BUILDING COMPONENTS ling Code (1970) Kinds of buildings: based on occupancy According to National Bi = Residential houses, + Educationalbuildings, + Institutional buildings (banks-offices-hospitals), + Assembly buildings (temples, cinema halls) + Bussiness buildings (shops, malls) + Industrial buildings(factories, work shops), + Storage buildings (godowns,ware houses) ete. * Hazardious buildings (manufacturing of explosives,chemical fumes) Components of Building: A Building has two basic parts: 1. Sub-structure, 2. Super-structure © Sub-structure or Foundations is the lower portion of the building, located below ground level (G.L), which transmits the loads of super-structure to the supporting soil. © Super-structure is part of structure, which is above G.L, which serves its purpose of intended use —- prtructare 6 ou stricture, Roundaten yt Pantin 2 Fr a i Gt 5 (Ed Scan tL De tert ny fhe Soo LINTELS and ARCHES: Openings are invariably left in the wall for the provision of doors, windows, cupboards, almirahs etc. These openings are bridged by the provision of either a lintel oranarch. Thus, both lintelsas well as arch are structural members designed to support the loads. Page 1Definition: A lintel is a sort of beam, which is placed across the opening. The width of a lintel is equal to the width of the wall and the ends of which are bi {nto the wall. Lintels are simple and easy to construct. Lintels are classified into the following types according to the materials of the construction: Classification of lintels: i. Timber Lintels: These are relatively costlier, structurally weak and vulnerable to fire. Sometimes timber lintels are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates at their top and bottom, such lintels are called Flitched Lintels. D> eich. ‘Timbertintt Stone intel Brick Lint Stee intel ii, Stone Lintels: These are common in usage where stone is abundantly available. Dressed stone lintels give good architectural appearance. Stone is very weak in tension and cracks develop i subjected to vibratory loads. The depth of stone lintel is kept equal to 10 cm per metere of span, with the minimum of 15cm. iii, Brick Lintels: These are not structurally strong and they are used only when the opening is small and loads are light. Depth of brick lintel = 10 to 20 cm, depends upon span. iv. Steel Lintels: These are provided where the opening is large and the loads are heavy. It combination of two or three units. consists of steel channels either used singly o Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels: jecause of their strength, rigidity, fire resistance, economy and ease of construction, the RCC lintels are widely used. These can be used on any span. It is kept equal to the width of the wall. RCC lintels are also available as precast Page 2‘RCC LINTEL (RCC LINTEL * ARCHES: Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian brick architecture and their systematic use started with the Ancient Romans who were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures. imposed | structure, especially one of masonry, forming the curved (an inverted U) pointed, or flat upper edge of an open space and supporting the weight above it, as in a bridge or doorway. However, arches are constructed where 1. Loads are heavy 2. Span is more 3, Strong abutment is available 4. Special architectural appearance is required. 1. Keystone 2. Voussoir 3. Extrados 4. Impost 5. Intrados 6. Rise 7. span 8. Abutment % - : Parts of an arch ‘The following technical terms are used in arch ‘TERMS Description ‘Abutment | This is the end support ofan arch / The general mass of masonry that supports one end of the arch, Page 3sp Extrados | A construction line denoting outer limit of the arch / It is the outer curve of an arch Impost | The masonry piece that one end of the arch sits on. Tntrados | Thisis the inner curve ofan arch. Keystone | In stonework the keystone is a central Voussoir that is quite often decorated in some way. When the arch is being built it is always built up evenly from side to side and the last stone placed is the keystone Voussoirs | The individual /wedge shaped masonry pieces that make up an arch. ‘Arcade | Ttisa row ofarches in continuation Crown | The top section of a curved arch / Itis the highest part of extrados Haunch: | The first few voussoirs up from the springing line / Its the lower half of the arch between the crown and skew back. Pier: This is an intermediate support of an arcade. Skewback | Inclined surface on the abutment Soffit Ttisa surface Span Itis the horizontal distance between the supports. Spandrill_| This is a curved-triangular space formed between the extrados and the horizontal line through the crown. Springing | Ahorizontal construction line denoting the starting of the curve in curved arches, Line or the bottom ofa flat arch Rise Vertical distance between the highest point of the intrados and the springing line Page 4Few images of arches CLASSIFICATION OF ARCHES: An arch can be classified as ili vi il A B. c A According to Shape Based on Number of Centres Based on material and workmanship . Classification according to shape: Flat Arch: A flat arch has usually the angle formed by skewbacks as 60°, thus forming an equilateral triangle with intrados as the base. The extrados is kept horizontal & flat. Flat arches are used for light loads and for spans up to 1.5 mts. Segmental Arch: The centre of arch lies below the springing line or lies on the springing line, Horse shoe arch: The arch has the shape ofa horse shoe, which is more than a semicircle, Such type of arch is provided mainly from architectural considerations. Pointed arch: It consists of two arcs of circles meeting at the apex. The triangle formed may be either equilateral (all sides equal ie ab = be = ca) which is also known as GOTHIC arch or isosceles ( any two sides equal ie ab=bc or be=ca or ca=ab ) which is also called as LANCET arch. Venetian arch: This is another form of pointed arch which has deeper depth at crown. It has four centres, all located on the springing line. Florentine arch: This is similar to venetian arch except that the intrados is a semi- circle. The arch has, thus three centres, all located on the springing line. . Classification based on Number of centres The arches may be classified as: One Centered arch: Segmented arches, flat arches, horse shoe arches, bulls eye arches come under this category Two Centered arch: An arch whose intrados curve (inner curve of an arch is called as intrados curve) is described from two centres. Pointed arches such as Gothic and Lancet arches come under this category Three Centered arch: An arch whose intrados curve is described from three centres. Elliptical arches come under this category Page 6iv. Four Centered arch: A low el tical or pointed arch; usually drawn from four centers is called as four centered arch. It has 4 centres. Venetian arch is a typical example of this type. Another example is Tudor arch v. Five Centered arch: This type of arch, having five centres, gives a good semi elliptical shape Snel Gothic arch Eliptieal arch C. Classification based on Material and Workman ship i, Stone Arches: Stones are mainly used in these arches. fi, Brick Arches: Quality of bricks are used in these arches. these arches can be constructed from ordinary bricks or purpose made bricks. The ordinary bricks are not cut to the shape of voussoirs and hence the rough brick arches are formed. For getting the arch curve, the joints are made wedge-shaped with greater thickness at the extrados and smaller thickness at the intrados fii, Conerete Arches: Such arches are made from precast concrete blocks, each block being cast in the mould to the exact shape and size of Voussoirs. Cement concrete of 1:2:4 mix is usually used. Stone Arches Brick arches Concrete Arches CONSTRUCTION OF ARCH = Form work: irrespective of material of construction arch requires a form work the upper face of form work shall correspond to intrados of arch. Sometimes a temporary wall in brick in mud mortar is erected for temp. Support. " Voussoirs are prepared of required dimensions construc mn is started from abutment towards crown each unit being attached to other with mortar. Finally key stone at crown is fixed. = When mortar hardens and hold the blocks the form work is removed carefully. Page 7we Taara Wall is one of the most essential components of a building, The primary function of a wall is to enclose or divide space of the building to make it more functional and useful Walls are basically divided into 2 types: a) Load bearing walls b) Non-load bearing > Load bearing walls are those which are designed to carry super-imposed loads, in addition to their own weight. > Non load bearing walls carry their own-load only. They generally serve as divide walls or partition walls > A partition wall is a thin internal wall which is constructed to divide the space within the building into rooms or areas Load bearing walls: Design considerations ‘These are subjected to a variety of loads, namely live loads, dead loads, wind loads etc. load bearing