WEEK 1-2.

Random Variables and Probability Distribution

Learning Objectives
1. To illustrate random variables.
2. To classify random variables as discrete or continuous.
3. To find the possible values of a random variable.
4. To differentiate descriptive and inferential Statistics
5. Discuss some application of statistics
Discussion
Meaning of Statistics
Probability and statistics, the branches of mathematics concerned with the laws governing
random events, including the collection, analysis, interpretation, and display of numerical data.
Probability has its origin in the study of gambling and insurance in the 17th century, and it is now an
indispensable tool of both social and natural sciences. Statistics may be said to have its origin in
census counts taken thousands of years ago; as a distinct scientific discipline, however, it was
developed in the early 19th century as the study of populations, economies, and moral actions and
later in that century as the mathematical tool for analyzing such numbers. 
You have learned in your previous lessons in mathematics that an experiment is any activity
which can be done repeatedly under similar conditions. The set of all possible outcomes of an
experiment is called sample space. You have also learned how to systematically list the possible
outcomes of a given experiment.
To find out if you are ready to learn this new lesson, do the following activity.
ENTRY CARD
List the sample space of the following experiments.
Experiment Sample Space
1. Tossing three coins
2. Rolling a die and tossing a coin simultaneously
3. Drawing a spade from a deck of cards
4. Getting a defective item when two items are
randomly selected from a box of two defective
and three non – defective items.
5. Drawing a card greater than 7 from a deck of
cards.

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WEEK 1-2. Random Variables and Probability Distribution
Learning Objectives
1. To illustrate random variables.
2. To classify random variables as discrete or continuous.
3. To find the possible values of a random variable.
4. To differentiate descriptive and inferential Statistics
5. Discuss some application of statistics
Discussion

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

If you have every measurement (or observation) of the population in hand, then statistical
methodology can help you to describe this typically large set of data. We will find graphical and
numerical ways to make sense out of a large mass of data. The branch of statistics devoted to this
application is called descriptive statistics.
The branch of statistics devoted to the summarization and description of data (population or sample) is
called descriptive statistics.
If it may be too expensive to obtain or it may be impossible to acquire every measurement in the
population, then we will want to select a sample of data from the population and use the sample to
infer the nature of the population.
The branch of statistics concerned with using sample data to make an inference about a population of
data is called inferential statistics

Parameter versus Statistics

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 It is also important to know the two significant terminologies in statistics, the parameter and
statistic. Both terms are actually homologous to one another except for the fact that parameter
describes a whole population while a statistics described a sample of a given population.
A Statistics is a concluded data from a proportion of a population. It gives the probability of how a
certain population might behave based on the sample considered. Think of it like this: if you have a bit
of information, it is a statistic. If you are sure about ¼ of people in a given institution or place then what
you know are statistics.
A parameter is constant since the totality of the population is surveyed to find the parameter. This is
one reason why determining the number of sample and choosing the individuals completing the
samples are very crucial since the accuracy of the statistics may be affected by these. For example, if
you want to survey who among the presidential candidates has the greater chance if probability, and
the sample that you used are all from the territory of candidate A, the tendency is that the statistics
that you will get is pointing in favor of candidate A. This result might have a huge discrepancy with
respect to the real standing when the whole population is considered.

Classification of Data
Qualitative versus Quantitative Data
Data can either be classified as qualitative or quantitative. The two differs from one another in
such a way that qualitative data is a measure of “types” and may be represented in terms of
characteristics, names or symbols. Moreover, a quantitative data is a measure of “values” or “counts”
and expressed in numerical values. For qualitative data answer as addition and averaging make
sense. Basically, qualitative data answer the question “what” while quantitative answers the question
“how many”.

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

- measure of “types” and may be represented by - Measure of “values” or “counts” and
names or symbols. expressed in numbers
- describes individuals or objects by their - Operations such as addition and
categories or groups averaging make sense.
- answer the question “what type” - answer the question “how many”, “how
much”
Examples:
- Gender (Male or Female) Examples:
- Nationality (Filipino, American) - Weight in kilograms (40 kgs)
- Student type (Freshman, Sophomore, - Grades (89, 91, 86)
Junior, Senior) - Ages (16 y/o, 21 y/o)

Raw Data versus Array Data

Data can also be classified as either raw or array. A data can be considered raw if it isin its
original form. However, if the data collected is already arranged in certain pattern such as in
ascending or descending order, then it is no longer in its original form but rather in its arrayed form.

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Example No. 1. Below are the scores of 7 Pharmacy students during their first quiz in Statistics.
Raw Data Array Data
(Arranged in ascending order)
21, 22, 19, 28, 24, 22, 25 19, 21, 22, 22, 24, 25, 28
Example No. 2. The height in centimeter of the varsity players in basketball were summarized below:
Raw Data Array Data
(Arranged in ascending order)
170, 155, 156, 190, 168, 174 155, 156, 168, 170, 174, 190

Classification of Variables
In a study, the individuals or subjects are the people or objects to be studied. The variables, on
the other hand, are the characteristics of the individual to be observed or measured.
Example 1. A researcher wants to conduct a study on the performance of male athletes in the
university in their games. Identify the individual a and the variables.
Individuals or Subjects Variables
All male athletes in the university Winning and losing records in their games

Example 2. A researcher wants to conduct a study on the academic performance of Pharmacy

students in Mathematics. Identify the individuals and the variables.
Individuals or Subjects Variables
All Pharmacy students taking up Scores in exams, Final grade in
Mathematics subjects Mathematics subjects

Variables can be classified according to different criteria. In this context, let us

categorize the different classifications of variables according to functional relationship and
continuity.
According to Functional Relationship
1. Independent Variable called the predictor variable.
2. Dependent Variable called the criterion variable.

Examples: The academic performance of students in mathematics depends on their

study habits and their attitudes towards the subject.

