Chlorella and Spirulina

Green Supplements for Balancing the Body

Russ Mason, M.S. Chlorella vulgaris. Today, more than 30 almost 80 percent digestible. Since then,
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factories in Taiwan and Japan produce commercial producers of chlorella sup-

chlorella products in powdered, tablet, plements have developed a number of
and liquid fo rm s. C hl orella p roducts prop rietary metho ds of releasing the

F
or millenn ia, plants and microor- have been available in the United States nutritional content of chlorella from the
ganisms from the sea and from fresh since the 1960s, but have not become as thick packaging provided by the outer
w a t e r h a v e p r o v i d e d fo o d a n d popular with American consumers as cell wall.
medicinal su bstanc es for hu mans. they have with the Asian public. Chlorell a and spirulina, along with
Chlorella (Chlorella spp.) and spirulina Nonetheless, it is estimated that more wheat grass, barley grass, and other edi-
(Arthrospira platensis) are two waterborne than 10 million people around the world ble microorganisms, are known as “green
microorganisms that have gained visibili- take chlorella. 1 foods” that may be marketed individually
ty as nutritional suppleme nts that are One property of chlorella affected U.S. or may be combined into mixtures. This
touted for the concentrated packages of consumption adversel y at first but the article focuses on chlorella and spirulina,
nutrients that they deliver. They are also situation has been resolved successfully. which have received the greatest atten-
known for their health-supporting, dis- The cell walls of chlorella have three lay- tion from research laboratories and clinics
ease-p revention roles as detox ifying ers, of which the thicker midd le laye r in recent years.
agen ts. Bo th o rga nisms are nutrien t- contains cellulose microfibrils and the Spirulina grows naturally in lakes in
dense, have cleansing and detoxifying outer layer a polymerized carotenoid Africa, India, China, and South America.
properties, and are yieldin g promising material. It is this outer cellular material Wild spirulina was used at one time as a
results in labo rat o ry st ud ies of their that most likely gives chlorella its detox- food by the Aztecs and is currently used
bioactivities and clinical trials on their ifying activity. The material binds the as a food source in Chad.
possible benefits for people. heavy metals , p est icides, and to x ins
Biologically, chlorella and spirulina are such as pol ychlori nate d b ipheny ls
Nutritional Content of
quite different. Chlorella is classified as (PCBs) and then carries these substances
Chlorella and Spirulina
an alga and eukaryote. It is a complex out of the body.
plant with a nuclea r membrane, well- Ironically, this cell wall, with all its ben- Chlorella contains a broad spectrum
defined chromosomes, and well-differen- efits, contributed to the delay in chlorel- of nutrients, ranging from concentrated
tiated cellular structures . Spirulina is la’s introduction into the United States. vitamins and minerals (see box entitled
classified as a prokaryote. Unlike all other The digestive tract does not have the abil- Nutrients in C hl o rella) to a comp lex
living cells, prokaryotes lack a nucleus ity to break down this tough cell wall water-soluble extract that contains con-
surrounded by a membrane and they lack effecti vel y and, i niti ally, there were centrated amounts of substances found
the differentiated cell structures that are reports of stomach discomfort associated i n t h e n u c l e u s o f t h e ch l o r e l l a ce l l ,
characteristic of other, more complex cel- with this intact cell form. From the con- including amino acids , peptide s, pro-
lular o rganisms. Pro karyo tes live sumer’s standpoint, whole-cell chlorella t e in s, vi t am i ns , s uga rs , a nd n ucl ei c
through out the world, even whe re no simply passed through the system and aci ds . T he bo x e nt it l ed N utr ie nt s in
other life can survive. For example, spir- the body was unable to assimi late the Chl orella summariz es the nutritiona l
ulina lives in the water of hot springs and nutrients inside the cell. The dual prob- content of one brand of commercially
in frozen wastelands. lems of poor digestibility and reduced produced chlorella tablets.
Ch lo rell a has been a p o p ular fo o d bioavailabili ty were solved in the late Spirulina has a 62-percent amino acid
s up p le m en t i n A si a , p a rt i cu la rl y i n 1980s, when one of the major manufactur- content, mixed carotenoids and xantho-
Jap an, sin ce co mm erci al p ro duct io n ers, Sun Chlorella USA (Torrance, Califor- phyll phytopigments, a high concentra-
began the re in the 1950s. The species nia) patented a process 2 for pulverizing tion of vitamin B 12 , immunoregulatory
mo st co m mo nly used in co m mer ci al chlorella’s cell wall without destroying polysaccharide components such as b -
production are Chlorella pyrenoidosa and the cells’ contents, thus making chlorella glucan, and abundant amount s of
161
 162 ALTERNATIVE & COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES—JUNE 2001

