUTIONS

ASEAN | EUROPEAN UNION | APEC |NAFTA | OECD

Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN)
(One Vision, One Identity, One Community)

- It was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand with the signing of the ASEAN
Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by the founding fathers of ASEAN namely, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam (1984), Vietnam (1995), Lao
PDR and Myanmar in 1997 and Cambodia (1999) makes up what is today the 10 member-state
of ASEAN. 9 (asean.org).
- The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by the ASEAN leaders on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN,
as a concert of Southeast Asian Nations outward looking, living in peace, stability and
prosperity, bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring
societies.

- The ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars, namely the ASEAN Political Security
Community, ASEAN Economic Community and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.
EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
 (United in Diversity)

- The EU began in 1957 when six countries signed Treat of Rome. The six countries were called
the European Economic Community.
- The first six countries were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Germany. The
Union reached its current size of 28 EU countries.
The goals of the European Union are:
1. Promote peace, its values and the well-being of its citizens;
2. Offer freedom, security and justice without internal borders;
3. Sustainable development based on balanced economic growth and price stability;
4. Highly competitive market economy with full employment and social progress;
5. Combat social exclusion and discrimination;
6. Promote scientific and technological progress;
7. Environment protection;
8. Enhance economic, social and territorial cohesion and solidarity among EU countries;
9. Respect its rich cultural and linguistic diversity; and
10. Establish an economic and monetary union whose currency is the Europe.
The EU in the world:
1. TRADE.
The European Union is the largest trade block in the world. It is the world’s biggest exporter of
manufactured goods and services, the biggest import market for over 100 countries.
2. HUMANITARIAN.
The EU is committed to helping victims of man-made and natural disasters worldwide and
supports over 120 million people each year.
3. DIPLOMACY AND SECURITY.
The EU plays an important role in diplomacy and works to foster stability, security and
prosperity, democracy, fundamental freedoms and the rule of law at international level.

ASIA-PACIFICIC ECONOMIC CORPORATION (APEC)

(Advancing Free Trade for Asia-Pacific Prosperity)

- The idea of APEC was first broached by former Prime Minister of Australia Bob Hawke during a
speech in Seoul, Korea on January 31, 1989. Ten months later, 12 Asia-Pacific economies met in
Canberra, Australia to establish APEC. The founding members were Australia, Brunei
Darussalam, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand and the United States. China, Hong Kong, China and Chinese Taipei joined
in 1991. Mexico and Papua New Guinea followed in 1993, Chile acceded in 1994. In 1998, Peru,
Russia, and Vietnam joined, taking the full membership to 21.
 APEC: Multilateral Economic Forum
- Operates as a cooperative, multilateral economic and trade forum. It is the only international
intergovernmental grouping in the world committed to reducing barriers to trade and investments
without requiring its members to enter into legally binding obligations.

APEC Members Economies report progress toward achieving free and open trade and investment
goals through Individual Action Plans (IAPs) and Collective Action Plans (CAPs).

NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA)

- In 1994, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect creating one of the
world’s largest free trade zones and laying foundations for strong economic growth and rising
prosperity for Canada, the United States of America, and Mexico.

ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD)

- European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established in 1948 to run the US-Financed
Marshall Plan for reconstruction of a continent ravaged by war.
- By making individual governments recognize the interdependence of their economies, it paved
the way for a new era of cooperation that was to change the face of Europe.
- Canada and USA joined OEEC

Today, OECD focused on helping governments around the world to;

1. Restore confidence in markets and the institutions that make them function.
2. Re-establish healthy public finances as a basis for future sustainable economic growth.
3. Foster and support new sources of growth through innovation, environmentally friendly’ green
growth strategies and the development of emerging economies.
4. Ensure that people of all ages can develop the skills to work productively and satisfyingly in the
jobs tomorrow.
ORGANIZATION OF THE PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC)
- It is a permanent intergovernmental organization of 15 oil-exporting developing nations that
coordinates and unifies the petroleum policies of its member countries. It I s created at the
Baghdad Conference on September 10-14 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Valenzuela.
-
 OPEC objective is to coordinate and unify petroleum policies in order to secure fair and stable
prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to
consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry.

LESSON5- CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

I. INTRODUCTION
The journey of a nation towards development is not a smooth one. In advancing itself from
one level to another, problems in technological, economic, cultural and institutional
transformation will arise. These problems in the different sectors of the country must be
addressed. The state is the frontline of these undertakings.
THE UNITED NATIONS
The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945.It is currently made up of
193 Member States. The mission and work of the United Nations are guided by the purposes and
principles contained in its founding charter.

Prior to the UN
Prior to the establishment of the United Nations, the League of Nations existed as the premier
organization for international cooperation. Established in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles, the
League of Nations was established to ensure international peace, security and cooperation
between nations following the First World War. At its height, the League of Nations had 58
members. In the 1930s, its success waned as the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) gained
influence, eventually leading to the start of World War II in 1939.

The Charter is the constituting instrument of the UN, setting out the rights and obligations of
member states, and establishing the United Nations organs and -procedures. 50 nations and
several non-governmental organizations attended and signed the Charter, committing to
maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations and
promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights. The UN officially came into
existence on October 24, 1945 after ratification of the Charter. The day is now celebrated each
year around the world as United Nations Day.
Founding of the United Nations

The name “United Nations,” coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was
first used in the “Declaration by United Nations” of 1 January 1942, during the Second World
War, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their governments to continue fighting together
against the Axis powers. The UN was founded following the Second World War, in 1945 when
the Nations were drafted at the UN Conference on International Organization in San Francisco,
California.
 UNITED NATIONS HAS SIX OFFICIAL LANGUAGES
 Arabic
 Chinese
 English
 French
 Russian
 Spanish
The main organs of the UN are the:
 General Assembly
 Security Council
 Economic and Social Council
 Trusteeship Council
 International Court of Justice
 UN Secretariat (un.org)
THE MAIN ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS
 General Assembly – is the main deliberative organ of the United Nations: all Member States
are represented equally. In the Assembly, each nation, large or small, has one vote.
 Security Council – is responsible for maintaining peace and security. Unlike the General
Assembly, the Security Council does not hold regular meetings.
 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – is the central body for coordinating the
economic and social work of the United Nations and the UN System.
 Trusteeship Council – was assigned to supervise the administration of 11 Trust Territories—
former colonies or dependent territories.
 International court of Justice (ICJ) – is the UN’s main judicial organ. The ICJ, or “World
Court”, assumed its functions in 1946.
 UN Secretariat – carries out the day-to-day work of the Organization. It is made up of an
international staff working at UN Headquarters in New York, as well as UN main offices in
Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The Secretariat works with UN System offices all over the world.

THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The UN as an International Organization has several roles to perform in the international
scene (un.org):
1. Maintain International Peace and Security
 The United Nations came into being in 1945, following the devastation of the Second World
War, with one central mission: the maintenance of international peace and security. The UN does
this by working to prevent conflict; helping parties in conflict make peace; peacekeeping; and
creating the conditions to allow peace to hold and flourish. These activities often overlap and
should reinforce one another, to be effective. The UN Security Council has the primary
responsibility for international peace and security. The General Assembly and the Secretary-
General play major, important and complementary roles, along with other UN offices and bodies.
2. Protect Human Rights

The term “human rights” was mentioned seven times in the UN’s founding Charter, making
the promotion and protection of human rights a key purpose and guiding principle of the
organization. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights brought human rights into the
realm of international law. Since then, the Organization has diligently protected human rights
through legal instruments and on-the-ground activities
3. Deliver Humanitarian Aid

One of the purposes of the United Nations, as stated in its Charter, is “to achieve
international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or
humanitarian character.” The UN first did this is the aftermath of the Second World War on the
devastated continent of Europe, which it helped to rebuild. The Organization is now relied upon
by the international community to coordinate humanitarian relief operations due to natural and
man-made disasters in areas beyond the relief capacity of national authorities alone.
4. Promote Sustainable Development

From the start of 1945, one of the main priorities of the United Nations was to “achieve
international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or
humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for
fundamental freedoms for all w/out distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.” Improving
people’s well-being continues to be one of the main focuses of the UN. The global understanding
of development has changed over the years, and countries now have agreed that sustainable
development – development that promotes prosperity and economic opportunity, greater social
well-being, and protection of the environment – offers the best path forward for improving the
lives of people everywhere.
5. Uphold International Law