Independent Variable Student’s study habits and attitudes

Dependent Variable Academic performance of students in Mathematics

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According to Continuity of Values
1. Continuous Variables – variables that can be expressed in decimals.
Examples: Price of commodities, grades, height

2. Discrete or Discontinuous Variables – variables that cannot be expressed in decimals.

Examples: Number of people, number of floors

Levels of Measurements
1. Nominal Scale
- Data that consist of names, labels, or categories only
- The data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme
- Numbers or symbols are used to classify an object or person to identify the group the belong.
Examples: Gender (male or female)
Nationality (filipino, American, Japanese)
2. Ordinal Scale
- Data contain the properties of nominal level
- The data can be arranged in an ordering scheme or ranked
- The difference between the values of the data cannot be determined. The interval is
meaningless
Examples: Ranks in a contest (1st runner up, 2nd runner up, 3rd runner up, etc.)
Military Ranks (General, Colonel, etc.)
Performance ranks (good, better, best)

3. Interval Scale
- Data contain the properties of ordinal level
- Data values can be ranked
- The difference between the values of the data are of known sizes
- The interval between the values has meaning
- The “zero” does not imply the absence of characteristics
- The ratio of data values are meaningless

Examples: Temperature (Celsius, Fahrenheit)

Intelligence Quotient (75, 100, 120, and so on)

4. Ratio Scale
- Data contain the properties of interval level
- The “zero” indicates the absence of the characteristics under consideration
- The ratio of data values has meaning
Examples: Height in meters, weight in kilograms or pounds

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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

Exercise 1.1
Classification of Data
Identify whether the data are qualitative or quantitative.
______________1. Monthly salary or a government employee.
______________2. Course taken NU freshmen students
______________3. Employee status of a worker
______________4. Student number
______________5. Height of a basketball player inches
______________6. Color of a person’s eye
______________7. Scores of Pharmacy students in Statistic quiz
______________8. Size of a family in a certain community
______________9. Price of commodities in peso
______________10. Volume of water in a bottle

Exercise 1.2
Level of Measurements
Determine the level of measurements stated below:
1. Monthly salary or a government employee.
2. Course taken NU freshmen students
3. Employee status of a worker
4. Student number
5. Height of a basketball player inches
6. Color of a person’s eye
7. Scores of Pharmacy students in Statistic quiz
8. Size of a family in a certain community
9. Price of commodities in peso

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10. Volume of water in a bottle

WEEK 4-6 LESSONS: COLLECTION OF DATA

Objectives:
The student should be able to
1. Distinguish between primary and secondary data
2. Discuss the different methods of collecting data
3. Identify the different sampling technique

Discussion:
Sources of Data
Sources of Data can be classified into 2 types. Statistical sources refer to data that are gathered for
some official purposes and incorporate censuses and officially administered surveys. Non-statistical
sources refer to the collection of data for other administrative purposes or for the private sector.

What are the different sources of data?

Following are the two sources of data:
1. Internal Source

 When data are collected from reports and records of the organization itself, it is known as the
internal source.
 For example, a company publishes its ‘Annual Report’ on Profit and Loss, Total Sales, Loans,
Wages etc.
2. External Source

 When data are collected from outside the organization, it is known as the external source.
 For example, if a Tour and Travels Company obtains information on ‘Karnataka Tourism’ from
Karnataka Transport Corporation, it would be known as external sources of data.

Types of Data
A) Primary Data

 Primary data means ‘First-hand information’ collected by an investigator.

 It is collected for the first time.
 It is original and more reliable.
 For example Population census conducted by the government of India after every 10 years.
B) Secondary Data

 Secondary data refers to ‘Second-hand information’.

 These are not originally collected rather obtained from already published or unpublished
sources.

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  For example the Address of a person taken from the Telephone Directory or Phone number of
a company taken from ‘Just Dial’.

Methods of Collecting Data

The system of data collection is based on the type of study being conducted. Depending on the
researcher’s research plan and design, there are several ways data can be collected.

The most commonly used methods are: published literature sources, surveys (email and mail),
interviews (telephone, face-to-face or focus group), observations, documents and records, and
experiments.

1. Literature sources

This involves the collection of data from already published text available in the public domain. Literature
sources can include: textbooks, government or private companies’ reports, newspapers, magazines,
online published papers and articles.

This method of data collection is referred to as secondary data collection. In comparison to primary
data collection, this is inexpensive and not time consuming.

2. Surveys

Survey is another method of gathering information for research purposes. Information are gathered
through questionnaire, mostly based on individual or group experiences regarding a particular
phenomenon.

There are several ways by which this information can be collected. Most notable ways are: web-based
questionnaire and paper-based questionnaire (printed form). The results of this method of data
collection are generally easy to analyze.

3. Interviews

Interview is a qualitative method of data collection whose results are based on intensive engagement
with respondents about a particular study. Usually, interviews are used in order to collect in-depth
responses from the professionals being interviewed.

Interview can be structured (formal), semi-structured or unstructured (informal). In essence, an

interview method of data collection can be conducted through face-to-face meeting with the
interviewee(s) or through telephone.

4. Observations

Observation method of information gathering is used by monitoring participants in a specific situation or

environment at a given time and day. Basically, researchers observe the behavior of the surrounding
environments or people that are being studied. This type of study can be controlled, natural or
participant.

Controlled observation is when the researcher uses a standardized procedure of observing participants
or the environment. Natural observation is when participants are being observed in their natural
conditions. Participant observation is where the researcher becomes part of the group being studied.
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5. Documents and records

This is the process of examining existing documents and records of an organization for tracking
changes over a period of time. Records can be tracked by examining call logs, email logs, databases,
minutes of meetings, staff reports, information logs, etc.

For instance, an organization may want to understand why there are lots of negative reviews and
complains from customer about its products or services. In this case, the organization will look into
records of their products or services and recorded interaction of employees with customers.

6. Experiments

Experimental research is a research method where the causal relationship between two variables are
being examined. One of the variables can be manipulated, and the other is measured. These two
variables are classified as dependent and independent variables.

In experimental research, data are mostly collected based on the cause and effect of the two variables
being studied. This type of research are common among medical researchers, and it uses quantitative
research approach.

Sample Size Formula

Most of the time population is used simultaneously with sample but these two are actually
different terms. Population is the complete set of individuals or subject while sample is just a
representative of the whole population. The elements in a sample are drawn from the population.