walls are structurally efficient when the load is uniformly distributed and when the structure is so planned that eccentricity of loading on the wall is as small as possible. In order to ensure uniformity of loading, openings in walls should not be too large and bearings for lintels and bed blocks under beams should be liberal in size. The thicknes of load bearing wall should be sufficient at all points to ensure that the stresses due to the wall conditions of loading for which the structure is designed are within the limits prescribed for that particular type of wall. ‘Thus, the actual thickness is computed as the average dimensions of masonry units together with the specified joint thickness. The other types of walls are as follows = CAVITY WALLS: + Cavity walls consist of two walls with a gap in between connected together by wall ties. The two walls are called inner and outer leaves. + Cavity walls can be load bearing or non-load bearing. Page 8* Innon-load bearing walls both leaves are of equal thickness. In load bearing walls inner leaf has more thickness and is decided by load coming on it. Advantages: 1. External moisture cannot get in to inner leaf. 2. Cavity filled with air acts as bad conductor of heat. 3. Italso acts as sound insulation. These are preferred for cold and humid countries. CONSRUCTION DETAILS OF CAVITY WALLS: © Each leaf of wall is 100mm.Thick. ° IFit is load bearing inner Leaf can more thick as per Design. Air gap =40 to 100 mm. Wall ties of lead or G.L. are fixed connecting two leaves @5 ties /sq.m of wall face. °° ° ‘The air gap is filled With sound / heat insulating material for more efficiency. Innerleat OUTER WALL—+/ AIR SPACE (2"\—} Weer HOLE SHELF ANGLE, GALVANIZED —— STEEL, BOLTED mae, WALL : To 86am PN wa ne tera FALE Insulation material PARTITION WALLS: + Itis a wall constructed to divide / separate two portions of a space / hall. + Generally they are non-load bearing. It should only support its own weight. + Itprovides sound insulation and division of space. + Itshould be light and thin to occupy less space. + Itis constructed on floors / slabs / beams and do not require any foundation. ‘They are constructed by Brick masonary Concrete Wood Glass veer g Asbestos cement (a.c.) Sheets Page 9BRICK MASONARY PARITION WALLS: ‘They are generally 9cm thick (half brick) walls. 4-cm thick walls also are constructed (brick on edge) Bricks are laid in stretcher bond (all layers). They are reinforced for every 3 layers with 6mm steel rods are expanded metal strips embedded in 2cm thick concrete layer. CONCRETE PARITION WALLS: Reinforced cement concrete (RC.C.) Walls are constructed by pre casting and laying in place or constructing in place (cast-in-situ ). They are made 2 to 4.cm thick. Nominal reinforcement of 6mm. Mild steel rods are used to give stability to the wall. Casting In-situ Pre-cast walls WOOD PARITION WALLS: Made of wooden frame work with horizontal and vertical members of wood. Covered on both sides with arti ially made wooden boards like plywood, pressed wooden board etc, Gap in between the boards is filled with thermal / sound insultating material. Very common in cold countries. They are not fire resistant They are not termites (white ants & such other insects) resistant GLASS PARITION WALLS: Used for chambers in offices / bank etc, Transparent or translucent glass sheets are fixed in frames made of wood / plastics / aluminum members. Page 10+ Frames are fixed in the floor as well as to the side walls. + Partitions can be up to the roof or half the way. ASBESTOS SHEET PARTITION WALLS: iv. + Asbestos is a naturally occuring rock material, fibors in nature. + Itismix with cement & water and pressed into sheets. (A.C. Sheets). + These are used for constructing parition walls for covering wooden frames on the both sides like wooden partition walls. + They are also used for fixing in wood / plastic / aluminum frames. + They are fire proof. * VAULTS: = Vault isa kind of arch in the form of roof over a space. = They can be constructed under or over the ground. * Anarch is a structure in two dimensions with thickness, where as a vault is a surface obtain 1ed by rotating an arch along its vertical axis. ‘Types of vaults Domes Barrel vaults Groin vaults Rib vaults Modern vaults © Domes are basically hemi circular structure constructed over ground or walls. There are many historical structures with domed roofs. They are made with brick in mortar or concrete. Page 11Domes Darrel vats Groin vauts © Barrel vaults is the simplest form of vault, looking like a tunnel made of a semicircular roof and continuous over length. In olden days, these are constructed for secret passages, drains ete. © Groin vaults :when two semi circular barrel Vaults of same diameter meet at a place the Junction is called a groin. © Rib vaults are those constructed with intersecting barrel vaults but not of same diameter.It has better appearance but difficult to construct. © Modern vaults are of 20 th century achievements with rec material called shells. With greater understanding of mathematics, Curves like hyperbolaids and other complicated ones are adopted. Used for storage, Commercial, residential and entertainment halls. ib vaults Modern vauits A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor to the other. The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is located, is known as stair case. A staircase may be constructed around a central axis. Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors and roof of the building, It consists of steps (stairs) and one or more slabs between the floor levels. Different types of staircases can be made by arranging stairs and landing slabs. The main components of a staircase--stair, landing slabs and supporting beams or wall. In a domestic building, the stairs should be centrally located to provide easy access to all the rooms whereas in public buildings, the stairs should be located near the entrance. In big buildings, there can be more than one stair. ©. Stairs may be constructed of timber, bricks, stones, Steel, RCC etc.. Apart from stairs, other means of vertical transportation between the floors of a building are Lifts; Ramps; Ladders; Escalators etc. Page 12‘The Technical terms associated with the design and construction of stairs are defined below: (a) Tread: The horizontal top portion of a step where footrests is known as tread. The dimension ranges from 270 mm for residential buildings and factories to 300 mm for public buildings where large number of persons use the staircase. (b) Nosing: In some cases the tread is projected outward to increase the space. This projection is designated as nosing (0) Riser: The vertical distance between two successive steps is termed as riser. The dimension of the riser ranges from 150 mm for public buildings to 190 mm for residential buildings and factories. (a) Wai (thickness) of the waist is the minimum thickness perpendicular to the soffit of the staircase. The ‘The thickness of the slab on which steps are made is known as waist The depth steps of the staircase resting on waist-slab can be made of bricks or concrete. (e) Going: Going is the horizontal projection between the first and the last riser of an inclined flight. (0 Flight: The flight has two landings and one going. (g) winders: Winders are steps located where a staircase turns and are narrower on the inside of the turn than they are on the outside. Page 13REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD STAIR: ‘A good stair should be designed so as to provide easy, quick and safe mode of approach between the floors. Following are the general requirements which a stair should fulfill. i, ii, iii, iv. Location: It should be located as to provide access to the occupants of the building. t should be so located that it is well lighted and ventilated directly from the exterior, It is should be so located as to have approaches conveniently and spacious. Width of the Stair: It should be wide enough to carry the persons without inconvenience. Ina domestic building, a 90 cm wide stair is sufficient while in public building, 1.5 to 18 ts width may be required. Length of Flight: From comfort point of view, the numbers of steps are not more than 12 and not less than 3. Pitch/Slope of stair: A comfortable slope should however be limited to 30° - 45°. Private Staircase (Domestic) = 42° Maximum, Institutional & Assembly Stairs (Public) 33° Maximum. Other (Semi Public) 38° Maximum, Balustrade: Open stair should always be provide with balustrade to provide safety to the users, Wide open stair should have hand rail on both the sides. ‘Step Dimension: The dimensions of rise and going should provide comfort to the users. ‘The proportion should also be comfortable to provide desirable pitch of the stair. The dimensions ofa step or Going and Risers are proportioned: Page 14For comfortable ascent and descent, the Rise and Going of a step should be well proportioned. However, the standards of Rise = 10-15cms and Going-<-30 cms are cins) for a comfortable steps are as follows : adopted, Usually, the combinations (2xRise) + (Going) = 60 cms (Rise) + (Going) = 40 to 45 cms eg: (15 + 28) or (16 + 26) or (17 +24) (Rise) x (Going) = 400 to 450 cms ( 15 x 28) or 16 x 26 or (17x24) vil, Materials: The materials used for the construction of stair should be having sufficient strength and fire resistance. CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS Stairs can be classified in two broad heads: A. Straight stairs B. Turning stairs. A) STRAIGHT STAIRS: This stair runs straight between the two floors. It is used for small houses where there are restrictions in available width. The stair may consist of either one single flight or more than one flight (usually two) with a landing. The second design is L shaped. It goes straight up and turns either right or left ata landing. The fourth makes aT; it goes straight up and turns both right and left from a landing. + fos 2 = fay e = emp LLL & i 2 i B | 3 aa vuronare a B) TURNING STAIRS: These include: 1. Quarter turn stairs. +x: a)Newel quarter turn stairs, b)Geometrical quarter turn stairs. 