Scientific interest in chlorella and spirulina has focused

on their roles as agents of detoxification and immunoregulation.

gamma linolenic acid, which plays a criti- their products with specific patient popu- I n 1984 , i t w as fo un d th at fe ed in g
cal role in inflammatory processes. The lations. An overview of the key laborato- Ch lorella prototecoides to chlord econe -
box entitled Nutrients in Spirulina sum- ry and clinical studies follows. poisoned rats accelerated the detoxifica-
marizes the nutritional content of one tion of the rats, decreasing the half-life
brand of spirulina. Chlorella and Detoxification o f t he t o x i n fr o m 4 0 t o 19 d ay s. T he
One of the earliest laboratory investiga- ingeste d algae passed through the ani-
tions of chlorella’s ability to take up toxic mals’ gastrointestinal (GI) tracts
Key Research
metals studied survival of cultures of brew- unharmed, interrupted the enteric recir-
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Scientific interest in chlorella and spir- er’s yeast to which Chlorella regularis had culation o f the persisten t in secticide,
ulina has focused less on their nutritional been added along with lethal doses of the and subsequently eliminated the bound
valu e than on their ro les as agents of toxic metals uranium, mercury, copper, chlord econe with the fec es. The algal
detoxification and immunoregulation and cadmium, and toxic chlorinated hydrocar- cell walls retained the detoxification
o n t he m ec hani sm s o f th es e act io n s. bons. The metals were removed from a cell act iv it y of th e whol e cell s, furt he r
Researchers have co nducted in vitro culture and bound to the chlorella cell wall, suggesting that the cell walls are a key
experiments and animal studies with enabling the cell culture to survive what site of chlorella’s detoxification capabili-
these two algae for more than 30 years. should have been lethal exposure. This ties. 4
More recently, some manufacturers of study was important because was one of More recently, investiga tors in Japan
chlorella and spirulina supplements have the first to demonstrate that the chlorella fed rats highly toxic PCBs (dioxins) in
sponsored or publicized clinical trials on cell wall is the site of toxic-metal binding.3 e it he r a co nt ro l die t o r a 1 0-p e rce nt

Nutrients in Chlorella
The chart below summarizes the nutritional content of one product called Sun Chlorella “A” tablets (Sun Chlorella USA, Torrance, California).
The manufacturer sells small dried chlorella tablets in an airtight plastic pouch that contains 300 tablets and recommends a daily dosage of 15 tablets,
which supply 3 g of pulverized Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Because chlorella is a natural product, its exact content may vary slightly with the season, the
weather, and environmental conditions.
Nutrients in One Serving (3 g) of Sun Chlorella “A”
Nutrient Amount Amino acids
Chlorophyll 28 mg Lysinea 111 mg
Vitamins and minerals Threonine a 80 mg
Vitamin A (beta-carotene) 4559 IU Valine a 104 mg
Vitamin C 5 mg Methionine a 37 mg
Iron 2.79 mg Isoleucine a 74 mg
Calcium 8 mg Leucine a 142 mg
Vitamin D2 1476 IU Phenylalanine a 83 mg
Vitamin D3 1427 IU Tryptophan a 31 mg
Vitamin E 58 IU Arginine 102 mg
Vitamin K 39 µg Aspartic Acid 111 mg
Vitamin B2 0.03 mg Serine 60 mg
Niacin 1 mg Alanine 100 mg
Potassium 31.95 mg Proline 125 mg
Phosphorus 39 mg Cysteine 4 mg
Iodine 6 µg Histidine 39 mg
Magnesium 10 mg Glutamic Acid 198 mg
Zinc 0.07 mg Glycine 100 mg
Pantothenic Acid 0.02 mg Tyrosine 48 mg
IU = international units. aEssential amino acids.
Source: www.sunchlorellausa.com
 ALTERNATIVE & COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES—JUNE 2001 163