How to get the sample size?

N
n=
1+ N e2
Where n = sample size

N = population

e = margin of error

Example: A researcher wants to conduct a study in a university with 10,000 students. If he

wants to achieve 90% precision, how many students must he take as his sample?

Given: N = 10,000; e = 10%

N 10,000
Solution: n = 2 = 2
1+ N e 1+(10,000)(0.10 )
= 99 students

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Sampling Technique
In the collection of data, the number of sample and the nature of sample to be chosen are very
critical for the study to have reliable result. In the part of his chapter, we will discuss the different ways
on how to choose samples.

1. Probability Sampling
This sampling technique is also called the simple random sampling. In this
technique, the samples are randomly picked and therefore the selection of sample is
without +any bias. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being picked
as part of the sample. A good example of this sampling are the lottery and raffle.

2. Restricted Random Sampling

This is often times used when the population to be considered is too large.
There are two types of restricted random sampling summarized follows:

a. Systematic Sampling. The selection of sample is done by picking every k th

element of the population. The k th element in the population is obtained using the
given formula below:

N
k th = Population ¿ ¿ Sample ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ =
n

Example:A researcher wants to conduct a study in a university with 10,000

students with 90% precision. If he used systematic sampling, find the k th
member he must include in his sample.

Given: N = 10,000; n = 99 (obtained from the previous problem)

10,000
th
Solution: k = N ¿ ¿ = 99

= 101.
Thus, every 101st member of the population was picked.

b. Stratified Sampling. The population is divided into strata (groups) based on

their homogeneity or commonalities. The steps in doing the stratified sampling
are as follows:
(1) Determine the distribution of the population in each stratum;
(2) Find the percentage of each stratum from the population;
(3) Multiply the percentage of each stratum by the sample size (n).

Example: In a certain study, 200 samples are taken from the population of
50,000 individuals. The population is divided into strata based on their schools.
Using stratified sampling we have:

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 Strata Distribution of Percentage from Sample Units Per
Population the Population Stratum

UST 15,000 30% 60

UP 10,000 20% 40

NU 25,000 50% 100

Total 50,000 100% 200

3. Cluster Sampling

This technique is frequently applied on geographical basis when the population

from which a sample is to be selected includes heterogeneous groups.

4. Non-random Sampling

In this technique, not all the population has equal chance to be selected. The
selection is influenced by the goal of the researcher. There are three forms of
non-random sampling:

a. Purposive Sampling. The samples are chosen based on purpose or certain

criteria. For example, in a population of college students, you are studying the
effects of being sporty in the academic performance. The possibility is that you
will choose the athletes of the university by purpose. Or let us say for example,
you want to know the modern ways of college students in courting a girl. You
will need to choose the male part of the population.

b. Quota Sampling. In this technique, a certain limit is preestablished to

determine who among the population can be part of the sample. A good
example of this is the determination of the students who can qualify in a
university. An admission test will be the basis and a quota rule is already stated
even before the exam. For example, the top 5% of the examinees shall be
admitted by the university.

c. Convenience Sampling. The sample is selected based on the example, the

researcher is doing a study about the performance of Universities in the
Philippines. If the researcher lives near Manila, he has the option to take the
universities in Manila as samples.

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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

Exercise 2.1
Sampling Data
Solve for what is asked in each question.
1. How many sample units must be obtained from 7,000 employees, if 10% margin of
error is used?

2. Find the precision of a certain study if a sample of 200 cars is used over a population of
15,300 cars.

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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

Exercise 2.2

Sampling Technique

Solve for what is asked in each question.

1. In a population of 30,000 Chinoy, the researcher wants to select 315 samples to be

interviewed. If the researcher aims an 85% precision, and wants to use the systematic
sampling, the every k th individual must be taken from the population. Find k.

2. Determine the number of samples that can be selected from a population of 17,500 people in
every 301st person is taken as part of the sample.

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WEEK 7- 9 LESSONS: PRESENTATION OF DATA

Learning Objectives:
The students should be able to:

1. Distinguish between Textual, Tabular and Graphical Presentation,

2. Identify the different presentation of data.
3. Construct the appropriate graphs for particular types of data

Discussion:

Methods of Presentation of Data

Presentation of Data refers to the organization of information such as measurements,
numbers, names, observations, etc. in a certain way. It can either be in textual, graphical, or tabular
manner, depending on the purpose of presentation and the nature of the data to be presented. This
part of a study is very important since the result of the data gathering can be well appreciated and
understood based on how the researcher summarizes and presents the gathered data.

Generally, there are three ways of presenting a summary of data.

These are:

1. Textual Presentation

This is the technique in a paragraph form. In this technique, it does not necessary
mean that the presentation consists of words only but figures can also be used as part
of the of the presentation.

2. Tabular Presentation

This is another way in presenting data. Of data is a method of presentation of data. It

is a systematic and logical arrangement of data in the form of Rows and Columns with
respect to the characteristics of data. It is an orderly arrangement which is compact and
self-explanatory.

Example: The table below shows the distribution of male and female students taking
up computer courses at a Manila College. The population is 250 students.

Gender Frequency

Male
75

Female

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 175

F
Percentage (%) = x 100%
N

75
Male Percentage (%) = x 100% = 30%
250

175
Female Percentage (%) = x 1000% = 70%
250

Gender Frequency Percentage

Male
75 30%

Female
175 70%

3. Graphical Presentation

There are different types of graphs such as line graph, bar graph, pictograph, pie
chart, etc.

a. Line Graph. It shows relationship between two or more sets of quantities. In this
technique, the values are plotted using dots which are called “markers” to be
connected together by line segments.

Example: Sam's weight increased each month. Each of these line graphs shows

a change in data over time. A line graph is useful for displaying data or information that
changes continuously over time. Another name for a line graph is a line chart.

Month: Weight in kg
May: 73

15
b. Bar Graph
It is the graphical technique in which each value in the data is represented by
rectangular bars. The length of the bars indicates the measure of a certain value
while its width has a fixed size.
Example of Bar Graph.

c. Pictograph
This is a graphical technique that expresses its meaning through its pictorial
resemblance to a physical object. Each object used in pictograph stands for a
corresponding measure.
Example of pictograph.

d. Pie Chart
This is the type of graphical presentation in which a circle (or sometimes a
cylinder) is divided into several partitions with each partition characterizing the
categories of the data.
Example of pie chart.