2. Half turn stairs ........m€%: a)Dog-legged stairs, b)Open newel half turn stairs, ¢) Geometrical half turn stairs. Bifurcated stairs 4. Continuous stairs. a) Circular stairs / spiral stairs, b)Helical stairs. Page 151, Quarter turn stairs: A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction either to the left or to the right, the turn being affected either by introducing a quarter space landing or by providing WINDERS. Quarter turn stairs are: a) Newel Quarter turn stairs: These stairs have the conspicuous (very noticeable) newel posts at the beginning and end of each flight. At the quarter turn, there may either be quarter space landing or there may be winders. b) Geometrical Quarter turn stairs: In geometrical stairs, the stringer as well as the hand rail is continuous without Newel Post. 2, Halfturn stairs: Half turn stai These stairs are quiet common is the one which has its direction reversed or changed for 1800. a) Dog-Legged or Newel half turn stairs: Newel posts are provided at beginning and end of each flight in addition to half space landing and winders. b) Open Newel half turn stai Ithas a space or well between the outer strings. T! the only aspect in which it differs from the dog legged stair. ©) Geometrical Half turn stairs: The essential features of such stairs are that the stringers and the hand rails are continuous without Newel post. These may be either with half space landing or without landing. 3, Bifurcated stair: This type of stair is commonly used in public buildings at their entrance hall. The stair has a wider flight at the bottom, which bifurcates into two narrower flights, one turning to the left and the other to the right. 4, Continuous stairs: Continuous stairs are those which do neither have any landing nor any newel post. They are, therefore, geometrical in shape. Continuous stairs may be of the following types: a) Circular stairs / spiral stairs: These are employed ata location where there are space limitations and such a stair is usually made either of RCC or metal. These are also provided at the back side of a building. All the steps are winders. The stair is therefore not comfortable. b) Helical s which a large portion of steel Its structural design and construction is very complicated. It is made of required to resist bending shear and torsion. Newel Quarter turn stairs Page 16Winder steps Dog-legged stairs stair case spiral stair WOODEN STAIRS (TIMBER STAIRS) Wooden stairs are light in weight and easy to construct, but they have very poor fire resistance. However, timber can be made fire resistant by sir Abel's process. They are used for small rise residential buildings and unsuitable for high rise residential and public buildings. The timber used for the construction should be free from fugal decay and insect attack and should be well treated before use. In timber stairs, the strings are the support for the stair and act as inclined beams between the floor and the landing, The thickness of strings may be 3 to 5 cms. Depth b/w 25 - 40cms For additional support, a bearer / a carriage may be placed under the treads. The normal practice is to provide one bearer. For a 90 cm wide staircase, and an additional bearer for every 40 cm of width is provided. ‘Timber risers and treads are joined by means of nailed or screwed. Scotia blocks may be provided to improve the appearance of steps. RCC STAIRS RCC stairs are the one which are widely used for residential, public and industrial buildings. They are strong and fire resisting. Based on the direction of span of the stair slab, concrete stairs may be divided into two categories: Stairs with slab spanning horizontally: In this category, the slab is supported on one side by side wall and on the other side by a stringer beam. Main reinforcement provided in L- direction , while distribution reinforcement is provided parallel to flight direction Stairs with slab spanning longitudinally: In this category, the slab is supported at bottom and top of the flight, and remain unsupported on the sides. Each flight of stair is continuous and is supported on beams at top and bottom. Dog legged stairs are typical example of this type. Page 17‘The main reinforcement is provided parallel to the direction of flight and the distribution reinforcement is provided along the width of the slab. For wider stairs, sometimes a central stringer beam is provided between the end walls. The stringer is also known as T-beam. ELOORING Floors are horizontal components of building and they divide the building into different level. ‘The purpose of a floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of a building, furniture, equipment and internal partitions. The exposed top surfaces of floors are termed as floorings. Basically the floor consists of following 2 essential components: 1. Floor base 2. Floor covering The floor base is a structural component, which supports the floor covering. QUALITY OF GOOD FLOORS 1) Itshould be hard 2) _Itshould be free from dampness 3) Mshould be durable 4) Itshould be easy to clean as for as the possible it should be noiceless. 5) _Itshould be free from dampness 6) Itshould be fire resistance. 7) _Itshould have good appearance 8) Itshould not be very costly. FACTORS WHICH GOVERN THE SELECTION OF TYPE OF FLOOR. 1) Theinitial cost of floor 2) Durability and strength of floor 3) Appearance 4) Free from dampness, sound, heat 5) Lowmaintenance cost 6) Surface smoothness 7) Easilycleanable 8) Itshould be hard Selection of Flooring Material/ Characteristics of Flooring Material Following factors are to be carefully considered before selecting the material for flooring of a particular building Page 181. Appearance: covering should give pleasing appearance; it should produce a desired colour effect and architectural beauty. Floorings of terrazzo, mosaic, tiles and marble give good appearance. 2. Cleanliness: The flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it should be non- absorbent. It should have effective resistance against absorption of oil, grease etc. 3. Cost: the cost of the material should be in conformity with the type of building, and its ikely use. Floor coverings of marble etc are very costly and may be used only for residential buildings. 4, Damp resistance: Flooring should offer sufficient resistance against dampness, so that, healthy environment is obtained in the building. Flooring of concrete, terrazzo, mosaic etc are preferred for this purpose, while flooring of wood, rubber etc are preferred for this purpose, while flooring o wood, rubber, etc are not suitable for damp conditions. 5. Durability: The flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature changes, disintegration with time and decay so that long life is obtained. From this point of view, flooring of marble, terrazzo, concrete etc are considered to be of best type. 6. Fire resistance: This is more important for upper floors. Flooring material should offer sufficient fire resistance so that fire barriers are obtained between different levels of a building. 7. Hardness: It should be hard so as to have resistance to indentation marks, imprints ete likely to be caused by shifting of furniture, equipment etc. 8 Maintenance: the flooring material should require leapt maintenance. However, whenever repairs are required, it should be such that repairs can be done easily with least possible expenditure. 9. Thermal insulation: the flooring should offer reasonably good thermal insulation so that comfort is imparted to the residents of the building. 