Analysis of data suggested that chlorella

supplementation had a significant lowering effect
on both high-density and low-density serum cholesterol.

chlorella diet and measured the amount A 1997 study investigated the effects of that enhance factors that protect against
of dioxins excreted by each of the two feeding C. vulgaris to rats that had been ulcer formation. The authors suggested
groups of rats. The rats who were fed given peptic ulcers by thr ee different that C. vulgaris may prevent ulcer forma-
chlorella excreted signi ficantly more methods. The supplementation had “clear tion mainly via the “immune-brain–gut”
dioxin s than the control rats, leading prop hy lactic effects” in the rats with axis and protection of gastric mucosa by
the researchers to conclude that admin- ulcers of a type known to respond drugs chlorella’s characteristics.9
istration of chlorella may be useful in
preventing GI absorption of these chem-
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icals and in promoting the excretion of Nutritional Content of Spirulina

dioxin that has been absorbed into tis-
The chart below provides nutritional information for one spirulina product, Earthrise
sues. Most PCBs are toxic and they are Spirulina (Earthrise Nutritionals, Petaluma, California). Because spirulina is a natural product,
w idely dis tribut ed th rough out t he its analysis may vary slightly with the season, weather, and environment conditions.
human e nvironment. The se animal
studies suggest that chlorel la supple- Vitamins and Minerals in One Serving (5 g) of Earthrise Spirulina
mentation might confer some protection Nutrient Amount
to humans who are exp ose d to PC Bs Vitamin A (beta-carotene) 11,500 IU
and that clinical trials would be appro- Vitamin E 0.5 mg
priate.5
Vitamin B 1 0.17 mg
Vitamin B 2 0.20 mg
Chlorella and Cancer
Vitamin B 3 0.70 mg
The most widely used cancer therapeu-
tics impose a heavy burden of adverse Vitamin D 6 40 µg
side-effects on the person who undergoes Vitamin B 12 10 µg
chemotherapy. Increased susceptibility to Inositol 3.2 mg
i n f e c t i o n a n d a n i m p a i r e d i m m un e Folacin 0.5 µg
response to infection, once established, Biotin 0.25 µg
p ose serio us risks to a com pro mise d Pantothenic acid 5 µg
immune sys tem. Severa l studie s have Vitamin K1 100 µg
evaluated the benefits of chlorella supple- Calcium 35 mg
mentation for laboratory animals that
Magnesium 20 mg
have been exposed to such chemothera-
Phosphorus 40 mg
peutics as 5-fluorouracil6 and cyclophos-
Iron 5 mg
phamide.7 Mice that were given
5-fluorouracil and an acidic glycoprotein Sodium 45 mg
fraction of C. vulgaris had fewer infections Zinc 150 µg
and lived longe r than untreated mice. Potassium 70 mg
Mice that were given the cancer therapeu- Copper 60 µg
tic cyclophosphamide and exposed to Manganese 250 µg
Escherichia coli had a lower incidence of Chromium 12.5 µg
bacterial infection than the mice that had Germanium 30 µg
not been treated. The untreated mice died Selenium 5 µg
quickly of E. coli infection. 7
Phycocyanin 700 mg
Chlorophyl 50 mg
Chlorella, Hyperlipidemia, and Ulcers
Carotenoids 13 mg
Two animal studies suggest that C. vul-
garis supplementation can delay or pre- Gamma linoleic acid 50 mg
v en t t h e fo r ma t io n o f at he ro m at o u s Glycolipids and sulfolipids 100 mg
lesions in rabbits and mice that have been Polysaccharides 230 mg
fed high-cholesterol diets.8 The results of
these studies suggest that corresponding Source: Earthrise Nutritionals, Petaluma, California.
human trials are in order.
 164 ALTERNATIVE & COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES—JUNE 2001

Dietary supplementation with chlorella

may reduce or eliminate the need of people with
mild-to-moderate hypertension for antihypertensive medication.