The UN Charter, in its preamble, set an objective; “to establish conditions under which
justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of an international
law can be maintained”. Ever since, the development of, and respect for international law has
been a key part of the work of the Organization. This work is carries out in many ways – by
courts, tribunals, multilateral treaties – and by the Security Council, which can approve
peacekeeping missions, impose sanctions, or authorize the use of force when there is a threat to
international peace and security, if it deems this necessary. These powers are given to it by the
 UN Charter, which is considered an international treaty. As such as, it is an instrument of
international law, and UN members States are bound by it. The UN Charter codifies the major
principles of international relations, from sovereign equality of States to prohibition of the use of
force in international relations.
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND THE UNITED NATIONS
Globalizations promote development in all aspects of human life through
interdependence and integration. But it is without flaws. Globalization also creates “governance
gaps” that are evident in the business and human right situation the world faces at present.
Weiss and Thakur (2010) discussed the five gaps in global governance and how the
United Nations aim to fill in the gaps.
Five (5) Gaps in Global Governance
1. Knowledge Gaps

A phenomenon happens, more often than not, there are little information on the origin,
causes, the gravity of the phenomenon and the solutions that may be applied. The United Nation
can provide a platform wherein such phenomenon may be discussed, studied, and confronted so
that new knowledge can be placed in the limelight, improved, and later on disseminated
worldwide.
2. Normative Gaps

A norm can be defined statistically to mean the pattern of behavior that is most common or
usual that is a widely prevalent pattern of behavior. Alternatively, it can be defined ethically to
mean a pattern of behavior that should be followed in accordance with a given value system.
Collective’s norms, on the other hand, are shared patterns of behavior. As to when and how
norms became global, no one knows. No theory, research, or any data are available to explain,
how “i9nternational norms” became international.
Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink Postulate a three-stage life cycle of norms:
a. A new norm emerges and a norm entrepreneur advocates it
b. Enough actors agree on an emerging norm to create a tripping point, or norm cascade
c. Actors internalize the new norm so that it becomes taken for granted and norm conforming
behavior becomes routine, requiring no further justification.

The United Nations provides an organizational platform for advocacy in the first stage as
well as the preferred forum for cascade in the second and for seeking affirmation, reaffirmation,
and hopefully compliance in the third and final.
As a Universal Organization, the United Nations serves as a forum for seeking normative
consensus on how to deal with global problems in the best possible way.
Actors play a vital role in establishing a universal room.
3. Policy Gaps
Weiss and Thakur (2010) defined policy as an interlinked set of governing principles and
goals and the agreed programs of action to implement those principles and achieve those goals.
Analyzing policy gaps entails two challenges:
First: Who are the actors and relevant policymakers? Who made and implemented international
policy?
Second: What are the types of actors who play an ever-expanding role in the various sectors of
the nation?
Our policies are somewhat influenced by the international organizations that we are part
of. To put things in balance, the policymakers at the UN are actually the world body’s principal
political organs, the Security Council and the General Assembly.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) is the leading global
environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent
implementation of the environmental dimensions of sustainable development within the United
Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment
(unenvironment org.) one of its program is the promotion of biodiversity.

4. Institutional Gaps
Policies created, whether international or national, must be housed in an institution that
has resources and autonomy. One of the most obvious explanation, for institutional gaps is that
resources allocated are not proportionate to the problem. This is applicable to the problems of
most countries all over the world. Some of these problems are improving the welfare of women
and children, human rights protection, and the proliferation of HIV-AIDS.
International institutions are important because their existence is to deal primarily on
specific problems without any lace of politics. Take for example the protection of children’s
welfare. This program is under the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Funds are
allocated by the state to support this program. The Department of Social Welfare and
Development is the one implementing the protection of welfare of children.
5. Compliance Gaps
The fifth and final gap is the compliance gap. Compliance measures must include
mechanism to identify defections and defectors from agreed upon norms and commitments in the
realm of international governance as well as incentives that reward cooperation and disincentives
that punish defection, including the use of force to bring those who have not complied back into
line.
Approaching in analyzing compliance gaps has three facets:
 Implementation
 Monitoring
 Enforcement
One of the most difficult and challenging in filling up global governance gap is compliance gap.
The role of international organizations will come in very helpful. The World Trade Organization
and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade help in monitoring member-states who comply
in enforcing trade agreements.

LESSON 6- A WORLD OF REGIONS

(GLOBAL DIVIDES)
 Willy Brandt (the German Chancellor) in 1980 - proposed the Brandt line, created a
partition between the ‘developed’ North and ‘developing’ South.
 The Brandt Line, also known as the North-South divide, it is a divisionary line which
simply separates the rich countries in the North from the poor countries in the South.
 The North-South divide – is broadly considered a socio-economic and political divide.

 It encircles the world at latitude of

30°N. It crosses North and Central
America, North of Africa and India,
and then it goes down towards the
South, placing Australia and New
Zealand above the line.
 Global North – defined as the
richer, more developed region.
* Has enough food and shelter.
* Mostly covers the West and the First
World, along with much of the Second
World. (United States, Canada,
Western, Europe, as well as Australia and
New Zealand)
* Capitalist economies were considered
First World and socialist economies were
referred to as Second World.
* In economic terms – with one quarter of the world population
–controls four-fifths of the income earned anywhere in the world.

 Global South – is a term that has been emerging in the transnational and postcolonial
studies to refer to what may also call the “Third World” (i.e., Africa, Latin America, and
the developing countries in Asia).
* Third World – the category was used to refer to countries that were neither capitalist nor
socialist.
* The term was also used to refer to the poor world.
* In economic terms – with three quarters of world populations- has access to one-fifth of the
world income.
  Global South –
* Lacks appropriate technology
* Has no political stability, the economies are disarticulated, and their foreign exchange
earnings depend on primary product exports.
 As the nation’s become economically developed, they may become part of the “North”,
regardless of geographical location; similarly, any nations that do not qualify for
“developed’ status are in effect deemed to be part of the “South”.

 How the “Third World” became the Global South”

The world was largely divided into several empires in the 19th century (by A. Heelblod
2007). Each empire possessed a civilized and peripheries that were more or less primitive or
even “barbaric”. It is unlikely the citizens of what is now often called the “Global North”
(“developed” or high-income countries) would have given much thought to the inhabitants of
what was to become known as the Third World, and now, the Global South, also called
“developing or low-income countries.
Most people in the Third World, though rules by European colonies, lived far from global
sources of economic, political, and military power.

1. Colonialism
* Colonial Powers exploited the natural resources of their colonies, forming patterns of
trade that richly benefited the European nations at the expense of the colonies themselves.
* The colonies’ population provided a cheap pool of workers for performing labour
intensive tasks.
* While some colonial projects sought justifications on humanitarian grounds, they were
more often hall marked by coercion and inhumane treatment.
* Allen (2000b: 164) states that in 1995 65 out of 79 countries experiencing war or
political violence were underdeveloped.

2. International Causes
* Unfair trading practices - The system of international trade developed under
imperialism, whereby developing countries export cheap raw materials and import expensive
finished products persists to this day.
* Insufficient aid – Another fault of the international community is the unacceptable level
of aid provision. According to the World Bank, who estimated that the reallocation of existing
aid flows to poor countries with sound management would lift 18 million more annually out of
poverty (World Bank, 1998:16).

3. Education
* This stems from the fact that lack of education leads to other poor practices, such as
unprotected sex or poor land cultivation.
4. Health
* Sickness reduces productivity and thus reduces national output.
* Families are often forced to sell their productive assets to fund the cost of medication.
* High child mortality rates cause parents to have more children, which adds an added
cost burden to them.
* Disease scares off tourists and investors, valuable sources of income.
5. Opportunity
* Markets are the primary source of economic activity, but factor and product markets
are virtually non-existent in many least developed countries (LDCs).

6. Empowerment – means enhancing the capacity of poor people to influence the state
institutions that affect their lives’ (World Bank, 2001:38)
* Effective policies rely on the institutions charged with their implementation.
7. Security
* Enhancing security for poor people means reducing their vulnerability to such risks as
ill health, economic shocks, and natural disasters and helping them cope with the adverse shocks
when they occur.

 Regions – “a group of countries located in the same geographically specified area” or are
“an amalgamation of two regions (or) a combination of more than two regions” organized
to regulate and “oversee flows and policy choices.”
 Regionalization – the growth of societal integration within a region and to the often-
undirected processes of social and economic interaction.
 Regionalism – a political process characterized by economic policy cooperation and
coordination among countries.

Countries form regional associations for several reasons.

1. Military defense – The most widely known defense grouping is the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) formed during the Cold War when several Western European countries
plus the United States agreed to protect European against the treat of the Soviet Union.
2. To pool their resources, get better returns for their exports, as well as expand their leverage
against trading partners.
3. Form regional blocs to protect their independence from the pressures of superpower politics.
4. Finally, economic crisis compels countries to come together.

THE NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE

The North-South Divide is also known as Rich-Poor Divide, is an imaginary line separating from
economically developed (MEDC) and less economically developed (LEDC) countries.

THE DIVIDE
The North and South Divide is the socio-economic political divisions that exist between the
wealthy developed countries known as the “North” and the developing countries.
NORTH
In the North lay the More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) in the world. Some
countries which lay in the North part of the divide are Canada, United States, Greenland and Russia.

Why are the countries in the North considered MEDC?