10. Slipperiness: The surface of floor should be smooth but at the same time, be too slippery. should not 4b DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLOORS 1 Stone slab flooring Fig 1 Stone stab flooring The stone slab for flooring may be square or rectangular with width not less than 38 em and thickness of 2 to 4 cm, Stone slabs are laid on 20 to 25 mm thick layer bed of mortar. A slope of 1 to 40 is necessery to be given in stone slab flooring for propor drainage. Itis hard, durable and resistance to wear and tear and as such is used in workshops, motor-sheds and godowns. Page 192 Cement concrete flooring This type of flooring is commonly used both in residential as well as public buildings. The earth filling in plinth is consolidated thoroughly. The base concrete used under floors may be lime concrete or cement concrete to a thickness varying from 10 to 15 cm. when the base conerete has fully set and hardened, its surface is thoroughly cleaned and the entire area is divided in to rectangular or square panels of 1.25 m X 1.25 m size. The panels should be laid with C.C.1:2:4 is then laid in required thickness in one operation in the panels. The concrete is spread evenly by using a straight edge and the surface is thoroughly tamped and floated with wooden floats till the cream of the mortar comes at top. ‘The surface is then smoothened and finally finished by means of steel trowels. The flooring should be cured for 15 days before use. Metal Trowel Wooden Float Fig. .2. Cement concrete flooring, If a rich concrete like 1:1:2 is used and laid monolithically with floor base a stronger floor is achieved and can be used for ware houses, factories etc, such covering is called gronolithic covering. 3. TERRAZZO FLOOR COVERING: + Terrazzo is a mixture of marble (a kind of lime stone) chips of different colors and sizes varying from 3 to 6 mm and cement. + Laying of floor base and preparation of base surface is done as in the case of C.C flooring. + Terrazzo concrete is prepared using grey or white cement and marble chips in the ratio 1:2. And water. Page 20+ Alternative panels are chosen to fill the above concrete. Terrazzo mix concrete is laid and finished to a level surface with trowels. The surface is then tamped and floated with wooden floats. + While tamping and floating is going on additional dry marble chips are added so that at least 80 % of floor surface show exposed marble chips. Surface concrete is allowed to dry for a day and then cured it with water for 2 to 3 days. + MACHINE GRINDING FOR TERRAZO FLOOR COVERING IS THEN CARRIED OUTIN 3 STAGES. a First grinding with coarse grade carborandum stone (No.60) using plenty of water. The surface is then cleaned with water and cement slurry of cream like consistency is applied to fill pores, It is cured for 7 days. b, Second grinding is by fine grade stone (No.120) with dilute oxalic acid. The other procedure is repeated. Cure for 4 days. c Third and final grinding is with finer grade C.stone (320 grit size). After grinding, the surface is washed with water and again with dilute oxalic acid. Finally it is polished with felt cloth to get a fine finish. Sometimes it is further given a wax finish to give a glossy surface. + Different designs can be Incorporated as shown, Page 214 Mosaic flooring (Over the hard base concrete bed this floor should be laid. Concrete surface should be cleaned and cured. Above that c.m.1:3 should be spread for 1 em thick uniformly. Mosaic tiles should be laid with sufficient slope. These are laid with white or coloured cement. Then the floor should be cured. The flooring should be polished by using floor polishing machines. A roof is defined as the upper most part of a building, provided as a structural covering, to protect the building from weather. The structural elements may be trusses, portals, beams, slabs, shells or domes and the roof cov \gs may be A.C. sheets, G.l. sheets, wooden shingles, tiles, slates etc. 1.1.2 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD ROOF ‘The following requirements are to be satisfied by a well planned roof: Itshould be durable against the adverse effects of wind, sun, rain etc. ii) Itshould give good insulation against heat and sound. )) Itshould be structurally sound and stable. iv) Itshould permit good drainage. ¥) Itshould have good water-proofing arrangement. vi) Itshould be fire resistant. CLASSIFICATION OF ROOFS They are classified as > Pitched (sloped) roofs. > Flat roofs. > Curved roofs ‘Type of roof is selected by > Climatic conditions. > Locally available Page 22> Construction materials. > Economics (cost Considerations) Pitched (sloped) roofs atrots curved roots PITCHED ROOFS These are provided when, > Rain fall is heavy. > Possibility of snow fall. > Buildings have limited width and simple in shape. > They are to be less costly. They are further classified as, > Lean-to roof. > Coupled roof with hip or gabled ends. > Trussed roof LEAN-TO ROOF + Simplest form of roof + Slopes only to one side of the wall generally @ 30 degrees. + Limited to a span of 2.5 m. + Tiles, gi sheets, aluminum sheets, Plastic sheets can be used as roof Coverings. + Used for verandahs, out houses, cattle shed etc. » LEAN TO ROOF CONSTRUCTION DETAILS + Span is the distance between two supports + Fixa “I” shape corbel stone in higher wall @ designed spacing. Page 23Run a wooden wall plate through all corbel stones. Run rafters along the span @ designed spacing. At lower end rafters supported on wooden posts. Fix rafter to the wooden post by wall plates. Connect ends of all rafters by an eaves board. Run reepers or battens @ right angles to rafters. Cover the reepers with roof covering material. Il wood joints are by Nails. Provide gutter or a Trough of gl. Sheet. @ Eaves board to collect And drained off Rain water. oot covering Battens pee il ‘Wall plate Eaves board wall a post plate LIEAN-TO-ROOF. COUPLED ROOF CONSTRUCTION DETAILS Rafters (common rafters) & posts / wall are connected by walll plates. Reepers / battens are run @ right angles to rafters over which roof covering material is layed. Eaves board connects ends of all rafters. Gutter is provided. All above are as in lean - to roof ridge piece which connects top ends of c.rafters from both sides is a new feature. Page 24Ridge cover Baltens Ridge piece Common raftore plate (@) Elevation COUPLED ROOF WITH GABLE OR HIP END + Acoupled roof can be finished on either end by a gable or a hip roof. + In gable roof end wall is taken right up to the roof level to form a triangular wall. + Inhip roof, the roof is sloped down in a different direction to form a triangular roof, * The common rafters used in hip portion are called hip rafters. * The. Rafters shorter in length to form hip portion along the slope of coupled roof are called jack rafters. TRUSSED ROOFS + Itis a double roof like in coupled roof supported by a frame called a truss resting on the two outer walls / posts/ pillars. = Span can be increased up to 12 m depending on the type of truss. KINDS OF TRUSSES «= KING POST TRUSS = QUEEN POST TRUSS = STEEL TRUSS & etc KING POST TRUSS: A king post truss consists the following components. 1. Lower tie beam Page 252. Two inclined principal rafters 3. King post 4, Two struts In this type of truss tie central post is known as king post forms a support for the tie beam. The principal rafters support the purlins. The purlins support the closely spaced common rafters which have the same slope as the principal rafters. The common rafters support the roof covering as usual, A king post truss is suitable for roofs of span varying from Sm to 8m, The spacing of the king post truss is limited to 3m center to center. The lower horizontal tie beam receives tie ends of tie principal rafters and prevents tie wall from spreading out due to thrust. The king post prevents the tie beam from sagging at its center of span. Tie struts connected to the tie beam and the principal rafters in inclined direction prevent the sagging of principal rafters. Ridge beam is provided at the apex of the roof to provide end support to the common rafters. At its head the king postis jointed to the ends of principal rafters by suitable joint. The joint is Secured by means of a three way wrought iron or mild steel strap on each side. Purlins are secured to principal rafters through cogged joints and cleats. Cleats fixed on principal rafter prevent the purlins from tilting. The common rafters are connected to eaves board at the other end. Joints in this truss are: 1. Joint between the principal rafter and tie beam 2. Joint between the king post and tie beam 3, Joint at the head and feet of strut, 4. Joint between the principal rafters and the King post. Page 26ridge boat common rafter oagn principal rafter purlin cleat. wall plate brick inf stone template supporting. wall Traditional King Post Roof Truss QUEEN POST TRUSS A queen post truss differs from a king-post truss in having two vertical posts, rather than one, The vertical posts are known as queen-posts, the top of which are connected by a horizontal piece, known as straining beam, Two struts are provided to join the feet of each queen post to the principal rafter. The queen posts are the tension members. A strai ‘ing sill is introduced on the beam between the queen posts from inclined struts which are in compression. In absence of the straining sill, the thrust from the strut would tend to force the foot of the queen post inwards, Purlins with cleats are provided as in the king post truss. These tr re suitable for span: n 8 to 12m, ‘common rafters straining beam cleat stone