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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________

Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

Exercise 3.1

Frequency and Percentage Distribution Table

Construct the frequency and Percentage Distribution Table

1. ACMY Publishing has 1235 employees in which 13 are contractual, 515 are probationary, and
the rest are regular employees.

2. In a university in Manila, 350 freshmen are enrolled under the college of Nursing, 600 under
the college of computer studies, 475nunder the college of Engineering while 312 under the
college of Education.
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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________

Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

Exercise 3.2

Graphical Presentation

Represent each data in any of the graphical presentation techniques.

1. ACMY Publishing has 1235 employees in which 13 are contractual, 515 are probationary, and
the rest are regular employees.

2. In a university in Manila, 350 freshmen are enrolled under the college of Nursing, 600 under
the college of computer studies, 475nunder the college of Engineering while 312 under the
college of Education.

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WEEK 10-12 LESSONS: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Learning Objectives:
The students should be able to:

1. Set up a frequency distribution for a mass of data

2. Derive other types of frequency distributions from a simple frequency table
3. Interpret different types of frequencies

Discussion:

How to Construct Frequency Distribution Table

A Frequency Distribution Table (FDT) is a tabular arrangement of data by categories and
their corresponding frequencies. There are several terms that must be well understood to properly
construct distribution table such as “range”, “class interval”, “class size,” “class frequency,” “class
mark,” “relative frequency,” “and “cumulative frequency”.

Now, let us discuss the step by step procedure in constructing a frequency distribution table.

Example No. 1: The data shown are the scores of 30 students in statistics exam.
Construct a FDT.

47 65 81 65 68 55
56 69 61 75 71 67
61 87 50 74 49 66
49 89 77 75 79 85
68 90 57 63 54 90

Step No. 1: Determine the Range (R).

Definition: Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest score.
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 R = Highest Score – Lowest Score

R = 90 – 47 = 43

Step No. 2: Determine the desired number of class Interval (CI).

Definition: Class Interval is the grouping of category defined by a lower limit and an
upper limit. The ideal number of CI is between 5 and 15.

For example, Choose 9 as the numbers of class intervals.

Step No. 3: Determine the Class Size (i).

Definition:Class Size is the difference between two successive lower class limits. To
get i,

i = Range ÷ Desired Number of CI

i = 43 ÷ 9 = 4.78 = 5

Step No. 4: Construct and fill up the FDT.

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

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 Basically, an FDT consists four fundamental columns as shown in the given table
above. These are the class interval, class boundary, class frequency, and class mark. In the
next part, each of these will be discussed further.

Step No. 5. Make the class intervals. Start with the lowest score until the highest is reached.

The lower limit of the first class interval is the lower value found in the summary
of data while the lower limit in the next class interval can be calculated using the formula
below.

Lower Limit (n +1)= Lower Limit (n )+i

However, the upper limit in a given interval can be calculated using the formula
below:

Upper Limit(n) = Lower Limit(n +1)−1

Where: n is the order of class interval

i is the class size.
Note: 47 is the lowest value from the data.
Class Size (i) = 5

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Class Mark

Frequency

1
47 – 51

2
52 – 56

3
57 – 61

4
62 – 66

5
67 – 71

6
72 – 76

21
 7
77 – 81

8
82 – 86

9
87 – 91

Step No. 6: Determine the Class Boundary.

Definition: Class Boundary is the grouping or category defined by a lower
boundary and an upper boundary. Lower boundary is equal to the lower limit
minus 0.5 while the upper boundary is the upper limit plus 0.5.

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Class Mark

Frequency

1
47 – 51 46.5 – 51.5

2
52 – 56 51.5 – 56.5

3
57 – 61 56.5 – 61.5

4
62 – 66 61.5 – 66.5

5
67 – 71 66.5 – 71.5

6
72 – 76 71.5 – 76.5

7
77 – 81 76.5 – 81.5

8
82 – 86 81.5 – 86.5

9
87 – 91 86.5 – 91.5

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Step No. 7: Determine the Class Frequency (f).

Definition: Class Frequency is the number of data belonging to a class interval

Count the number of values that fall in a given interval.

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

1
47 – 51 46.5 – 51.5 4

2
52 – 56 51.5 – 56.5 3

3
57 – 61 56.5 – 61.5 3

4
62 – 66 61.5 – 66.5 4

5
67 – 71 66.5 – 71.5 5

6
72 – 76 71.5 – 76.5 3

7
77 – 81 76.5 – 81.5 3

8
82 – 86 81.5 – 86.5 1

9
87 – 91 86.5 – 91.5 4

Step No. 8: Determine the Class Mark (x).

Definition: Class Mark is the midpoint of a class interval. To get x,

Upper limit + Lower limit

x=
2

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

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 47 – 51 46.5 – 51.5 4 49

2
52 – 56 51.5 – 56.5 3 54

3
57 – 61 56.5 – 61.5 3 59

4
62 – 66 61.5 – 66.5 4 64

5
67 – 71 66.5 – 71.5 5 69

6
72 – 76 71.5 – 76.5 3 74

7
77 – 81 76.5 – 81.5 3 79

8
82 – 86 81.5 – 86.5 1 84

9
87 – 91 86.5 – 91.5 4 89

Example No. 2. Construct an FDT given the number of people visited a shop for the past 18 days.

28 31 32 17 25 33

8 54 31 24 15 16

22 51 28 48 49 11

Step No. 1: Determine the range (R).

R = Highest Score – Lowest Score

R = 54 – 8 = 46.

Step No. 2: Determine the desired number of class Interval (CI).

For example, choose 6 class intervals

Step No. 3: Determine the Class Size (i)

i = Range ÷ Desired Number of CI

i = 46 ÷ 6 = 7.67 = 8

Step No. 4: Construct and fill up the FDT.