The countries are considered MEDC because of the stability that their economy has and
the change that is happening within it.

How did the North gain this advantage?

The North has always seemed to have advantage over the South. The biggest advantage is the
North allowed to colonize the South was the technological advancement.

SOUTH
- It is also known as “Poor side”.
-These countries are known developing, meaning the GDP, HDI and general standard of living
within these countries are considered inferior to that of countries in the North.

Why are countries in the South considered LEDCs?

There are many reasons why countries in the South considered as LEDCs such as unstable
government and poor economy, citizens who have poor standard of living, low Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) and low Human Development Index (HDI).

Why is the South at such a disadvantage?

One factor that stands out is colonization. When the countries that are considered MEDCs are
listed down, it becomes apparent the most of these countries were, at some point of history, imperialists.

The GLOBAL SOUTH and the THIRD WORLD

Leigh,Ann Duck, who reflects on the Global South as co-editor of the Journal Global South,
highlights the positive impact of the term. In comparison with the “Third World” and “Developing
World”, she considers the term Global South to carry more weight in resisting hegemonic resources.

COLONIALISM, MODERNITY, AND THE CREATION OF GLOBAL INEQUALITY

According to Claudio (2014), in many respects, the global south is a product Western
imagination. The Spanish conquest of Latin America in the 16 th century produced what we recognize as
Latin America. During this time, the monarch of Spain conceived of the New World as a site of
evangelization of the Christian faith. The conquistadors saw non-Christian peoples as lesser beings,
requiring enlightenment by a Christian civilization.

Notes:
1. The South continue to be globalized.
2. The Global South provided models of resistance for the world.
3. As global problem intensifies, it becomes more and more necessary for people in the North support
alternatives from the south.
4. Emphasis on the state and interstate politics remains politically and analytically relevant most
specifically in addressing global inequalities.
LESSON 7- ASIAN REGIONALISM
Introduction:

This topic deals on the relationship between process and place, between globalization and Asia
Pacific and South Asia, how globalization influence Asia or how Asia influence other countries as a
process of globalization.

ASIA PACIFIC AND SOUTH ASIA AND THE WORLD

The term Asia itself come from the ancient Greek who categorized the world into three
Continents-Europe, Africa and Asia. In this sense, Asia as a region, was initially defined externally rather
than from within. The exact boundaries of Asia have been a matter of contention since its inception and
demarcation has often been made along cultural or political lines rather than according to any clear
geographical rationale.

The Asia-Pacific and South Asia refer together to the regions of the East Asia, Southeast Asia and
the Pacific Islands and South Asia. In addition to differences in language and culture, the variation among
states and people in this region is vast. It also includes some of the world’s most economically developed
states such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan, and highly impoverished countries such as
Cambodia, Laos and Nepal.

AN EXERNALIST VIEW OF GLOBALIZATION

The Asian regions as being influenced by social relations from other countries.

Regionalism and Regionalization

1. Region: A group of countries in the same geography specified area. (Southeast Asia)
2. Regionalization: It is the societal integration and the often undirected process of social and economic
interaction (Grouping).

EXERNALIST VIEW
An externalist view refers to the colonial rule and dominance of Western countries to Asian
countries.

It also describes the different experiences of these countries like war, financial crisis, cultural
homogenization, and destruction of their cultural diversity and many other experiences of Asian countries
as they connect to the world.
The Region as an Object Impacted by Globalization
1. Colonial rule and dominance
2. World War II
3. Adoption of expert oriented growth
4. Asian financial crisis
5. The cornerstone of economic liberalization and globalization in post war global economy.
6. Membership to World Trade Organization
7. Liberalization of economy
EFFECTS ON POLITICS
“There was a substantial fall in authoritarian regime, rise in democratic regime”
 In the region, the past three decades have witnessed a substantial fall in authoritarian regime. This
has been attributed to a number of factors including rising middle classes, a more globally connected
world, and the end of the cold war. (Hungtinton, 1991).

INFLUENCE ON CULTURE

One of the most prevalent critiques of globalization has been its effect son culture. This critique has
come from a number of different directions, the most prominent being the idea that globalization is a form
of cultural Westernization summed up in the term “Mcworld” (Barber, 2003).
 Globalization is leading to cultural homogenization and destruction of cultural diversity.

Generating Globalization: Asia as Springboard

1. Spice Trade
2. Early modern world economy
3. Colonialism
4. Rise of Japan on procurement of raw materials.
5. Rise of China: Producer and consumer
6. The Rise of India
7. International migrant labor
8. Remittance from migrant workers
9. Rise of regional free trade arrangements
10. Open regionalism
11. Asian products in global market

The Anti-Global Impulse: Regional Alternatives to Globalization

1. Japan’s colonization of the region in 1930s and 40s.
2. Asian way
3. Regional arrangements
4. Asian monetary fund
5. Regional terror network
6. Local movements that emerged
7. Santi Suk in Thailand
8. Japan

LESSON 8- GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURE

MEDIA DEFINED
According to Lule (2014), the word media are tools used to store and deliver information or data.
The term is used synonymously with mass media, but it can also refer to a single medium used to
communicate any data for any purpose. Technically, any vehicle through which we receive information
can be considered. For example, one of the definitions of medium is a means or channel of
communication or expression

When people use media today, however, they are usually referring to the mass, which
traditionally has included print journalist, radio and television. The term mass media simple refers to the
technological instruments through which communication flows. Televisions and newspapers are examples
of mass media which have entertainment, news, and educational programming.

EVOLUTION OF MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION

 In the study of globalization, there are five time periods that usefully capture the study of
globalization and media: oral and script, print, electronic, and digital.

Each different time periods as stated by Lule (2014) points out how the media of each time period
contributed to the globalization of the world. The focus of the discussion is not how much media progress
but how media and globalization have developed sporadically, erratically, in fit and starts, driven by
human needs, desires and actions, resulting in great benefits and sometimes greater harm. The history of
media and globalization id the history of humanity itself.

 Oral Communication
Speech is often the most overlooked medium in histories of globalization. Yet the oral medium-
human-speech-is the oldest and most enduring of all media. Over hundreds of thousands of years, despite
humorous changes undergone by human and their societies, the very first and last human will share at
least one thing-ability to speak.
 Script
This is the stage that explores the brief transaction from the oral form of communication to printing.
Distance and time are the factors to be considered. As communication travels on distant places and
different period of times. There emerges problem and difficulties because language relies on the capacity
of our memory and scientifically, we know that memory of people also expires and transmission message
may not reach the level of accuracy.
 The Printing Press
Prior to the printing press, the production and copying of written documents was slow, cumbersome,
and expensive. The papyrus parchment, and paper that spread civilizations were the province of a select
powerful few. Reading and writing too, were practices of the ruling and religious elite.

 Electronic Media
Lule (2014) narrates the beginning of the electronic media. He said in the 13 th century, a host of new
media would revolutionize the ongoing process of globalization. Scholars have come to call these electric
media because they require electromagnetic energy. The vast reach of this electronic media continues to
open up new vistas in the economic, political and cultural process of globalization.

 Digital Media
Digital media as Lule (2014) states are more often electronic media that rely on digital codes-the
long arcane combination of 0s and is that represent information. Many of our earlier media such as
phones and televisions can be now as digital.

GLOBAL VILLAGE
Campbell, et al. (2010) discusses about Mcluhan, in his book “The Guttenburg Galaxy” (1964),
Mcluhan claimed that “The new” electronic interdependence recreates the world in the image of a global
village”. The metaphor evokes a time long since past when people live in villages where they have
relatively equal access to public information, since this information was distributed by the town crier,
whose voice reached everyone.

The metaphor of the global village also broke down at the level of communication exchanges.
The original village allowed people to receive and send information. There was the opportunity to ask
questions, to engage in a dialogue, both with the town crier and with other members of the village. And
by promoting the conceptual foundation of the world’s market economy. Economic globalization, from
this perspective is not just dollars and cents, but story and myth-narratives that make natural the buying
and selling products across borders and boundaries and mythic celebrations of products and consumption.

MEDIA AND ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

The media have been essential to the growth of economic globalization in our world. Indeed, the
media have made the economic globalization possible by creating the conditions for global capitalism.

MEDIA AND POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

Globalization has transformed world politics in profound ways. It led to the formation and then
the overthrow of kingdoms and empires. It led to the creation of the nation-state. And now some argue
that the nation-state is being weakened as people and borders become ever more fluid in our globalized
world.

Of utmost importance, through media corporations are themselves powerful political actors,
individual journalist is subject to brutal and intense intimidation as more actors contend for power. There
has never been a more dangerous time to work in media.

MEDIA AND CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION

According to Lule (2010), the media on one media, on the level, are the primary carriers of
culture. Through newspapers, magazines, movies, advertisements, television, radio, the Internet, and the
other forms, the media produce and display cultural products, form pop songs to top films. They also
generate numerous and ongoing interactions among cultures, such as when American hip hop music is
heard by Cuban youth. Yet, the media are much more than technology more than mechanical conveyors
of culture, more than simple carriers of editorial cartoons or McDonald’s advertisements.