template Traditional Queen Post Roof Truss Joints in this truss are: 1. Joint at the head of queen post 2. Joint at the feet of queen post Page 27STEEL TRUSS When the span exceeds 10m, timber trusses become heavy and uneconomical. Steel trusses are more economical for larger spans. However steel trusses are more commonly used these days for all spans small or large since they are more economical, ease to construct, more rigid, fire proof and permanent. Steel trusses are fabricated from rolled steel structural members such as channels, angles, T- sections and plates. Most of the roof trusses are fabricated from angle-sections because they can resist effectively tension as well as compression and their jointing is easy. The arrangement and sizes of various steel trusses depends on the span, loading and wind pressures. The various shapes of the trusses along with their suitability for different span ranges are as shown below: ARS Py Bras ow wane poor sexi russ yomrus reset FLAT ROOFS > Itisa horizontal roof. > Forms of flat roofs 1. Reinforced cement concrete roofs (r ¢ ¢) 2. Madras terrace roof. & etc Advantages: + Terrace, the top of roof can be put to use. * Facilitates multi storied construction. + Area of roof covering material is less. + Provides better insulation from weather elements Disadvantages + Self weight of roof is more. + Time of construction is more. + Cost of construction is more. + Develops cracks when subjected to alternate hot and cold from weather. 1, Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C) ROOFS = They are called r.cc roof slabs. ‘= They rest on walls or beams supported on columns. If they rest on r.c.c beams beams and slabs are cast monolit! Page 28Thickness, steel r focement, concrete mix ete. are desigined based on span and loads on roof. > STEPS IN CONSTRUCTION OF R.C.C ROOF Erection of form work or shuttering or centering. Assembling of reinforcement. Mixing,transporting placing and compacting concrete. Curing Removing form work. Weather proofing i, FORM WORK Itis temporary construction to support concrete while it is wet cond, and in the process of setting and hardening. It is made of wood or steel. It is in the form of sheets and supports or props. Itis cut and erected as per shapes, lines and dimensions required. Surface in contact with concrete is cleaned of all rubbish, wetted and treated with oil. ASSEMBLING REINFORCEMENT ii Steel rods are cut and bent for forming hooks and cranking and placed in position as, per drawings and tied with binding wire. Cover stones are to be inserted below the steel grill to allow concrete to flow and forms the cover. ili, MIXING, TRANSPORTING PLACING& COMPACTING MIXING: M15 ( Mixing is to be done as nearer to site as possible. 4) concrete is the minimum mix for r.c.c work, Calculated quantities of cement, fine ager. (sand) and coarse aggregates (kankar, broken stones/pebbles) are to be stacked nearby. Water must be made available to add. Mechanical mixer is to be used. First aggregates and sand to be loaded and then cement and water to be added and mixed for 2 min Mixing shall be continued untill the mass is uniform In color and consistency TRANSPORTING: Concrete has to be transported from mixer to formwork as rapidly as possible. During transportation segregation of ingredients is to be prevented. For small works it is done by head loads.in can be pumped to the place in large works. PLACING: Concrete should be placed as nearly as possible to the place to avoid rehandling. Page 29‘© Placing shall be in one stroke by dumping from low height to preclude segregation. © While placing displacement of steel and form work shall be avoided. COMPACTING: © Concrete should be thoroughly compacted and fully Worked around reinforcement and into corners of the formwork using trowels and rods. © For better results mechanical vibration by pin vibrators can be carried out. © Over vibration so as to disturb formwork should be avoided. © After laying of concrete is over the Surface of slab is vibrated by surface vibrator for uniform surface. CURING: ‘© Exposed surfaces of concrete shall be kept continuously in damp condition by ponding at least for seven days from the date of placing concrete. iv. STRIPPING OR REMOVING FORMWORK: © Forms shall not be struck untill concrete reaches required strength. © Sheets supporting slabs can be removed after 3 days. © But props should be continued to support the slab for, 7 days if span is up to 4.5 m& 14 days if span is over 4.5 m v. Weather proofing: © Generally rcc in not perfectly water proof. © Soa liberal slope is to be given to the top surface of roof so as to drain off water immediately. © Terrace can be plastered with cement plaster mixed with water proofing compounds giving slope for drainage. © Appucca terraceing can be done by laying a 10 cm layer of lime concrete over which 2 layers of flat tiles are fixed in lime mortor covering joints in a layer by the tiles in top layer and finally finishing by pointing the joints with mortor. 4 MADRAS TERRACE FLAT ROOF: © Used where there is less or scanty rain fall, © Awooden beam as a r.s, (Rolled steel joist) is supported on walls of a room along shorter span. © Wooden rafters are run at designed spacing at right angles to beam. © A course of terrace bricks of 15x5x1.2 em is placed on edge in lime mortor 1:1.5 laid diagonally across the joists. Page 30© After ks are set in mortar a 10 cm layer of surki concrete (brick bats + sand-+lime laid over it and well rammed with wooden beaters. © Cure with water and finally finish with three coats of lime Plaster and cure it aga 4 ADVANTAGES OF MADRAS TERRACE ROOF: © It provider better insulation for heat. And sound. © Itcan also be made better leak-proof, 4 DISADVANTAGES: © It takes more time for construction. © Specially skilled workers are required. © Its life is less. © Difficult to stop leaking if cracks are developed. © Self weight is more. © Lime, terrace bricks must be available. © Cannot withstand heavy rains. U7 A building usually consists of two basic components viz.. the super-structure and the sub- structure / Foundation. ‘The super-structure is a part of the building which is above the ground level and serve the purpose of its intend use. usually located below the ground level which transmits the load of the super structure to the sub- Soil. A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted. Page 31Superbrctute The basic function of a foundation is: To transfer the live and dead loads of the building to the soil over a large enough area so that, neither the soil nor the building will move. In areas where frost occurs, to prevent frost from moving the building. Dead loads are the weight of the building materials and the soil surrounding the foundations. Live loads include the weight of people, furniture, snow, rain, and wind. Wind may be a vertical force downward, a horizontal force, or an uplift force. A live load may also be exerted by water in the soil around the foundations, Wet soil exerts much more force than dry soil. Frozen soil exerts much more force than wet soil. ™ Requirements of a safe foundation: Structure-foundation system safe against settlements that would lead to collapse - Foundation settlement should not damage the structure - Foundation must be technically and economically feasible The soil which is located immediately below the base of the foundation is called the sub-soil / foundation soil, while the lower most portion of the foundation which is in direct contact with the Weak sub-soils which are made up ground; shrinkable / expansive soils such as clay; frost action; movement of ground water; excessive vibrations due to traffic and machinery; slow consolidation of saturated clays; slipping of strata on sloping areas are to be taken into account while designing the foundations. DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS: Foundations may be broadly classified as: A). Shallow Foundations: A foundation is shallow ifits depth is equal to or less than its width, B). Deep Foundations: A foundation is deep if ts depth is greater than its width. A) From the point of view of design, the various types of shallow foundations are: Page 321. Spread Footing: Spread footings are those which spread the load of a wall or column over a large area. Spread footings may be of the following kinds: i, iii, iv. 2. Combined footings: A spread footing wi Single/Isolated Footing for a column: In this type of footing, the loaded area (b xb) of the column spread to the size (B X B) through a single spread. The base is, generally made of concrete. Stepped Footing for a column: This type of footing is designed for a heavily loaded column which requires greater spread. ‘The base of the column is made of column is made of concrete. Sloped Footing for a column: In this case, the concrete base does not have uniform thickness but is made sloped with greater thickness where it is required. Wall footing without step consisting of concrete base without any steps. Wall footing with steps consisting of concrete base with steps as shown in the