We went to the literature and looked plementation had a significant lowering

Major Suppliers of for good contemporary clinical trials of effect on both high- dens ity and low-
Chlorella and Spirulina in d rugs for co nditio ns o f a chron ic den sity seru m cholesterol. This p ilot
nature—fibromyalgia, oste oarthritis , study concluded that daily dietary sup-
the United States ulcerative colitis, and hypertension, for plementation with chlorella may reduce
example. We model our experiments on o r eliminat e the need of peo p le with
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Sun Chlorella USA the way the pharmac eu tica l industry mild-to-moderate hypertension for anti-
3914 Del Amo Boulevard designs its experiments to test drugs for hypertensive medication.
Torrance, CA 90503 th e sa me d is ea ses. We try to use the At the annual FASEB meeting in San
Phone: (310) 371-5515, extension 42 same study periods, the same measure- Diego, in 2000, Dr. Merchant described a
U.S. and Canadian callers: ments, and the same clinical endpoints. study in which 9 people with mild- to-
(800) 829-2828, extension 42
B y t h e en d o f a st u d y , w e e xp e c t t o moderately active forms of ulcerative
Fax: (310) 371-0094
Web site: www.sunchlorellausa.com have collected data that would be con- colitis consumed 10 g (50 tablets) and
sidered reasonable by the medical com- 100 mL of liquid C. pyrenoidosa, per day
Earthrise Nutritionals munity. for 2 months. Each participant’s clinical
424 Payran Street and functional status was assessed by a
Petaluma, CA 94952 Each of Dr. Merchant’s clinical trials physic al examination and flexible sig-
Phone: (800) 949-7473 has involved at least one physician who moidoscopic examination at the begin-
Fax: (707) 778-9028 participated from original experimental ning of the study, at the end of 1 month,
e-mail: [email protected] design through clinical evaluations and and at the end of the study. Blood sam-
Web site: www.earthrise.com/ final ana lysis . Dr . Merc hant has pub- ples taken o n each occasion revealed
lished some of his results and presented that any changes in serum chem istry ,
his results at major research conferences, cell counts, or sedimentation rate stayed
Clinical Studies on Chlorella and he is preparing to launch additional within normal limits of variation as did
It appears that all the English-language human trials of chlorella. the weights, heart rates, and blood pres-
documentation of human clinical trials on He discussed recent clinical trials of C. sures of the participants. Objective mea-
chlorella supplementation results from the pyrenoidosa for managing hypertension at sures of symptom severity and
research of Randall E. Merchant, Ph.D., the annual meeting of the Federation of sub jective assessment of symptom
professor, anatomy department, Medical American Societies for Experimental Biol- severity by the participants coincided,
College of Virgini a, Virginia Common- ogy (FASEB) in April 1999, in Washing- and the participants all benef ited from
wealth Universi ty, Richmond. Dr. Mer- ton, D.C. a d d in g c h l o r e l l a t o t h e i r d i e t s . T h e
chant ha s investigated the efficacy of One 3-month study of 24 adults with results of this pilot study led the investi-
chlorella supplementation for people who mild- to-moderate hypert ensio n docu- gators to conclude that a larger, more
are affected by several conditions that have mented the effects of consuming 10 g of comprehensive double-blind, placebo-
resisted satisfactory treatment via conven- chlorella tablets and 100 mL of liquid controlled clinic al trial of chl orel la is
tional medicine. He says that, although his chlorella extract per day for 2 months, warranted for patients with ulcerative
work is funded by Sun Chlorella Corp. after a 1-month placebo washout period. colitis.
(Kyoto, Japan), the company does not try to Results of phys ical examinations and Dr. Merchant’s most recent published
electrocardiograms remained chlorella investigation focused on man-
influence his research or its outcomes and
uncha ng ed between the first and last agement of fibromyalgia. 10 He and his
tha t he follows rigorous princ iples of
visits. Results of routine laboratory tests co lleag ue s e valuat ed changes in the
experimental design and analysis.
on blood, serum, and urine, performed clinical and functional status of 18 peo-
Dr. Merchant comments:
at t he fi rs t vi si t, at t he e nd o f t he 1- ple with moderately severe sympt oms
We’ve been interested in chronic illnesses month washout period, and at the end of fibromyalgia syndrom e, during a 2-
for which there’s no drug, or no cure, or of the trial were within normal limits of month trial of dietary supplementation
the only treatments available are drugs variation and no single variable signifi- with 10 g (50 tablets) and 100 mL of liq-
with known side-effects. A nutritional sup- cantly changed over the 3-month course uid C. pyrenoidosa per day. Amelioration
plement might reduce the need for drugs, of the investigation. However, analysis of symptoms was validated and quanti-
or might decrease the adverse side-effects. of the data suggested that chlorella sup- fied using semiobjective and subjective
 ALTERNATIVE & COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES—JUNE 2001 165