The media are people. These are people active economic agents and aggressive political lobbyist
on matters on culture. They market brands aggressively. They seek out new markets worldwide for their
cultural products. They actively bring about interactions of culture for beauty, power and profit.

As the globalization has increased the frequency of contact among cultures., the world has been
given another awkward term-globalization. In this perspective, the media and the globalization are facts
of life in local cultures. But local culture is not static and fixed local culture is not pliable and weak.
Awaiting and fearing contact from the outside.

LESSON 9- THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION

Introduction:
Generally, globalization is first thought of “in economic and political term” as a movement of
capitalism spreading across the globe. It calls to mind “homogenizing” exports of the US such as Nike,
McDonald’s and MTV. However, since globalization can be defined as a process of an “ever more
interdependent world´ where political, economic, social, and cultural relationships are not restricted to
territorial boundaries or to state actors, globalization has much do with its impact on cultures.

As goods and finance crisscross across the globe, globalization shifts the cultural make-up of the
globe. And creates homogenized “global culture”. Although not a new phenomenon, the process of
globalization has truly made the world a smaller place in which political, social and economic events
elsewhere affects individual anywhere. As a result, individuals “search for constant time and space-
bounded identities” in a world ever changing by the day. One such identity is religion.

RELIGION
 Generally, religion is a system of beliefs and practices. More specifically the word comes from
the Latin “religare” which means “to bind together again that which was once bound but has since been
torn apart or broken. Indeed, with the globalization of economics and politics, individual feel insecure “as
the life they once led is being contested and changed at the same time”. Hence, in order for a person to
maintain sense of psychological well-being and avoid existential anxiety. Individuals turn to scripture
stories and teachings that provide a vision about how they can be bound to a meaningful world, a world
that is quickly changing day-by-day.

MOST WIDELY PRACTICED RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

According to Juan (2006), there are about 4,300 religions of the world. This is according to
adherents, an independent, non-religiously affiliated organization that monitors the number and size of the
world’s religions.

Side-stepping the issue of what constitutes a religion, adherents divide religions into churches,
denominations, congregations, religious bodies, faith groups, tribes, cultures and movements. All are of
varying size and influence.

Nearly 75 percent of the world’s population practices one of the five most influential religions of
the world: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism. Christianity and Islam are the two
religions most widely spread across the world. These two religions together cover the religious affiliation
of more than half of the world’s population. If all non-religious people formed a single religion. It would
be the world’s third largest.

One of the most widely-held myths among those in English-speaking countries is that Islamic
believers are Arabs. In fact, most Islamic people do not live in the Arabic nations of the Middle
East.

The world’s 20 largest religion and their number of believers.

1. Christianity (2.1 Billion)
2. Islam (1.3 Billion)
3. Nonreligous (Secular/Agnostic/Atheist) (1.1 Billion)
4. Hinduism (900 million)
5. Chinese Traditional Religion (394 million)
6. Buddhism (376 million)
7. Primal Indigenous (300 million)
8. African Traditional and Diasporic (100 million)
9. Sikhism (23 million)
10. Juche (19 million)
11. Spiritism (15 million)
12. Judaism (14 million)
13. Bahai (7 million)
14. Jainism (4.2 million)
15. Shinto (4 million)
16. Cao Dai (4 million)
17. Zoroastrianism (2.6 million)
18. Tenrikyo (2 million)
 19. Neo-paganism (1 million)
20. Unitarian-Universalism (800,000)

RELIGION AND GLOBALIZATION

Religion and globalization persistently engage in a flexible relationship in which the former relies
on the latter in order to thrive and flourish while at the same time challenging its (globalizations)
hybridizing effects. Globalization-due to the advent of communication and transportation technology and
the roles played by the media. -has contributed to the deterritorliazation and the blurring of geographical
spaces and boundaries. This has resulted apparently in making the world a small village where people,
cultures, and identities come in daily face-to-face contact with each other.

The relationship between globalization and religion characterizes new possibilities and
challenges. Religion has a lot of opportunities to use new strategies brought about by modernization, i.e.,
communication and transportation technology. With the increasing ease to travel long distance, people are
able to travel to religious sites; these pilgrimages are often very important for different religious
traditions.

According to El Azzouzi (2013) undoubtedly, religion is not immune from these changes and
their burgeoning effects brought about globalization.

Globalization has played a tremendous role in providing a context for the current considerable
revival and the resurgence of religion. Today, most religions are not relegated to the few countries where
they began. Religions have, in fact spread and scattered on a global scale.

GLOBALIZATION ENGENDERING GREATER RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with overlapping but distinctive
ethics and interests” interact with one another. Essentially, the world’s leading religious traditions,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam-teach values such as human dignity, equality,
freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions maintain the Golden Rule: “What you don’t
wish done to yourself, do not do to others”. Therefore, through such religious values, globalization
engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics and society.

CONFLICT AMONG WORLD RELIGIONS

As an effect of religious tolerance, globalization transform for the generic “religion” into a world-
system of competing and conflicting religions. This process of institutional specialization has transformed
local, diverse and fragmented cultural practices into recognizable systems of religion. Globalization has
therefore had the paradoxical effect of making religions more self-conscious of themselves as being
“world religions” (Golebiewski, 2014).

Such conflicts among the world religions exhibit a solid proof among world religions exhibit a
solid proof conforming the erosion and the failure of hybridity. Since religions have distinct internal
structures, their connection to different worshipping ways and practices as the case with Islam and
Christianity, contradict and mostly incompatible to other, such religions cannot be hybridized or
homogenized, as it is claimed, though they always come in contact.

Violence and discrimination against religious groups by governments and rival faiths have
reached new highs in all regions of the world except the Americas, according to a new report by the Pew
Research Centre.
Social hostility such as attacks on minority faiths or pressure to conform to certain norms was strong in
one-third of the 198 countries and territories surveyed in 2012, especially in the Middle East and North
Africa, it said on Tuesday.

Religious-related terrorism and sectarian violence occurred in one-fifth of those countries in that
year, while states imposed legal limits on worship, preaching or religious wear in almost 30 percent of
them, Pew said. “Religious hostilities increased in every major region of the world except the Americas,"
Pew said in its report, the latest such survey in a series based on data back to 2007.

The Washington-based center, which is non-partisan and takes no policy position in its reports,
gave no reason for the rises noted in hostility against Christians, Muslims, Jews and an "other" category
including Sikhs, Bah'ais and atheists.
Hindus, Buddhists and folk religions saw lower levels of hostility and little change in the past six years,
according to the report's extensive data.

As some restrictive countries such as China, Indonesia, Russia and Egypt also have large
populations, Pew estimated that 76 percent of the total global population faces some sort of official or
informal restriction on their faith. A report last week by the Christian group Open Doors said documented
cases of Christians killed for their faith last year had doubled to 2,123 around the world, with Syria
accounting for more than the entire global total in 2012.

Results for strong social hostility such as anti-Semitic attacks, Islamist assaults on churches and
Buddhist agitation against Muslims were the highest seen since the series began, reaching 33 percent of
surveyed countries in 2012 after 29 percent in 2011 and 20 percent in mid-2007.
Official bans, harassment or other government interference in religion rose to 29 percent of countries
surveyed in 2012 after 28 percent in 2011 and 20 percent in mid-2007.
Europe showed the largest median increase in hostility due to a rise in harassment of women because of
religious dress and violent attacks on minorities such as the murder of a rabbi and three Jewish children
by an Islamist radical in France.

The report found the highest social hostility concerning religion in Pakistan, Afghanistan, India,
Somalia and Israel. It gave no reasons but radical Islamists often target mainstream Muslims and
Christians in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Somalia, while India has recurring tensions between its majority
Hindus and minority Muslims and Christians.
Tensions in Israel arise from the Palestinian issue, disagreements between secular and religious Jews and
the growth of ultra-Orthodox sects that live apart from the majority.
The five countries with the most government restrictions on religion are Egypt, China, Iran, Saudi Arabia
and Indonesia.
 The world's two largest faiths, Christianity and Islam, make up almost half the world's population
and were the most widely targetted in 2012, facing official and social hostility in 110 and 109 countries
respectively.
Jews suffer hostility in 71 countries, even though they make up only 0.2 percent of the world's population
and about 80 percent of them live in Israel and the United States.
The report said there were probably more restrictions on religion around the world than its
statistics could document but its results could be considered "a good estimate".
It classified war and terrorism as social hostility, arguing: "It is not always possible to determine the
degree to which they are religiously motivated or state sponsored."
North Korea, which last week's Open Doors report described as the most dangerous country for Christians
in the world, was absent from the Pew study due to a lack of data on its tightly closed society.