figure. JZ () Single footing () Stopped tooung (©) Sloped footing SPREAD FOOTINGS FOR COLUMNS supports two or more columns is termed as combined footing. The combined footings may be Page 33(©) Trapexcidal foone Rectangular combined footing: Columns will be rectangular in shape if they carry equal loads. The design should be done in such a way that centre of gravity of column loads coincide with the centroid of the footing area. i, Trapezoidal combined footing: If the columns carry unequal loads, the footing is of trapezoidal shape as shown. ii, Combined column-cum-wall footings: Sometimes it may be required to provide a combined footing for columns and a wall. Rectangular and trapezoidal footings are to be adopted when the columns carry equal loadsand columns carry un equal loads respectively as shown in the figure. Strap Footing: If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, itis called strap footing. A strap footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great. In this case, the column Ais so near to an existing wall and the strap beam does not remain in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil. The strap assumed to be infinitely stiff, serves to transfer the column loads on to the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under both footings. Strap footing is used to connect an eccentrically loaded column footing to an interior column so that the moment can be transferred through the beam and have uniform stress distribution beneath both the foundations. Footings should be proportioned to have approximately equal soil pressure in order to avoid differential settlement ‘Strap beam should not have contact with soil to avoid soil reaction to it. Page 344, Mat Footing / Raft Footing: A raft or mat is combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns, When the building loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one half the area and is more economical to use mat or raft foundation. A true raft / mat is a flat concrete slab with uniform thickness throughout the area. This is adopted : when the column spacing is small and column loads are relatively small,, independents units are close by, soil having poor bearing capacity, non-uniform strength of soil. The depth of foundation shall not be less than 1.0 m. Raft foundations are adopted for following situations Structures like chimneys, silos, cooling towers, buildings with basements where continuous water proofing is, needed For foundations where differential settlement can be a major concern For soft soils strata or site with pockets of weak soil In situations where individual footings may touch or overlap each other. ‘Types of raft foundations Page 35Plane Slab Rafts: For fairly small and uniform spacing of columns and when the supporting soll is not too compressible. Beam and Slab: For large column spacing and unequal column loads. Slab with Column Pedestals: For columns with heavy loads which may require large shear strength or flexural strength of slab. Cellular Rafts: For compensated foundations to avoid differential settlements in weak soils. Piled Rafts: For heavy structures on soft soils in order to share the loads with piles. Strip Rafts or Grid Rafts: For economi slab may be avoided. “ DAMP PROOF COURS! One of the basic requirements of a building is that it should remain dry or free from | design where a complete moisture travelling through walls, roofs and floors. Dampness is the presence of hygroscopic or gravitational moisture. It gives rise to unhygienic conditions, and it effects the life of structure adversely. Totally it is unsafe from the structural point of view. Hence in order to prevent the entry of damp into a building, the courses known as damp proof courses are provided at various levels into a building. Definition: The excess entry or penetration of moisture inside a building through its floors, walls and roofs is called Dampness. Causes/Source of Dampness : Following are the various causes/Source of dampness in buildings. 1. Rising of moisture from the ground 2. Action of rain 3. 4. 5. in beating against external walls Condensation .. Miscellaneous 1. Rising of moisture from the ground The ground on which the building is constructed may be made of soils which easily allow the water to pas Usually the building materials used for the foundations, absorb moisture by capillary action. Thus the dampness finds its way to the floor through the substructure. 2. Action of rain Page 36If the faces of wall, exposed to heavy showers of rain, are not suitably protected, they become the sources of entry of dampness in and similarly the leaking roofs also permit the rain water to enter a structure. 3. Rain beating against external walls If balconies and chajja projections do not have proper outward slope, water will accumulate on these and could ultimately enter the walls through their junction. The moisture travel would completely surface interior decoration of the wall. 4. Condensation The process of condensation takes place when humid air is cooled. Due condensation of atmospheric moisture, water is deposited on the walls, floors and ceilings. This moisture may cause dampness. 5, Miscellaneous Moisture may also enter due to the following miscellaneous causes. Ifthe structure is located on a site which cannot be .easily drained off the water, the dampness will enter the structure (ie, due to poor drainage). Imperfect orientation: walls getting less sunshine and heavy showers may cause dampness. Imperfect roof slope: Very flat slope leads dampness EFFECTS OF DAMPNESS The various defects caused by dampness to buildings are 1. It causes efflorescence which may ultimately result in disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles.ete. 2. It may result in softening and crumbling of plaster. The unsightly patches are formed on the wall surface and ceilings. 3. The electrical fittings are deteriorated and it may lead to leakage of electricity and consequent danger of short circuiting. It may result warping, buckling and rotting of timber. It may leads to corrosion of metals, It promotes growth of termites It breeds mosquitoes and creates unhealthy living conditions for the occupants. The floorings get loosened because of reduction in the adhesion when moisture enters through the floor. 9. The materials used for wall decoration are damaged. eu ans Methods of Damp-proofing / Prevention of Dampness There are various methods of damp-proofing and depending upon the nature of surface, situation of the structure and amount of dampness, Following are the methods or measures adopted to prevent entry of dampness 1. Membrane damp proofing Page 372, Integral damp proofing 3, Surface treatment 4. Guniting 5. Cavity wall construction 1, Membrane Damp-proofing This consists in providing layer of membrane of water repellent material between the source of dampness and the part of the structure adjacent to it. It may comprise of materials like bituminous fells mastic asphalt, epoxy, polymers, plastic or polythene sheets etc. General principles to be observed while laying D.P.C. are as under i. The D.P.C. should cover full thickness of walls. fi, ‘The mortar bed which is prepared to receive the horizontal damp-proofing course should be even and levelled and free from projections so that the damp-proofing Course is not damaged. fii, Atjunction and corners of walls, the horizontal D.P.C.should be laid continuous. iv. When a horizontal D.P.C. is to be continued to a vertical face, a cement concrete fillet 75mm in radius should be at the junction, prior to the treatment 2. Integral Damp Proofing ‘This consists in adding certain water-proofing compounds with the concrete mix, so that it becomes impermeable. Thus water proofing compounds may be in three forms b. Compounds made from chalk, tale, fuller’s earth which may fall the voids of concrete under the mechanical action principle. © Compounds like alkaline silicon, aluminum, sulphate, and calcium chlorides ete which react chemically with concrete to produce WPC. d. Compounds like soap, petroleum oils, fatty acids compounds such as stearates of calcium, sodium, ammonia etc work on water repulsion principle. 3, Surface treatment This consists in filling up the pores of the surfaces subjected to dampness. The use of water repellent metallic soaps such as calcium and aluminum and stearates is much effecti protecting the building against the ravages of heavy rain. ‘The walls plastered with cement, lime and sand mixed in proportions of 1:1:6 as found to save the purpose of preventing dampness in wall due to rain effectively. 4, Guniting This consists in depositing an impervious layer of rich cement mortar over the surface to be Water proofed. The operation is carried out by use of machine known as cement gun. The surface to be treated is first thoroughly cleaned of dirt, dust, grease or loose particles and Page 38wetted properly. Cement and sand usually taken in proportion of 1:3 to 1:4 are then fed into the machine. This mixture is finally shot in the prepared surface under a pressure of 2 to 3 kg km2. ‘The nozzle of the machine is kept at a distance about 75 to 90cm from the surface to be guinited. ‘The mortar mix of desired consistency and thickness can be deposited to get an impervious layer. 