Researchers found that spirulina

increased the tumor-killing ability of
natural-killer cells and interferon significantly.

outcome measures systematically increased 1–2 weeks after administration MILLTM (U.S. Patent No. 5330913).
ad min istered at clin ic visits at the of spirulina and the activity continued 3. Horikoshi, T., Nakajima, A., Sakaguchi, T.
begin nin g of the trial, at the 1-month for 12–24 weeks even after spirulina sup- Uptake of uranium by various cell fractions of
Chlorella regularis. Radioisotopes 28(8):485–487,
point, and at the end of the trial. The 18 plementation had been stopped. The sec-
1979.
people who completed the study report- ondary report on the resea rch did not
4. Pore, R.S. Detoxification of chlordecone poi-
ed a 22-percent decrease in pain intensi- indicate the size of the study sample, nor
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soned rats with chlorella and chlorella-derived

ty. Blood samples taken on each did it specify how long the study partici- sporopollenin. Drug Chem Toxicol 7(1):57–71,
occasion showed no signi ficant alter- pants took the spirulina supplement. 1984.
ations in serum chemistries, formed ele- R e s e ar ch e rs i n t h e D e p a r t m en t o f 5. Morita, K., Matsueda, T., Iida, T., Hasegawa,
m e n t s , a n d c i r cu l a t i n g l y m p h o c y t e Foods and Nutrition, at the M.S. Universi- T. Chlorella accelerates dioxin excretion in rats.
subsets. Compilations of the results of ty of Baroda, in Gujarat, India, conducted J Nutr 129(9):1731–1736, 1999.
patient interviews and self-assessment a 2-month evaluation of the effects of 6. Konishi, F., Mitsu yama, M., Okuda, M.,
q u e st i o n n ai r e s re v e a l e d t h at s e v e n spirulina supplementation on serum lipid Tanaka, K., Hasegawa, T., Nomoto, K. Pro-
t e c t i v e e f f ec t o f a n a c i d i c g l y c o p r o t e i n
patients felt that the dietary supplement profile and glycated proteins on patients
obtained from cultur e of Chlor ella vulgaris
had reduced their fibromyalgia symp - with non–ins ulin-depende nt diabetes
against myelosuppression by 5-fluorouracil.
toms, whil e six subjects thought they mellitus (NIDDM). 11 The investigators Cancer Immu nol Im munother 42(5):268–274,
had exp erienc ed no cha nge , and five measured blood-sugar levels, serum-lipid 1996.
believed their symptoms had worsened profiles, and glycated serum protein lev- 7. Konis hi , F ., Ta naka , K., Kumamoto, S .,
over the time of the trial. The results of els of 15 patients with NIDDM who took Hasegawa, T., Okuda, M., Yano, I., Yoshikai,
th is p ilo t st udy s ug gest th at dietar y 2 g per day of spirulina in tablet form. Y., Nomoto, K. Enhanced resistance against
chlorella supplementation may help to Blood analysis was done at the beginning Esch erichia coli infect ion by subcut aneous
relieve the symptoms of fibromyalgia in of the study, at the end of the first month, adminis tratio n of the hot-water ext ract of