LESSON 10- THE GLOBAL POPULATION AND MOBILITY

Introduction:

To understand the structure of a Global City, we have understood it as a place where certain kinds
of work can get done, to get beyond the dichotomy between manufacturing and services because the
“things” a Global City makes are services and financial goods.

Global City
A Global City is a city generally considered to be an important node in the global economic
system. The concept comes from geography and urban studies and rests on the idea that globalization can
be understood as largely created, facilitated, and enacted in strategic geographic locales according to a
hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade. The most complex of
these entities is the "global city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on
global affairs through socio-economic means. The use of "global city", as opposed to "megacity", was
popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo
though the term "world city" to describe cities that control a disproportionate amount of global business
dates to at least the May 1886 description of Liverpool by The Illustrated London News. Patrick Geddes
also used the term "world city" later in 1915. Cities can also fall from such categorization, as in the case
of cities that have become less cosmopolitan and less internationally renowned in the current era.
A Global City is a significant production point of specialized financial and producer services that
make the globalized economy run. Thus, cities are major nodes in the interconnected systems of
information and money, and the wealth that they capture is in timely related to the specialized businesses
that facilitate those flows. Financial institutions, consulting firms, accounting firms, law firms, and media
organizations. However, these flows are no longer tightly bound to national boundaries and system of
regulations; so the dynamics of the global city are dramatically different than those of the great cities of
the 19th century (Sassen, 2013).

According to Vliet and Van in their writings about “Cities in a Globalization”, the effects of
globalization certainly can be felt in rural and urban areas but certainty the global forces are centered in
cities where we can see most clearly phenomena of associated with their activities and as such the
attributes of a global city;
1. Structure of employment;
2. Formation of powerful partnerships;
 3. Development of monumental real estate;
4. Emergence of new forms of local governance;
5. Effects of organized crime;
6. Expansion of corruption;
7. Fragmentation of inform networks or the spatial isolation, and;
8. Social exclusion of certain population groups
Contributions of Cities as Engines of Globalization
1. Provision of suitable labor force
2. Availability of physical and technological infrastructure
3. Creation of stable and accommodating regulatory environment
4. Existence of necessary support services
5. Institutional capacity and Financial Incentives

The role of city authorities and their civil societies also play important roles in mediating on the
determining the necessities of its cities that could be contribute to globalization and most especially the
relationship between economic globalization and human development so that cities act not on as engines
of growth but also for greater social justice and environmental sustainability.

The Top 20 known Cities in the World

1. Hong Kong – Hong Kong, China.
Hong Kong is a major shopping destination, famed for bespoke tailors and Temple Street Night
Market.
2. Bangkok – Thailand
A global hub that’s the gateway to the rest of Asia, Bangkok is famous for its Buddhist shrines,
street shopping and local food.
1. London – United Kingdom
Big Ben, the London Eye, Buckingham Palace and means London stays front and centre.
2. Singapore City – Singapore
It is home to the world’s most Instagrammable hotel, an exciting mix of cultures and state-of-the-
art restaurants.
3. Macau –China
With the nickname, “Las Vegas of Asia”, Macau is a mega-popular casino city where everything
is OTT.
4. Paris – France (15.834 million)
The City Of Love will continue to be one of the world’s most loved holiday destinations. Its
biggest attractions? The Eiffel Tower and great cuisine.
5. Dubai – United Arab Emirates
Dubai has burst onto the tourism scene with fancy resorts, outstanding museums and shopping
malls and a luxury vibe.
6. New York City – US
 Where to begin with the Big Apple? Each borough offers something different, from trendy
Brooklyn to stylish Manhattan.
7. Kuala Lumpur – Malaysia
Home to the famous Petronas Twin Towers, the skyline here at night is unforgettable. One of the
worlds most visited cities is well worth a visit.

8. Shenzhen – China
Shenzhen links Hong Kong to China’s mainland and is a fantastic place to come to for designer
shopping.
9. Phuket – Thailand
The island of Phuket has beautiful beaches, a pretty Old Town and five-star resorts, so it’s easy to
see why so many people want to visit.
10. Istanbul – Turkey
Istanbul is the country’s economic, cultural and historic centre.
11. Delhi – India
Made up of New Delhi and Old Delhi, this city never slows down. Enjoy the famous street food
markets and buzz.
14. Tokyo – Japan
Super busy but super exciting, Tokyo offers a look into the future of what every city
could be like.
15. Rome – Italy
Drink incredible wine, see the Vatican and the Colosseum in Italy’s must-visit city.
16. Antalya – Turkey
A popular Turkish resort city, Antalya continues to be a popular pick for holidaymakers looking
to relax in the sun.
17. Taipei – Taiwan
Come to Taipei for its busy shopping streets and lively street-food scene.
18. Guangzhou – China
China’s third biggest city has internationally renowned restaurants, striking buildings and
mountain views.
19. Mumbai – India
Mumbai is an exciting, busy city with a vibrant nightlife scene and colonial buildings.
20 Prague – Czech Republic
 Nicknamed “the City of a Hundred Spires,” Prague is an affordable option for many young
travelers.
These countries set themselves as examples of leading nations toward globalization like New
York, London, Paris, Bangkok and Dubai exemplify the characterization of global cities because of their
outstanding system that addresses national problems, provide solutions for contemporary problems and
execute innovation toward growth economically, politically and economically.

LESSON 11- GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY

Introduction

In the past 50 years, the world accelerated its transition out of long-term demographic stability.
As infant and child mortality rates fell, populations began to soar. In most countries, this growth led to
falling fertility rates. Although fertility has fallen, the population continues to increase because of
population momentum; it will eventually level off. In the meantime, demographic change has created a
‘bulge’ generation, which today appears in many countries as a large working-age population.
This cohort will eventually become a large elderly population, in both developed and developing
countries. Population growth has been the subject of great debate among economists and demographers.
Until recently, most have agreed on a middle ground, in which population growth per se has no effect on
economic growth. New evidence suggests that changes in the age structure of populations – in particular,
a rising ratio of working-age to non-working-age individuals – leads to the possibility of more rapid
economic growth, via both accounting and behavioral effects.
The experiences of east Asia, Ireland and sub-Saharan Africa all serve as evidence of the effect of
demographic change on economic growth (or lack thereof). Both internal migration (from rural to urban
areas) and international migration complicate this picture. The overall implications of population growth
for policy lie in the imperative for investments in health and education, and for sound policies related to
labor, trade and retirement. Understanding future trends is essential for the development of good policy.
Demographic projections can be quite reliable, but huge uncertainties – in the realms of health, changes in
human life span, scientific advances, migration, global warming and wars – make overall predictions
extremely uncertain.

Global Demographic Trends and Patterns

The global population, which stood at just over 2 billion in 1950, is 6.5 billion today. The world
is currently gaining new inhabitants at a rate of 76 million people a year (representing the difference, in
2005, between 134 million births and 58 million deaths). Although this growth is slowing, middle-ground
projections suggest the world will have 9.1 billion inhabitants by 2050, when growth will be
approximately 34 million a year.
These past and projected additions to world population have been, and will increasingly be, distributed
unevenly across the world. Today, 95 per cent of population growth occurs in developing countries (see
Figure 1). The population of the world's 50 least-developed countries is expected to more than double by
the middle of this century, with several poor countries tripling their population over the period. By
contrast, the population of the
developed world is expected to
remain steady at around 1.2
billion, with population declines
in some wealthy countries.

The disparity in
population growth between
developed and developing
countries reflects the existence of
considerable heterogeneity in
birth, death and migration
processes, both over time and
across national populations, races
and ethnic groups. The disparity
has coincided with changes in the
age-group composition of
populations. An overview of
these factors illuminates the
mechanisms of global population
growth and change.

The Demographic Transition

The demographic transition theory is a generalized description of the changing pattern of
mortality, fertility and growth rates as societies move from one demographic regime to another.
The term was first coined by the American demographer Frank W. Notestein in the mid-
twentieth century, but it has since been elaborated and expanded upon by many others.
There are four stages to the classical demographic transition model:
Stage 1: Pre-transition
Characterized by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates. Population growth was kept low by
Malthusian "preventative" (late age at marriage) and "positive" (famine, war, pestilence) checks.
Stage 2: Early transition
During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall. As birth rates remain high, the
population starts to grow rapidly.
Stage 3: Late transition Birth rates start to decline. The rate of population growth decelerates.
Stage 4: Post-transition
Post-transitional societies are characterized by low birth and low death rates. Population growth is
negligible, or even enters a decline.
 These four stages are depicted on the graph below.