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 Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

Step No. 5: Make the Class Intervals

Lower Limit(n +1)=Lower Limit (n)+ i

Upper Limit(n) = Lower Limit(n +1)– 1

Where: n is the order of class interval

i is the class size

Note: 8 is the lowest value from the data.

Class size (i) = 8

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

1 8 – 15

2 16 – 23

3 24 – 31

4 32 – 39

5 40 – 47

6 48 – 55

25
Step No. 6: Determine the Class Boundary.

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

1 8 – 15 7.5 – 15.5

2 16 – 23 15.5 – 23.5

3 24 – 31 23.5 – 31.5

4 32 – 39 31.5 – 39.5

5 40 – 47 39.5 – 47.5

6 48 – 55 47.5 – 55.5

Step No. 7: Determine the Class Frequency (f).

Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

1 8 – 15 7.5 – 15.5 3

2 16 – 23 15.5 – 23.5 3

3 24 – 31 23.5 – 31.5 6

4 32 – 39 31.5 – 39.5 2

5 40 – 47 39.5 – 47.5 0

6 48 – 55 47.5 – 55.5 4

Step No. 8: Determine the Class Mark (x).

Upper Limit+ Lower Limit

x=
2
Class Interval Class Boundary Class Frequency Class Mark

1 8 – 15 7.5 – 15.5 3 11.5

2 16 – 23 15.5 – 23.5 3 19.5

26
 3 24 – 31 23.5 – 31.5 6 27.5

4 32 – 39 31.5 – 39.5 2 35.5

5 40 – 47 39.5 – 47.5 0 43.5

6 48 – 55 47.5 – 55.5 4 51.5

Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________

Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

Exercise 4.1

Frequency Distribution Table

Construct the Frequency Distribution Table for the following:

(Use i = 5 if n < 20.)

1. In the exams given to the top 40 students, the following scores were obtained:

33 54 59 43 31 51 29 64 55 35

31 31 46 61 35 44 57 29 61 59

65 48 42 33 37 42 57 56 31 49

31 64 63 63 51 45 34 62 32 30

27
 2. Jake listed all the scores that he got in all of his Math exams since the first term and are
summarized as follows:

12 15 22 12 10 38 21 16 24 15 18 22
20 13 22 33 35 21 22 11 15 18 21 27

WEEK 13-15 LESSONS: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Learning Objectives:

Students should be able to:

1. Discuss the uses and limitations of each measures of central tendency,

2. Calculate the mean, median, and mode of ungrouped data
3. Calculate the mean, median, and mode of grouped data.

Discuss:

Mean

In this chapter, we discuss the three fundamental measures of central tendency. Measures of
Central is a value that describes to which a set of data will likely fall. The three measures of central
tendency of data are the mean, median and mode.

Mean is the average of a set of data and is denoted by a symbol X́ . It is the value equal to the
sum of all the values in a data (Σx) divided by the total elements in a given data (N) and is
summarized by the formula given below:

x1 + x 2 + x3 + x 4 +.... x n−1+ xn Σx
X́ = =
N N

The above formula is applicable only for ungrouped data. Ungrouped Data are set of values
not grouped per class interval while grouped data refers to a summary of values grouped into
numbers of class intervals in which frequency of values that fall per given class interval is counted. In
getting the mean for grouped data, the given table must be completed.

Class Interval Class Frequency (f) Class Mark (x) Fx

28
 Σf = N =_______ Σfx =_______

After completing the table shown, the given formula can now be used to calculate for the mean
of a grouped data commonly called as the “weighted mean.”

f 1 x1 + f 2 x 2 + f 3 x 3 +f 4 x 4+ ..... f n−1 x n−1 +f n x n Σfx

X́ = =
N N

Example No. 1: Find the mean of all the grades of James in his Engineering course if his grades are
as follows:

Mathematical Analysis 90

World Literature 78

Discrete Math 92

Calculus-based Physics 89

Engineering Economy 96

Solution:

N 1 2 3 4 5 Σx

X 90 78 92 89 96 445

Σx 445
X́ = = = 89
N 5
Example No. 2: The results of the scores in Mathematics test during the Teacher’s Board
Examination are summarized by the table below. Find the mean of the score of all the examinees.

29
 Class Interval Class Frequency
(f)

10 – 20 5

21 – 31 10

32 – 42 11

43 – 53 7

54 – 64 23

65 – 75 56

76 – 86 6

87 – 97 8

98 – 108 4

Σf = N = ______
Solution:

Class Interval Class Frequency (f) Class Mark (x) fx

10 – 20 5 15 75

21 – 31 10 26 260

32 – 42 11 37 407

43 – 53 7 48 336

54 – 64 23 59 1357

65 – 75 56 70 3920

76 – 86 6 81 486
Σfx = 7989
87 – 97 8 92 736

98 – 108 4 103 412

Σf = N = 130 30
 X́ =
∑ fx = 7989 = 61.45
N 130

Median
~
Another important measure of central tendency is the median. It is usually denoted by X . By
definition, median is the value of the middle when all the elements in a set of data are arranged in
ascending order. If the number of elements in a given set of data is odd, then there is exactly one
element in the middle when the data is arrayed in ascending order. However, if there is even number
in a set of data, there will be two elements to be considered in the middle so that the median for a set
of data with even number of elements is equal to the average of the two middle elements.

Median for Ungrouped Data

Example 1. Find the median of the measured height of all the athletes of the YMA University
given below:

181 211 195 189 200 206 195 188 189

Solution:

Step No. 1: Identify the location of the median element using the given formula:

n+1
M=
2
Where: n = total number of elements in a set of data.

9+1
So, M= =5
2
Therefore, the 5th element is the median element of the given data.

Step No. 2: Arrange the data in ascending order.

181 188 189 189 195 195 200 206 211

Step No. 3: Take the 5th element in the arrayed data as the median (as in step No. 1)
~= 195
X
Example 2: Find the median of the following raw data:

5 11 3 6 9 11 6 12 16 4 6 10

Solution:

Step No. 1: Identify the location of the median element using the given formula:

n+1
M=
2

31
 12+1
M= = 6.5
2
Therefore, the 6th and 7th elements are the median elements of the given data.