some patient s and tha t a larger, more and at the end of the second month. The Chlorella vulgaris in cyclophosphamide-treated
mice. Cancer Immunol Immunother 32(1):1–7,
comprehensive double-blind, placebo- researchers found that supplementation
1990.
controlled clinical trial in these patients for a period of 2 months resulted in sig-
8. Sano, T., Tanaka, Y. Effect of dried, pow-
is warranted. 10 nificant reductions of blood-sugar, glycat- d ered C hl o rel la vu lg a ri s on ex peri m enta l
ed serum pro tein, triglycerides, total atherosclerosis and alimentary hypercholes-
Spirulina Clinical Trials cholest erol, and free fatty-acid levels. terolemia in cholestero l-fed rabbits. Artery
A Fe b ru ar y 20 , 2 0 01 p r e ss r e le a s e Among the lipoprotein fractions, appre- 14(2):76–84, 1987.
issued by spirulina manufacturer Earth- ciable reduction was noticed in low-den- 9. Tanaka, K., Yamada, A., Noda, K., Shoyama,
rise Nutritionals, Petaluma, California, sity lip op ro tein- C, very –low densit y Y., Kubo, C., Nomoto, K. Oral administration
briefly describ ed a sp irulina clini cal lipoprotein-C, and high-density lipopro- of unicellular green algae, Chlorella vulgaris,
study that was reported by Dr. Tsukasa tein-C/low-density lipoprotein-C ratio. prev ents stress-induced ulc er. Planta Med
63(5):465–466, 1997.
Sey a and co llea gues fr om t he O sa ka
10 . Mercha nt, R.E., C armac k, C .A., Wis e,
Institute of Public Health, Japan, at the
The Future of C . M . N ut ri t i on a l su pp l em en ta t i on w i th
30th Ann ual M eeting of the Japane se C hlor ella pyr enoidosa fo r p atients with
Chlorella and Spirulina
So ci et y fo r Im m uno l o gy, in M i ya gi, fibromyalgia syndrome: A pilot study. Phy-
Japan, November 14–16, 2000. Volun- The human health benefits of chlorella tother Res 14(3):167–173, 2000.
teers who were more than 40 years old and spirulina need further study and doc- 11. Mani, U.V., Desai, S., Iyer, U. Studies on the
were given 50 mL of a spirulina extract, umentation, but the research to date sup- long-term effect of spirulina supplementation
Lina Green 21 (Earthrise Nutritionals). ports the reasonable expectation that on serum lipid profile and glycated proteins in
The investigators measured the serum future investigations are worth the invest- NIDDM patients. J Nutraceuticals Functional
levels and activity levels of natural-killer ment of time. Med Foods 2(3):25–31, 2000.
(N K ) ce l l s a n d in t e rf e ro n -g , bo t h o f
wh ich are imp o rtant natural cancer-
To order reprints of this article, write to or call:
fighting substanc es. The researchers References Karen Ballen , ALTERNAT IVE & CO MPLE-
found that spirulina inc reased the 1. www.health-books.com/PressRoom/what- MENTARY THERAPIES, Mary Ann Liebert,
tumor-killing ability of NK cells and the is-Chlorella.htm Inc., 2 Madison Avenue, Larchmont, NY 10538-
interferon significantly. This activity was 2. Pulverized cell-wa ll chlorella by DYNO- 1961, (914) 834-3100.