Common Reasons for Expatriation

Expatriate failure isn’t hugely common, but it still does happen. Often the reasons for it are either
one of two things – personal, or due to insufficient support and help from a global mobility team. Given
the life changing nature of such relocations, it is unsurprising that there are sometimes major issues – it’s
not a move everyone is going to be able to make. So why does it happen?
1. Culture Shock
Culture shock is often one of the most typical reasons for expatriate failure. It occurs where a
candidate is not fully prepared for the new culture their assignment requires them to be a part of, whether
there are language barriers, strict laws or customs or even just a totally unfamiliar climate and daily
routine. While an element of this can be down to a lack of preparation or insufficient information, often
the candidate is simply just not right for the role based on his or her own personality and needs. Culture
shock is most common on assignments based in the Middle East, where, especially for women, laws and
customs can be debilitating. Yet, for those candidates who are culturally flexible, these assignments can
be greatly rewarding.
2. Family Stress
International assignments are already difficult for the individual, and for a family they can often
be even harder. Relocating the entire family is difficult: there needs to be spousal support, decisions made
about schools, daycare, the partner’s career and even basic things like family healthcare. Language
barriers and housing needs can become more complicated and rather than just one person’s ability to
adapt to a new culture defining the success of the assignment, it’s an entire family. There are still
opportunities and fantastic experiences to be had by sharing in an international assignment, but they are
not without their risks.
3. The Global Mobility Team
A suitable and well-organized Global Mobility team are essential to the success of an
international assignment. They are responsible for arranging all support for a candidate: information
about the local culture, transport, housing, school searches, spousal support and many other vital aspects
of daily life. If the team fail to supply adequate information or offer the right support, candidates can
often sign up an assignment very different from what they were expecting, costing companies thousands
in relocation fees.
4. Responsibility Overload
As well as dealing with the responsibilities of a new job, candidates have to adjust to a new
culture and new work environment and the challenges that brings. Trying to manage local staff can often
be difficult due to cultural differences, and often staff teams can be larger than a candidate may have
before been used to. Overload of responsibility can lead to increased stress, physical exhaustion and
emotion impacts such as anxiety, frustration and anger.
5. Poor Candidate Selection
More often than not, the assignment fails because the corporation has made a poor choice in
candidate. If a selection is based on headquarters criteria, rather than the assignment needs, or even the
candidate needs, the assignment is almost doomed to fail. While someone may appear to be perfect for the
role on paper, their own personal needs can often make them the worst candidate overall.

LESSON 12- GLOBAL MIGRATION

Introduction
This chapter focuses specifically on international migration because of its ink to international
globalization and its significance in creating multi-ethnic societies. International migration is integral part
of globalization, which may be characterized as the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide
interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life.
MIGRATION
Migration is the movement of people from one place to live in another. Emigrants leave their
country, while immigrants enter a country. Migration impacts on both the place left behind, and on the
place where migrants settle. People have many reasons why they might want to move from one place to
another. These reasons may be economic, social, political or environmental. For migration to take place
there are usually push factors and pull factors at work.
Migration tends to be regarded as problematic; something to be controlled and even curved,
because it may about unpredictable changes. And one way in which states seek to improve control of the
problems is by dividing up international migrants into categories.
 Since the earliest times, humanity has been on the move. Some people move in search of work or
economic opportunities, to join family, or to study. Others move to escape conflict, persecution,
terrorism, or human rights violations. Still others move in response to the adverse effects of climate
change, natural disasters, or other environmental factors.
Today, more people than ever live in a country other than the one in which they were born. In
2019, the number of migrants globally reached an estimated 272 million, 51 million more than in 2010.
International migrants comprise 3.5 per cent of the global population. Compared to 2.8 per cent in 2000
and 2.3 per cent in 1980, the proportion of international migrants in the world population has also risen.
While many individuals migrate out of choice, many others migrate out of necessity. The number of
globally forcibly displaced people topped 70 million for the first time in UNHCR's almost 70-year history
at the end of 2018. This number includes almost 26 million refugees, 3.5 million asylum seekers, and over
41 million internally displaced persons.
Who is a migrant?
The UN Migration Agency (IOM) defines a migrant as any person who is moving or has moved across an
international border or within a State away from his/her habitual place of residence, regardless of (1) the
person’s legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the causes for the
movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is.
Data on Migration
In 2019, the number of international migrants worldwide – people residing in a country other than
their country of birth – reached 272 million (from 258 million in 2017). Female migrants constituted 48
per cent of this international migrant stock. There are an estimated 38 million migrant children, three out
of four international migrants are of working age, meaning between 20 and 64 years old. 164 million are
migrant workers. Approximately 31% of the international migrants worldwide reside in Asia, 30% in
Europe, 26% in the Americas, 10% in Africa and 3% in Oceania [Source: Global Migration Data Portal].
It can be a challenge to make sense of available migration data, as this is often scattered across different
organizations and agencies, and not easily comparable. IOM’s Global Migration Data Analysis
Centre runs the Global Migration Data Portal, which serves as a unique access point to timely,
comprehensive migration statistics and reliable information about migration data globally. The site
presents migration data from diverse sources and aims to help policy makers, national statistical officers,
journalists and the general public interested in migration to navigate the increasingly complex landscape
of migration data.

Categories of Migration
 There are two basic types of migration studied by demographers:
1. Internal migration. This refers to a change of residence within national boundaries, such as
between states, provinces, cities, or municipalities. An internal migrant is someone who moves to
a different administrative territory.
2. International migration. This refers to change of residence over national boundaries. An
international migrant is someone who moves to a different country. International migrants are
further classified as legal immigrants, illegal immigrants, and refugees. Legal immigrants are
those who moved with the legal permission of the receiver nation, illegal immigrants are those
 who moved without legal permission, and refugees are those crossed an international boundary to
escape persecution.

Causes of Migration
1. To escape past or future persecution based on race, religion, nationality, and/or membership in a
particular social group or political opinion
In most countries, and in the United States, families and individuals who meet this criteria may
obtain refugee status or asylum. Now, here’s the difference: refugees must secure their status prior to
entering the country of choice, whereas asylum seekers seek status upon arrival. A complex
differentiation that causes a lot of confusion in the process to get people to safety.
2. To escape conflict or violence
In many countries, but not the United States, families and individuals who immigrate to escape
conflicts like war and violence can be considered for refugee status or asylum.
3. To find refuge after being displaced due to environmental factors
Natural disasters, erosion, and other environmental factors caused by climate change are real
threats that disproportionately affect people living in poverty. In fact, Christian Aid reports that 1 billion
people could be displaced in the next 50 years as the effects of climate change worsen.
People who fit this description are dubbed climate “refugees,” but the name does not necessarily imply
they have, or can receive, refugee status. As this is a newer phenomenon, many countries are still trying
to determine how to respond to this growing issue.
4. To seek superior healthcare
Imagine living in a country with limited access to healthcare when you’re suffering from serious
health problems. Not fun.
5. To escape poverty
6. To offer more opportunities to children
Parents sometimes make the difficult decision to migrate so their children can benefit from things
like superior education, and plentiful job opportunities.
7. Family reunification
8. For educational purposes
9. For jobs and business opportunities
In some cases, people migrate with the knowledge or hope that more opportunities will be
available to them in their particular field than at home. Others migrate after employment has already been
offered to them.
10. Marriage
In today’s globalized world, long-distance dating is all the rage. But, for couples ready to take the
next step down the aisle, migrating to be together is the obvious choice (and a lot easier on the wallet.
LESSON 13- SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
The concept of sustainable development can be interpreted in many different
ways, but at its core is an approach to development that looks to balance
different, and often competing, needs against an awareness of the
environmental, social and economic limitations we face as a society.

All too often, development is driven by one particular need, without

fully considering the wider or future impacts. We are already seeing the
damage this kind of approach can cause, from large-scale financial crises
caused by irresponsible banking, to changes in global climate resulting from
our dependence on fossil fuel-based energy sources. The longer we pursue
unsustainable development, the more frequent and severe its consequences
are likely to become, which is why we need to take action now.  

Sustainable development is about finding better ways of doing things, both for the future
and the present. We might need to change the way we work and live now, but this doesn't mean
our quality of life will be reduced.

A sustainable development approach can bring many benefits in the short to medium term, for
example: Savings - As a result of SDC scrutiny, government has saved over £60m by improving
efficiency across its estate. Health & Transport - Instead of driving, switching to walking or
cycling for short journeys will save you money, improve your health and is often just as quick
and convenient.

The way we approach development affects everyone. The impacts of our decisions as a
society have very real consequences for people's lives. Poor planning of communities, for
example, reduces the quality of life for the people who live in them. (Relying on imports rather
than growing food locally puts the UK at risk of food shortages.)