Step No. 2: Arrange the data in ascending order.

3 4 5 6 6 6 9 10 11 11 12 16

Step No. 3: Take the average of the 6th and 7th elements in the arrayed of data as the median
(as in Step No. 1)

~= 6+9 = 7.5
X
2
Arranging the data in ascending order is easy only for ungrouped data but this is
no longer possible for grouped data. The frequency distribution table is now important in the
calculation of median of grouped data.

Median for Grouped Data

The median of a grouped data can be calculated using the formula given below:

N
~=~ −¿ cfb
X X LB+ i( 2 )
fm

~
Where: X LB = Lower class boundary of the median class

i = Class size

N = total number of frequencies

<cfb = less than cumulative frequency before the median class

fm = class frequency of the median class

How to Get the Median Class?

32
 The median class is the class interval to which M is included with respect to the less than
cumulative frequency. For grouped data, M is calculated by dividing the total number of frequencies by
N
2( ). Let us consider the given FDT below:
2

Class Interval Class Frequency (f) < Cumulative Frequency

10 – 20 5 5

21 – 31 10 15

32 – 42 11 26

43 – 53 7 33

54 – 64 23 56

65 – 75 55 111

76 – 86 7 118

87 – 97 8 126

98 - 108 4 130

Σf = N =130

If we solve for M:

N 130
M= = = 65
2 2
Since M is 65, therefore, the median class is the class interval 65 – 75 since it includes
elements 57 to 111 when arranged in ascending order, unlike class interval 54 – 64 which includes
only elements 34 to 56. Now that we know our median class, we can now get the values needed for
the formula of median for grouped data.

Class Interval Class Frequency (f) < Cumulative Frequency

54 – 64 23 56

65 – 75 55 111

33
 76 – 86 7 118

~
1. Lower class boundary of the median class ( X LB ¿.
Recall: Lower class boundary = Lower class limit - 0.5.
Upper class boundary = Upper class limit + 0.5.
So,
~
X LB = 65 – 0.5 = 64.5

2. Class Size
i = Upper class limit – Lower class limit +1
i = 75 – 65 +1 = 11

3. Less than cumulative frequency before the median class (<cfb)

By looking at the FDT, fm = 55

Therefore,

N 130
~=~
X X LB + i 2
(
−¿ cfb
fm
=
)
64.5 + 11 2
−56
55 ( )
= 66.3

Example 2.

Class Interval Class Frequency (f)

47 – 51 4

52 – 56 3

57 – 61 3

62 – 66 4

67 – 71 5

72 – 76 3

77 – 81 3

82 – 86 1

87 - 91 4

34
If Class Interval Class Frequency (f) < Cumulative Frequency we will solve for M:

47 – 51 4 4 M= = =

52 – 56 3 7

57 – 61 3 10

62 – 66 4 14

67 – 71 5 19
N 30
72 – 76 3 22 2 2

77 – 81 3 25

82 – 86 1 26

87 – 91 4 30

Σf = N = 30

15

Since M is 15, therefore, the median class is the class interval 67 – 71. Now, that we know our
median class we can now get the values needed for the formula of Median for grouped data.
~
1. Lower class boundary of the median class ( X LB ¿
Recall: Lower class boundary = Lower class limit – 0.5
Upper class boundary = Upper class limit + 0.5

So,
~
X LB =¿67 – 0.5 = 66.5

2. Class Size
i = Upper class limit – lower class limit +1
i = 71 – 67 + = 5

3. Less than cumulative frequency before the median class (<cfb)

By looking at the FDT, <cfb = 14

4. Median class frequency (fm)

By looking at the FDT, fm = 5

35
 Therefore:

N 30
~=~
X X LB + i 2
(
−¿ cfb
fm
=
)
66.5 + 5 2
−14
5 ( )
= 67.5

Mode
The third measure of central tendency is the mode. Mode is defined as the element in a set of
data that has the most number of frequencies. In an ungrouped data, mode can be simply identified by
inspection. Mode is denoted by ^
X.
Example 1. What is the mode of the measured height of all the athletes of the YMA University
given below:

181 211 195 189 200 206 195 188 189

Solution:

Step No. 1: List down all the values and their corresponding frequencies.

Value Frequency

181 1

211 1 Step No. 2: Take the value that has the highest
frequency.
195 2
X = 195 and 189
^
189 2

200 1
The mode of grouped data cannot be
easily determined by just looking at the class
206 1 frequency since the values are grouped per class
interval and the element inside a class interval
188 1 cannot be directly determined.

N=9

The Mode of Grouped Data

The mode of grouped data can be calculated using the given formula below:

36
 fm−fmb
X = X LB + i
^
( 2 fm−fma−fmb )
Where: X LB = Lower class boundary of the modal class

i = class size

fm = class frequency of the modal class

fma = class frequency of the class after the modal class

fmb = class frequency of the class before the modal class

How to Get the Modal Class?

The modal class is the class interval with the highest class frequency. Let us consider the
given FDT below:

Class Interval Class Frequency (f)

Therefore, the modal class is the class interval 65
– 75 since it has the highest frequency which is 55.
10 – 20 5
1. Lower class boundary of the modal class
21 – 31 10

32 – 42 11

43 – 53 7

54 – 64 23

65 – 75 55

( X ¿ ¿ LB) ¿
76 – 86 7

87 – 97 8

98 – 108 4

Σf= N = 130

X LB = 65 – 0.5 = 64.5

2. Class Size (i)

i = 75 – 65 + 1 = 11

3. Class Frequency of the modal class (fm)

37
 fm = 55

4. Class frequency of the class after the modal class (fma)

fma = 7

5. Class frequency of the class before the modal class (fmb)

fmb = 23

fm−fmb
X = X LB + i
^
( 2 fm−fma−fmb )
55−23
^
X = 64.5 + 11 ( 2(55)−7−23 )
^
X = 68.9

Example No. 1: The data shown are the scores of 30 students in Statistics exam. Find the median
and mode scores of the 30 students if 9 class intervals shall be used in grouping the data.
47 65 81 65 68 55
56 69 61 75 71 67
61 87 50 74 49 66
49 89 77 75 79 85
68 90 57 63 54 90