5. Cavity wall construction: (detailed explanation given in page no: 08 ) Materials used in damp proofing course: An effective damp proofing materials should have the following properties. 1, Itshould be impervious (should not permit any moisture penetration) 2. Itshould be durable and should have the same life as that of building. 3. It should be strong and durable and should be capable of withstanding both dead or wet or live load without damage. 4, Itshould be dimensionally stable. 5. Itshould be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates, chlorides and nitrates 6. Itshould not be costly ‘The Followi : fi ‘ 1, Hot Bitumen: This is a flexible material and is placed on the bedding of concrete or mortar. This material should be applied with a minimum thickness of 3 mm, 2, Masticasphalt This is a semi rigid material and it forms an excellent impervious layer for damp and only very slight distortion, It is liable to squeeze out in very hot climates or under very heavy proofing. The good asphalt is very durable and completely impervious material. It can with pressure. It should be laid by experienced men of the specially firms. 3. Bituminous felts This is a flexible material. It is easy to lay and is available in rolls of normal wall width. It is laid on a layer of cement mortar. An overlap of 100 mm is provided at the joints and full overlap is provided at all corners. The laps may be sealed with bituminous if necessary. The bitumen felt can accommodate slight movement. But it is liable to squeeze out under heavy pressure and it offers little resistance to sliding, The material is available in rolls and it should be carefully unrolled, especially in cold weather. 4, Metal sheets ‘The sheets of lead, copper and aluminium can be used as the membranes of damp proofing. Page 39‘The lead isa flexible material. The thickness of lead sheets should be such that its weight is not less than 200 N/m2. The lead can be dressed to complex shapes without fracture and it possesses high resistance to sliding action. It is impervious to moisture and it does not ‘squeeze out under ordinary pressure. It resists ordinary corrosion. The surfaces of lead coming in contact with lime and cement are likely to be corroded and hence a coating of bitumen paint of high consistency should protect the metal. ‘The copper is flexible material. It possesses higher tensile strength than that of lead. It is impervious to atmosphere and it does not squeeze out under ordinary pressure. It possesses high resistance to sliding action. The external wall, especially of stones, is likely to be stained when a damp proof course of copper is adopted. The surfaces of copper coming in contact with mortars are likely to be affected, But for normal use, the metal does not require any protective coating. ‘The aluminium sheets can also be used for damp proofing. But they should be protected with a layer of bitumen. 5. Combination of sheets and felts Alead foil is sandwiched between asphalt and bituminous felt. This the lead core and it is found to be economical, durable and efficient. 6.Stone The two courses of sound and dense stones such as granite, slates etc laid in cement mortar (1:3) with vertical breaking joint can work as an effective damp proofing course. The stones should extend for full width a damp proofing course. The stones should extend for full ‘width of wall. Something the stones can be fixed, as in case of roof surfaces, on the exposed face of wall etc. 6. Bricks The dense bricks, absorbing water less than 4.5% of their weight, can be used for damp proofing at place where the damp is not excessive. The joints are kept open. Such bricks are widely used when damp proofing course is to inserted in an existing wall. 7. Mortar ‘The mortar to be used for bedding layers can be prepare by mixing 1 part of cement and 3 part of sand by volume. A small quantity of lime is added to increase the workability. For plastering work, the water proof mortar can be prepared. Itis prepare by mixing 1 part of cement and 2 part of sand and pulverized alum at rate of 120 N/m3 of sand. In water to be used, .75 N of soft soap is dissolved per litre of water and soap water is added to dry mixed. The mortar thus prepared is used to plaster the surfaces. Alternatively some patented water proofing material such as pudlo, cido, dempro etc may be added to cement mortar. Page 409, Cement concrete ‘A cement concrete layer in proportional 1:2:4 is generally provided at the plinth level to work as a damp proofing course. The depth of cement concrete layer varies from 40 mm to 150 mm. It stop the rise of water by capillary action and it found to be effective at places where the damp is not excessive. 10. Plastic sheets ‘The material is made of black polythene havinga thickness of about 0.55 mm to 1mm with usual width of wall and it is available in roll lengths of 30 m. this treatment is relatively cheap but it is not permanent. DOORS AND WINDOWS INTRODUCTION A door may be defined as a frame work secured in an opening left in a wall for the purpose of providing access to the uses ofthe structure. A window may be defined as an opening made in a wall for the purpose of providing daylight, vision and ventilation. Definition: A door may be defined as an openable barrier secured in a wall opening. It serves ‘as a connecting link between the various internal partitions ofa building. Basically a door consists of two parts 1. Frame 2. Shutter Important considerations for Doors L Location of Doors * The location of a door should meet functional requirements of ROOM. It should not be located in the centre of the length of a wall. A door should preferably be located near the corner of a room, nearly 20em away from the corners. = The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum due to the fact that more number of doors will cause obstruction and reduce the effective usable carpet area of the room. Page 41= If there are two doors in a room, the doors should preferably be located in opposite walls, facing each other, so as to provide good ventilation and free air circulation in the rooms. Size of Doors The size of a door should be such that it would allow the movement of largest object or tallest person likely to use the door. Asa rule, the height of door should not be less than 1.8m to 2m, ‘The common width-height relations, used in India are 1. Width= (0.4 to 0.6)* height 2. Height = (width+1.2)* meter ‘The following are the generally adopted sizes of doors for various types of buildings. Doors of residential buildings 1. External door- (1.0 m x2m) to (1.1 x2m) 2, Internal doors-(0.9m x 2m) to (1m x 2m) 3. Doors for bathrooms and water closets-(0.7m x 2m) to (0.8m x 2m) 4. Garages for cars-2.25m x 2.25m Doors of public buildings like school, hospitals, library etc-1.2mx2.0m, 1.2mx2.1m, 1.2mx2.25m 4 Technical terms used in Doors & Windows ‘The definition of technical terms used in connection with the doors and windows are as follows. Frame: This is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members, forming an enclosure, to which the shutters are fixed. Shutters: The entire assembly of styles, panels and rails is known as the shutters. Style: It is the outside vertical member of the shutter of a window. Head: The top or uppermost horizontal part of frame is known as head. ‘Top rail: This is the top most horizontal member ofa shutter. Lock rail: This is the middle horizontal member of a door shutter to which locking arrangements fixed Bottom rail: This is the lowermost horizontal member of the shutter. Panel: This is the area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails Horn: These are the horizontal projections of the head and sill of a frame to facilitate the fixing ofthe frame on the wall opening, The length of horns is kept about 10 to 15cm. Holdfast: This is generally in holdfasts are the form of a mild steel flat bar of section 30mmx6mm and of length 200mm. The three numbers of such hold fasts are provided on each Page 42Panel side of RE Boor fais and taro numbers oPsudl holdkasteare prdvided on each side of the v§if8w-frame. They keep the frame position. Rebate the ae pi eseibit ifaeenislte he Moa aM Et AEEENE the door shutter is known as Mydlign, ‘The vertical member which separates the shutter in the middle is mullion. ‘Transom SS eS The small ape iD VARIOU! | Holdfes! “WHoldtast Style. Isl bE soaret This door consists ofa series of vertical battens fixed together with horizontal members known as ledges. There are three ledges named top ledge, bottom ledge and middle ledge. The door is hung on the frame by iron hinges called T-hinges or cross gamet hinges. These types of door are mostly used for rooms where economy rather than the appearances is of main consideration. —4 PTL Door Fig. 1. Terms used in doors Fig.2. Terms used in Windows Page 43Baten Ovtaide “Verticot Section ‘Ladged door 