Sustainable development provides an approach to making better decisions on the issues

that affect all of our lives. By incorporating health plans into the planning of new communities,
for instance, we can ensure that residents have easy access to healthcare and leisure facilities.
(By encouraging more sustainable food supply chains, we can ensure the UK has enough food
for the long-term future.
 The Sustainable Development Goals are the blueprint to achieve a better and more
sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face, including those related to
poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice.
The 17Goals are all interconnected, and in order to leave no one behind, it is important that we
achieve them all by 2030.
The Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) are a new, universal set of goals, targets and
indicators that UN member states will be expected to use to frame their agendas and political
policies over the next 15 years.
The SDGs follow and expand on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were
agreed by governments in 2001 and are due to expire at the end of this year.
Why do we need another set of goals?
There is broad agreement that, while the MDGs provided a focal point for governments –
a framework around which they could develop policies and overseas aid programmes designed to
end poverty and improve the lives of poor people – as well as a rallying point for NGOs to hold
them to account, they were too narrow.
The eight MDGs – reduce poverty and hunger; achieve universal education; promote
gender equality; reduce child and maternal deaths; combat HIV, malaria and other diseases;
ensure environmental sustainability; develop global partnerships – failed to consider the root
causes of poverty and overlooked gender inequality as well as the holistic nature of development.
The goals made no mention of human rights and did not specifically address economic
development. While the MDGs, in theory, applied to all countries, in reality they were
considered targets for poor countries to achieve, with finance from wealthy states. Conversely,
every country will be expected to work towards achieving the SDGs.
As the MDG deadline approaches, about 1 billion people still live on less than $1.25 a
day – the World Bank measure on poverty – and more than 800 million people do not have
enough food to eat. Women are still fighting hard for their rights, and millions of women still die
in childbirth.
What are the proposed 17 goals?
1) End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2) End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable
agriculture
3) Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages
4) Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities
for all
5) Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6) Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7) Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
8) Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment, and decent work for all
9) Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster
innovation
10) Reduce inequality within and among countries
11) Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12) Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13) Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (taking note of agreements
made by the UNFCCC forum)
14) Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
15) Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss
16) Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17) Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development

Sustainable development provides an approach to making better decisions on the issues

that affect all of our lives. By incorporating health plans into the planning of new communities,
for instance, we can ensure that residents have easy access to healthcare and leisure facilities.
(By encouraging more sustainable food supply chains, we can ensure the UK has enough food
for the long-term future.
 Migratory movement once started become self-sustaining social processes. This led to the
booming of “migration industry” consisting of recruitment organization, lawyers, agents, smugglers, and
other middle-people. Such people can be both helpers and exploiters of migrants.

LESSON 14- GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

Introduction

The food ‘problem’ has become a global obsession. How much

and what kind of food is produced, how and by whom; how it is
moved, processed, packaged and sold and with what impacts; who gets
what and how much to eat, and at the expense of whom e and what the
future might hold for all these variables; these questions are now the
subject of measurement, analysis, critique and campaigning in
research journals, policy documents, newspapers and television
screens worldwide.

GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

Food security is defined as the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is
considered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Stages of
food insecurity range from food secure situations to full-scale famine. The World Food Summit
of 1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all times have access to sufficient,
safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life".

The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all times
have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life". Commonly,
the concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic access to food
that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences. Household food security
exists when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life.
Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or unavailability of
 critical food supply due to various risk factors including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel
shortages, economic instability, and wars.

 Food stability: Refers to the ability to obtain food over time.

 Food access: Refers to the affordability and allocation of food, as well as the preferences
of individuals and households.
 Food availability: Relates to the supply of food through production, distribution, and
exchange.

Two (2) common definitions of Food Security

Two common definitions of food security come from the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), and the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):

 Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active
and healthy life. (FAO)
 Food security for a household means access by all members at all times to enough food
for an active, healthy life. Food security includes at a minimum, (USDA):

(1) The ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods

(2) An assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways (that is, without
resorting to emergency food supplies, scavenging, stealing, or other coping strategies).

In 2006 it was reported that globally, the number of people who are overweight has
surpassed the number who are undernourished - the world had more than one billion people who
were overweight, and an estimated 800 million who were undernourished. Worldwide around
852 million people are chronically hungry due to extreme poverty, while up to 2 billion people
lack food security intermittently due to varying degrees of poverty. 17,000 children die of hunger
and malnutrition related diseases every day, which equals 6 million children who die of hunger
every year.

In the United States of America there are approximately 2,000,000 farmers, less than 1%
of the population. A direct relationship exists between food consumption levels and poverty.
Families with the financial resources to escape extreme poverty rarely suffer from chronic
hunger; while poor families not only suffer the most from chronic hunger, but are also the
segment of the population most at risk during food shortages and famines.

Things affecting food security today include:

 Global Water Crisis - Water table reserves are falling in many countries (including
Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread over-pumping and irrigation.
 Climate Change - Rising global temperatures are beginning to have a ripple effect on
crop yields, forest resources, water supplies and altering the balance of nature.
 Land Degradation - Intensive farming leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil
fertility and decline of agricultural yields.
 Greedy Land Deals - Corporations and Governments buying rights to millions of acres of
agricultural land in developing countries to secure their own long-term food supplies.

The Four Components of Food Security

1. Food Availability. Enough nutritious food of sufficient quality needs to be available to

people for their consumption. Availability can be affected by: 
Production: how much and what types of food are available through food that is produced and
stored locally.
Distribution: how is food made available (physically moved), in what form, when, and to whom.
Exchange: how much of food that is available can be obtained through exchange mechanisms
such as barter, trade, purchase, or loans.
2. Food Access. Individuals and households must be able to acquire sufficient food to be able to
eat a healthy, nutritious diet, or have access to sufficient resources needed to grow their own
food (e.g. land). Access can be affected by:
Affordability: the ability of individuals, households or communities to afford the price of food or
land for producing food, relative to their incomes. 
Allocation: the economic, social and political mechanisms governing when, where, and how
food can be accessed by consumers and on what terms. For example, food may be unequally
allocated according to age and gender within households.
Preference: social, religious, and cultural norms and values that influence consumer demand for
certain types of food (e.g. religious prohibitions or the desire to follow a specific dietary pattern
such as vegetarianism). 
3. Food Utilization. People must have access to a sufficient quantity and diversity of foods to
meet their nutritional needs but must also be able to eat and properly metabolize such food.
Utilization can be affected by:
Nutritional value: the nutritional value provided by the foods that are consumed, as measured in
calories, vitamins, protein, and various micronutrients (e.g. iron, iodine, vitamin A).
Health status: the effect of disease (e.g. HIV/AIDS or diarrhea) on the ability to consume the
food and absorb and metabolize its nutrients. 
Food safety: access to food free from food spoilage or from toxic contamination introduction
during the producing, processing, packaging, distribution or marketing of food; and from food-
borne diseases such as salmonella. 
Preparation and consumption: the resources (e.g. cooking tools and fuel), knowledge and ability
to prepare and consume food in a healthy and hygienic way.
4. Stability. Food may be available and accessible to people who are able to utilize it effectively,
but to avoid increases in malnutrition and in order for people not to feel insecure, this state of
affairs needs to be enduring rather than temporary or subject to fluctuations.

LESSON 15- GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

Introduction

It is a way of living that recognizes our world is

an increasingly complex web of connections and
interdependencies. One in which our choices and
actions may have repercussions for people and
communities locally, nationally or
internationally.

Global Citizenship nurtures personal respect and respect for others, wherever they live. It
encourages individuals to think deeply and critically about what is equitable and just, and what
will minimize harm to our planet. Exploring Global Citizenship themes help learners grow more
confident in standing up for their beliefs, and more skilled in evaluating the ethics and impact of
their decisions.

It is the responsibility of civil society to experiment with models of effective global

citizenship, to understand, care and act on behalf of people and the planet through ecological and
socially inclusive principles and practices. Global citizenship is transforming the worlds of art,
business, culture, education, human and labor rights, religion, public health, politics and our
relationship with nature.
What is a Global Citizen?
"An ethic of care for the world." Hannah Arendt
A global citizen can broadly be defined as some who identifies as being part of an
emerging world community and seeks to contribute to the values and practices it upholds. They
recognize that our world is made up of complex connections and interdependencies, and the
choices we make on a local scale can have global ramifications.
A global citizen is someone who understands how the world works and respects and
values diversity. It is an individual who is aware of their role in the wider world and fights social
injustice at local and global levels, willing to make the world a more sustainable place by their
own actions. Global citizens are creative and proactive, able to think critically and make
informed decisions about what is just, while at the same time showing respect for those around
them and abroad. Global citizens are those who seek to make a difference, whether that be
through social activism, international travel or simply connecting with people of different
nationalities and beliefs.
Why is Global Citizenship education needed?
"Education must be not only a transmission of culture but also a provider of alternative
views of the world and a strengthener of skills to explore them" Jerome S Bruner
With the interconnected and interdependent nature of our world, the global is not ‘out
there’; it is part of our everyday lives, as we are linked to others on every continent: socially and
culturally through the media and telecommunications, and through travel and migration
economically through trade environmentally through sharing one planet politically through
international relations and systems of regulation.
The opportunities our fast-changing ‘globalized’ world offers young people are
enormous. But so too are the challenges. Young people are entitled to an education that equips
them with the knowledge, skills and values they need in order to embrace the opportunities and
challenges they encounter, and to create the kind of world that they want to live in. An education
that supports their development as Global Citizens.
What are the values of global citizens?
The values of global citizens need to be shaped by the community as a whole but may
incorporate some (or all) of those identified by international bodies such as the United Nations.
Human rights, gender equality, poverty alleviation and sustainable worldwide economic growth
are some that should be at the fore of global citizenship, as well as the preservation of cultural
diversity and religious tolerance. As global citizens, we should strive to prevent wars and do our
utmost to restore peace in areas of conflict around the world.
While international agreements and treaties often address some of these issues formally,
as global citizens we have a responsibility to uphold them in our everyday actions. We may be
far from having global policies that support these values (and institutions that can enforce such
policies with accountability and transparency), but as global citizenship continues to rise, we are
moving in the right direction.
What are the impacts of global citizenship?
 Global citizenship can have far-reaching benefits, not only for individuals at a local scale
but also humanity as a whole. As more and more people travel to discover the world, responsible
tourism can help improve the lives of those in poor communities, offering employment,
resources for education and health, as well as dignity to ensure social problems don’t escalate. It
can help reduce inequality and the wealth divide while contributing to national economies at
large.
Global citizenship means that farmers in developing countries are not exploited by being
offered minuscule pay for products that will be sold for a high price across the other side of the
world. By opting to buy responsibly-sourced products, global citizens can help to ensure not only
fair pay but also fair work conditions.
Global citizens can help give a voice to those that don’t have one, particularly in
situations where human rights are not being upheld. From raising awareness to lobbying for
funds, their actions can bring to light situations of social injustice and help remedy solutions.
By advocating for peace, rather than supporting military conflicts, global citizens can
help reduce the catastrophic human toll of war. In addition, it can help alleviate the financial
costs of military intervention which often results in reduced funding for education and health.
How can you be a global citizen?