Solution:

Class Interval Class Frequency Less than Cumulative Frequency

47 – 51 4 4
52 – 56 3 7
57 – 61 3 10
62 – 66 4 14
67 – 71 5 19
72 - 76 3 22
77 –81 3 25
82 – 86 1 26
87 – 91 4 30
Σf = N = 30
Solving for the Median
30
M= , therefore, Median class is 67 – 71.
2
X LB = 66.5
38
 i = 71 – 67 + 1 = 5
<cfb = 14
fm = 5

N
X LB
fm(
~ = X + i 2 −¿ cfb
)
30
~
X = 66.5 + 5
( )
2
−14
5
~ = 67.5
X
Solving for the Mode
The modal class is 67 – 71 since it has the highest frequency of 5.
X LB = 66.5
i = 71 – 67 + 1 = 5
fm = 5
fma = 3
fmb = 4

5−4
^
X = 66.5 + 5 ( 2(5)−3−4 )
^
X = 68.17
Quantiles
Unlike mean, median and mode which generally describe the center of distribution, Percentile,
Quartile, and Decile characterize a specific location of the distribution.
For example, we want to know the score of the rank 30 students in a class of 100. We cannot
use the median formula since it will give us the 51 st student in rank. We need to use another measure
of location which can be either the percentile or decile.
Quartiles are three values that split a data in four equal parts. The three quartiles are names
as Q 1, Q 2∧¿Q ¿ , in which Q 1 is the (25%)th of the data, Q 2 is the (50%)th of the data or median of the
3

data, Q 3 is the (75%)th of the data.

Deciles are nine values that split data in 10 equal parts. Each decile represents a multiple of
10% of the total data. D 1 , D 2 , D 3 ,∧so on until D 9 represents the (10%)th until the (90%)th of the data.

39
 Percentiles are 99 values that split data in 100 equal parts. Each percentile represents a
multiple of 1% of the total value. P1 , P2 , P 3 ,∧so on until P99 represents the (1%)th until the (99%)th of
the data.
kN
Lk =
q
Where: Lk = location of the kth quantile element of a data.

k = the order of a quantile ( Example: For P32, k = 32)

q = types of quantile ( Example: For P32, k = 100)

The Formula for getting the value of a kth quantile (whether percentile, quartile, or decile) is
summarized below:

kN

(
q k = X LB + i q
−¿ cfb
f qk )
Where: X LB = Lower boundary of the k th quantile class

i = class size
q = types of quantile
f qk = the class frequency of the k th quantile class

<cfb = less than cumulative frequency before k th quantile class.

Example: The data shown are the scores of 30 students in Statistics exam. Find the P23 and D7 score of the 30
students if 9 class intervals shall be used in grouping the data.

47 65 81 65 68 55
56 69 61 75 71 67
61 87 50 74 49 66
49 89 77 75 79 85
68 90 57 63 54 90

Solution:
Class Interval Class Frequency Less than Cumulative
(f) Frequency
47 – 51 4 4
52 – 56 3 7
57 – 61 3 10
62 – 66 4 14
67 – 71 5 19
72 – 76 3 22
77 – 81 3 25
82 – 86 1 26
87 – 91 4 30

40
 Σf = N = 30

Solving for P23

kN
Lk =
q
23(30)
P23 = = 6.9
100
Since P23 is located at 6.9th element, therefore the P23 class is 52 – 56.

1. Lower boundary of the k th quantile class ( X ¿ ¿ LB) ¿

X LB = 52 – 0.5 = 51.5

2. Class size (i)

i = 56 – 52 +1 = 5

3. Type of quantile (q). P is for percentile: so,

q = 100

4. Class frequency of the k th quantile class ( f qk ). By looking at the table:

f qk = 3

5. Less than cumulative frequency before the k th quantile class (<cfb). By looking at the table:
<cfb = 22
kN

(
q k =X LB + i q
−¿ cfb
f qk )
23 (30)
q k = 51.5 +5
( 100
3
−4
)
P23= 56.33

Solving for D7

kN
Lk =
q
7(30)
D7 =
10
Since, D 7 is located at 21st element, therefore the D 7 class is 72 – 76.
41
 1. Lower boundary of the k th quantile class ( X LB)
X LB = 72 – 0.5 = 71.5

2. Class size (i)

i = 56 – 52 +1 = 5

3. Types of quantile (q). D is for decile: so,

q = 10

4. Class frequency of the k thquantile class ( f qk ). By looking table:

f qk = 3.

5. Less than cumulative frequency before the k th quantile class (<cfb). By looking at the table:
<cfb = 19
kN

(
q k = X LB + i q
−¿ cfb
f qk )
7 (30)

(
q k = 71. 5 +5 10
3
−19
)
D7 = 74.83

Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

42
Exercise 5.1
Mean, Median and Mode
Find the mean, median and mode of the following:
1. In the exams given to the top 40 students, the following scores were obtained:
33 54 59 43 31 51 29 64 55 35
31 31 46 61 35 44 57 29 61 59
65 48 42 33 37 42 57 56 31 49
31 64 63 63 51 45 34 62 32 30

2. Jake listed all scores that he got in all of his Math exams since the first term and are
summarized as follows:

12 15 22 12 10 38 21 16 24 15 18 22
20 13 22 33 35 21 22 11 15 18 21 27

Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

43
Exercise 5.2
Quantiles
Find the quantiles asked in each of the following:
1. In the exams given to the top 40 students, the following scores were obtained:

33 54 59 43 31 51 29 64 55 35
31 31 46 61 35 44 57 29 61 59
65 48 42 33 37 42 57 56 31 49
31 64 63 63 51 45 34 62 32 30

a. P23
b. D9
c. Q1
d. P83

2. Jake listed all scores that he got in all of his Math exams since the first term and are
summarized as follows:

12 15 22 12 10 38 21 16 24 15 18 22
20 13 22 33 35 21 22 11 15 18 21 27

a. D4
b. D3
c. Q2
d. P63

WEEK 16-18 LESSONS: MEASURES OF VARIATION

Learning Objectives:
44
 The students should be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of a measure of variation,
2. Calculate and interpret the various measures of variation
3. Define Biostatistics
4. Discuss the Bioinformatics advances in databases, data mining, and biological interpretation.