2, Battened, Ledged and Braced Door Thisis an improved form of battend and ledged door. In this type of door two additional members are provided in the form of inclined braces as shown in (fig 12.4). The braces incline downwards towards the side on which the door is hung. 3, Battened, Ledged and Framed Doors Page 44‘The frame work ofthis type of door consists of two vertical members called stiles, three horizontal ‘members called stiles, three horizontal members known as ledges and vertical battens. Size of stiles should be 10cm X 40 mm. This is considered to be superior in strength, durability and appearance to other two types of doors mentioned above. Botten Outside Enlorged Part—pion (AA) Ledged and framed door 4, Battened, ledged, braced and framed doors Page 45hls Porton (AA) Looe, tame braced dor This door consists of battens, ledges, braces and frames. It has more strength, durability and appearance. The braces are housed and inclined towards the side on which the door is hung. 5, Framed and Panelled Doors This type of door is commonly provided in all types of buildings. This door consists of timber frame work of stiles and rails which are grooved on the inside to receive one or more panels. The number of panels and type of pane!s should be selected according to the places used. The thickness of shutter should be 30 mm 40 mm and thickness of panels should be 20 mm. the door may be single, double, three, four or six paneled and so on. This should have good appearance. Page 466. Glazed or Sash Doors This type of door is used in residential as well as public buildings like hospitals, schools or colleges etc. with a view to supplement the natural lighting provided by windows. They can be glazed fully or partly, The glass should be fitted by using putty with frames. Se — a a Ronse | i kei Fone” ‘lly glazed door Partly panetied and partly glazed door 7. Flush Doors: Flush doors have pleasing appearance, Simple construction, high strength and durability and cost less, Flush doors can be divided in following types. (Solid core type flush door, (ii) Hollow core type flush door. Page 47(a) Solid core flush door (b) Hollow core type flush door To Ta Laminated flush door Enlarged section on AA Framed tush door Enlarged selon an AA In solid core flush door, ‘The frame is made out of selected species of timber. Itis necessary to provide hard wood lipping around the frame. The thickness of the shutter should be 30 mm. In hollow core flush door, Inthis type the frame consists of stiles, top rail, bottom rails and minimum inter mediate rails. The space between stiles and the railsis divided by fixing wooden battens not less than 25 mm in width. The voids are equally distributed. The voids should be filled with work. Plywood sheets and face veneers are then glued under pressure on both faces of the core. 8. Louvered Doors ts } = 7 Za ix 2 Page 48Inthis type of doors the stiles of shutter are grooved to receive a series of louvers which may be ‘of glass or wood, The louvers are set within the grooves in inclined position, so that they slope downward to the outside in order to runoff the rain water and obstruct the horizontal vision atthe same time. Itmay be fixed or pivoted. These are commonly used in bathrooms, W.C., Workshops, dressing rooms ete 9, Collapsable Doors : nerd iP UR SES MXIKDa teh il 7 Mi MN NINN ose Ma on Elevation. Collapsible steel door ‘These doors are used for shops garages, public buildings, godowns ete, and in situations where ‘width of opening is large. The door essentially consists of vertical double channels each 20 x 10x 2mm in size and spaced at 10 to 12.cm apart, These are braced with flat iron diagonals 20 mm wide and 5 ‘mm thick,. The door shutter slides over roller mounted at its bottom and is held in position by the rails, This door is also used for residences to increase safety and protection. 10. Revolving Doors : “This door essentially consists of four leaves radially attached to a centrally placed muition ina circular opening. The leaves and the mullion are enclosed in a vestibule. The leaves may be glazed, paneled or partly glazed; such doors are commonly provided in hotels, banks, offices and other suc important public buildings. 11. Rolling Doors Page 49Guide channel Blevation Section Inside Outside — Choma Pian Fig. 6.3.14. Rolling Door Rolling steel door ‘The shutter consists of thin steel slabs interlocked to each other and wiled upon specially designed pipe shaft mounted atthe top ofthe opening. The door shutter travels in two vertical steel guide channels, installed at either end of the opening. The shutter is counter balanced by means of helical spring enclosed in the drum. These are used for stores, shop fronts, factories and garages etc 12.51 ling Doors : ‘The door is provided with top and bottom guide rails or runners within which the shutters slide. ‘The guide rails run past the opening for a distance equal to the width of the shutter so that when the door is required to be opened, the door shutter occupies a new position parallel to the wall face and clear off the opening. This type of door is suitable for good shops, sheds, godowns, officer, and garages. Page 50A.window may be defined as an opening made in a wall for the purpose of providing day light, vision and ventilation. Construction of window is parts. 1) Frame 2) shutter. They are normally provided with two leaves. identical to that of door. It is comprised of two ‘The selection of size, shape, location and the number of windows to be provided in a room depends upon the following considerations. i. Size of the room Ii, Location of the room and its utility |. Direction of wind Iv, Climatic considerations of the site such as humidity, temperature, variation ete. Architectural treatment to the exterior of the building, Based on the above factors, the following thumb rules are in use: 1. Breadth of windows=1\8 (width of room +ht of room) Types of windows Depending upon types of materials used, nature of operational movements of the shutter, location and the manner in which they are fixed, windows can be broadly classified as under: 1. Dormer Window Itis a vertical window built in the sloping side of a pitched roof. (his window is provided to achieve proper ventilation and lighting below the roof. Page 512, Louvered Window: Inthis type of window the stiles of shutter are grooved to receive a series of louvers. The louvers are set within the grooves in inclined position so that they slope downward to the outside in order to ‘obstruct the horizontal vision. Louvers should be fixed or pivoted. Mostly used in bathrooms and toilet. 3. Bay Window window projecting out ward from the walls ofa room is termed as a bay window. Bay window ‘may be square, rectangular or polygonal in plan and its introduced with a view to provide an increased area of opening for admittance of light and ventilation. Frame Shutter ‘Square bay window a Tes ee = fess Pian Lantern tight Ifthe light from the windows on the walls is not enough, windows are provided on the roof also. ‘These are called as lantern window. It should be square or rectangular in shape. 5, Skylight win This is a type of fixed window provided on the sloping surface of a pitched roof. The frame work of skylight supporting the glass panels. This type of windows are provided to get one more light. 4, Lantern window: Page 52Fig. 6.3.19. Sic ‘Steytight 6. Gable window: ‘The window provided in the gable end of a pitched roof isknownas gable window. 7. Corner window: This type of window is essentially located in the comer of a room, It serves an architectural features for improving the elevation of the building. Corner window 8, Sliding Window: Inthis ype of window the shutters move on the roller bearing and can slide either horizontally or vertically. 9. Glazed Windows: The shutters of this window should be glass. The glass panels are secured in either by putty or by small fillets known as glazing beads. These windows should also be giving light when the window is closed Page 53‘TYPES OF STRUCTURES: + Load bearing, + framed and + composite structures LOAD BEARING STRUCTURES (oad bearing & non-load bearing walls explained in page: 8) = Aload bearing structure is a frame, that transmits actions, provides adequate stiffness, and protection against environmental influences. + Basic requirements of load bearing structures: + Strength + Sufficient stiffness + durability -Anexampleofload bearing structure ERAMED STRUCTURES + Framed buildings are building structures formed by the framed elements usually in the form of columns and beams, as well as further strengthened as necessary by the introduction of rigid floor membranes and external walls. + Common forms of framed building structure sub-divided into 2 main types 1. Insitu RC frame 2, Prefabricated frame 3, Structural steel frame (universal or tubular sections, hollow or composite elements) COMPOSITE STRUCTURES + Structures that are built using reinforced concrete as the core and steel as the outer embracing frame Page 54‘nex Offa structures sncxample of composite structure Page 55