If you think about, we are all global citizens from birth, existing on an earth whose systems are
inextricably linked. But whether we contribute to global citizenship is a choice and not one that
everyone takes. As the world transforms around us, with technological improvements changing
the way we access information and international travel becoming more and more accessible, it is
harder to ignore the plight of our fellow human beings around the world.
From a lifetime trotting around the globe to advocacy at home, there are many ways you can be a
global citizen. If the opportunity presents itself, then take the plunge and head overseas at every
chance. Don’t just travel to affluent western countries, but experience how diverse cultural
groups live in developing countries and the challenges of life which exist here.
More and more students are opting to spend a semester or year abroad, either during high
school or university. For some, it is driven by curiosity and others the knowledge that to compete
in a highly globalized world, such an experience would give them a career edge. Students from
Saudi Arabia and China are flocking to America to hone their English language skills, while
Australians are heading to Asia as the economic ties strengthen in the region and Brits are
plunging across the Channel to experience the diversity of Europe.
Being a global citizen is also understanding the role you play in the world and critically
thinking about how your everyday actions can impact on others. From the coffee you choose to
buy at the supermarket to the behavior you show to those of other races and religions, these all
reflect your approach to global citizenship. It’s also understanding how policies in your own
country can affect others around the world – is a policy benefitting your nation at significant
expense to another? As a national citizen you can influence the policy decisions of your
government, and as a global citizen, you have the obligation to do that in order to uphold the
rights of your fellow global citizens.
Global citizenship means working towards the sustainability of our ever-dwindling
natural resources as the global population continues to rise. How can we use the technology
available to us to reduce our impact on the environment, while ensuring that each and every
person has access to the basic necessities of a healthy and rewarding life? It requires
collaborative work to ensure that the needs of everyone are met, as well as innovative approaches
to tackling a diverse array of issues which exist.
How to create global citizens?
Global citizens are open-minded individuals who are curious about the world around
them and making it a better place for all. It is not something that can really be taught, but
something that can be cultivated in people of all ages and developed over time. Schools can play
an important role in planting the global citizen seed at a young age, helping to create individuals
who strive for environmental sustainability and the eradication of social wrongs. Encouraging
children to explore their own set of values, while at the same time respecting those of others, sets
a solid foundation for creating long-term global citizens.
The challenges that will be faced by future generations are overwhelming, and equipping
the planet with global citizens is one of the best steps we can take to ensure these challenges are
overcome. It may seem like a daunting task (and more than an individual can take on board), but
as the values of global citizenship spread around the world, it’s not something you have to tackle
alone.
LESSON 7- A World of Ideas
THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION
 What is the relation of religion to globalization?
• First, globalization gave rise to religious nationalism that came about after Second World
War. Nationalism was closely associated with particular religious beliefs and affiliations.
• Globalization led to the turn of religion into public life as a reaction to post-World War II
modernism. Religion goes beyond the administration of sacraments for Catholics and
focuses more on the social concerns of the poor and the oppressed inside and outside the
church.
• Globalization affected the proliferation of international terrorism.
- Religious extremist - a type of political violence anchored on the belief that a supreme being
grants violence in the act of glorifying one’s faith – has become a central issue faced by global
community.
Example: In 2017, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a known extremist group, triggered the
locals of Mindanao to launch the Marawi Siege for five months.
• Finally, globalization prompted the increase of individual religiosity brought about the
individual’s need to rely on his or her beliefs and relationship with the supreme being.
The Impact of Globalization
 Flattens cultural differences
 Erodes local custom and beliefs
 Spreads secular, capitalist way of life
 What is Religion Nowadays?
• It’s no longer a set of beliefs that people arrive by reflection
• It’s a symbolic system which carries our identity and marks out social/ethic and other boundaries
• It marks crucial moments in the life cycle with rituals
• It provides powerful mechanisms for psychological and social tension
 Role of Religion Today
Looking around the world today,
• it is clear that religion plays a role in many of the major conflicts going on at various levels.
• Furthermore, religion plays an important role in people’s lives worldwide, and
 • has become one of the major ways people connect with each other across the globe.
However, the role of religion in contemporary societies is still not sufficiently understood in
academic research and in the work of policy-makers, NGO’s and journalists.
 The interaction of religion and culture resulted in a global-local religion. It is a global religion
with a local mix.
 Roudometof (2014) developed a model of four distinct glocalization –
1. Vernacularization – refers to the blending of universal religions with local languages.
- For instance, Arabic is used as Islam’s sacred language even outside the Arab world, while
Greek and Latin remains to be primary languages of Christianity.
2. Indigenization – transforms a universal religion to suit the specifics of a particular ethnic group.
Example:
- The practice of Islam by various ethnic groups in Zamboanga peninsula.
- Jim Elliot arrival in Equador with the purpose of evangelizing the Quechua Indians. (the most
savage people on the face of the earth)
3. Nationalization – constructs a link between the nation and church. Religious institutions relate to
national identities and the realities of that nation. Being part of the nation means belonging to its national
church.
Example:
- The Philippine Independent Church, an independent Christian denomination, is an example of a
national church in the Philippines.
4. Transnationalization – has completed religious nationalization by focusing groups on identifying
specific religious traditions of real of imagined national homelands.
Example: Iglesia ni Cristo
- The Christian organization is national in scope but it has an international reach that is easily
identified as Filipino in its roots and central authority.
MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION
Historically, media underwent five stages of development from the earliest forms to the complex
one. These stages affect globalization progressively (Lule, 2014).
 It all started with oral communication. Language allowed humans to communicate and share
information. Moreover, language became the most important tool for exploring the world and the
different cultures. It helped people move and settle down. Oral communication led to markets,
trade, and cross-continental trade routes.
 Culture refers to the unified style of human knowledge, beliefs, and behavior from which people
learn, and the ability to communicate knowledge to the next generations. Its development has
been mainly influenced by media.
 The next stage is the invention of script. Distance became a hindrance to oral communication.
Script allowed humans to communicate over a larger space and for a much longer duration.
It allowed the permanent codification of economic, cultural, religious, and political practice.
Knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors were written and made available for transmission to the next
generation and to other nations and cultures.
 Next followed the printing press. The introduction of the printing press allowed the
continuous production, reproduction, and circulation of print materials. Written documents
were mass produced which gave everyone access to information that was once available
only to the rich, powerful, and religious. This period of media development affected
globalization by transforming various institutions such as schools, churches, governments, and
armies, among others.
 Another stage is the emergence of electronic media as characterized by its use of electricity.
Electronic media includes the telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television. The wide
reach of these media continues to open up new perspectives in the economic, political, and
cultural processes of globalization.
 The last stage is the digital media which relies on digital codes. It can be created, modified, and
stored in any digital electronic device. Digitalized content is transmitted over the internet and
computer networks.
 Media is a carrier of culture. It is a tool for the interaction of people with different cultures.
However, the real media is the people. Marketing people seek the world for their cultural
products, and managers facilitate interactions of culture profits. These interactions result in the
integration of cultures.
 The media have a very important impact on cultural globalization in two mutually
interdependent ways:
- Firstly, the media provide and extensive transnational transmission of cultural products and,
- secondly, they contribute to the formation of communicative networks and social structures.