Discussion:

Range
In the previous chapter, we discussed the different measures that determine the central
tendency of data. In this chapter, we will discuss the different measures that describe how spread or
scattered a set of data is, of which range is the simplest. Range is the difference between the highest
and the lowest value in a set of data and is given the formula below:
R = Maximum Value – Minimum Value

Quartile Deviation (QD)

Another measure of dispersion is the Quartile Deviation which uses the 1st and 3rd quartile of
a data as the basis of its spread. It is also called the semi-interquartile Range. Deviation can be
determined using the formula below:
Q3−Q1
QD =
2
Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
Mean absolute Deviation (MAD) of a set of data is the average distance between each data
value and the mean. Mean absolute deviation for ungrouped data can be calculated using the formula
below:

Σ | X− X́|
MAD =
N
Where: x = a value from the data

X́ = the mean of the data

N = the total number of elements/frequency in a data

For grouped data, MAD can be calculated using the formula below:

45
 Σf |X − X́|
MAD =
N
Where: X = the class mark per class interval

X́ = the mean of the data

N = the total number of elements/ frequency in data
f = the frequency per class interval

Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation is another measure of variation that describes how scattered the data are
with respect to the mean of the given data. It is usually denoted as σ (sigma). Standard Deviation is
the commonly used measure of variation especially in real life application since it is considered as the
most accurate of all. The standard deviation of an ungrouped data can be calculated using the
formula below:
σ = √ Σ¿ ¿ ¿
For grouped data, standard deviation can be calculated using the formula below:
σ = √ Σf ¿ ¿ ¿
Where: X = the class mark per class interval (for grouped data)
X = the individual value (for ungrouped data)

X́ = the mean of the data

N = the total number of elements/ frequency in data
f = the class frequency

Variance
Variance is almost similar to standard deviation. They both measure the spread of data with
respect to the mean. However, variance is equal to the square of standard deviation that is why it is
usually denoted as σ 2. The formula in the calculation of variance for ungrouped data is:

σ 2 =Σ ¿ ¿
However, for the grouped data the formula is as follows:

σ 2 = Σf ¿ ¿

Example No. 1: The data shown are the scores of 30 students in Statistics exam. Find the range,
quartile deviation, mean absolute deviation, standard deviation, and variance of the given data if 9
class intervals shall be used in grouping the data.
47 65 81 65 68 55

56 69 61 75 71 67

46
 61 87 50 74 49 66

49 89 77 75 79 85

68 90 57 63 54 90

Solution:

Solving for the Range:

R = 90 – 47 = 43

Solving for the Quartile Deviation:

Class Interval Class Frequency Less than cumulative

(f) Frequency

47 – 51 4 4

52 – 56 3 7

57 – 61 3 10

62 – 66 4 14

67 – 71 5 19

72 - 76 3 22

77 – 81 3 25

82 – 86 1 26

87 – 91 4 30

Σf = N = 30

Note that:

Q3−Q1
QD =
2
Therefore, we need to know first Q 1 and Q 3. Solving for Q 1.

1(30)
Q1 = = 7.5
4
Since Q 1 is located at 7.5th element, therefore, the Q 1 class is 57 – 61.

1. Lower Boundary of the k th quantile class ( X LB ¿

X LB= 57 – 0.5 = 56.5

2. Class Size (i)

i = 61 – 57 + 1 = 5
3. Type of quantile (q). Q is for quartile: so,
q=4

47
4. Class frequency of the k th quantile class ( f qk ). By looking at the table:
f qk = 3

5. Less than cumulative frequency before the k th quantile class (<cfb). By looking at the table:
<cfb = 7
kN

(
q k = X LB + i q
−¿ cfb
f qk )
1(30)
q k = 56.5 + 5

Q 1= 57.33
(4
3
−7
)
Solving for Q 3:

kN
Lk =
q
3(30)
Q3 = = 22.5
4
Since Q 3 is located at 22.5th element, therefore the Q 3 class is 77 – 81.

1. Lower boundary of the k th quantile class ( X LB )

X LB = 77 – 0.5 = 76.5

2. Class size (i)

i = 81 – 77 +1 = 5

3. Type of quantile (q). Q is for quartile :so,

q=4

4. Class frequency of the k th quantile class ( f ¿¿ qk )¿ . By looking at the table:

f qk = 3

5. Less than cumulative frequency before the k th quantile class (<cfb). By looking at the table:
<cfb = 22
kN

(
q k = X LB + i q
−¿ cfb
f qk )
3 (30)
q k = 76.5 +5

Q 3 = 77.33
(4
3
−22
)
48
 So,
Q3−Q1
QD =
2
77.3−57.33
QD =
2
QD = 10
Solving for the Mean Absolute Deviation

Class Interval Class Frequency Class Mark (x) fx

(f)

47 – 51 4 49 196

52 – 56 3 54 162

57 – 61 3 59 177

62 – 66 4 64 256

67 – 71 5 69 345

72 - 76 3 74 222

77 – 81 3 79 237

82 – 86 1 84 84

87 – 91 4 89 356
Σf = N = 30 Σfx = 2031

Σfx 2031
Therefore, the mean is: X́ = = = 67.7
N 30

Class Interval Class Frequency Class Mark (x) | X− X́| f | X− X́|

(f)

47 – 51 4 49 18.7 74.8

52 – 56 3 54 13.7 41.1

57 – 61 3 59 8.7 26.1

62 – 66 4 64 3.7 14.8

67 – 71 5 69 1.3 6.5

72 - 76 3 74 6.3 18.9

77 – 81 3 79 11.3 3.9

82 – 86 1 84 16.3 16.3

87 – 91 4 89 21.3 85.2

49
 Σf = N = 30 Σf | X− X́| =
317.6
Σf |X − X́|
MAD =
N
317.6
MAD =
30
MAD = 10.59
Solving for the Standard Deviation
Using the table constructed in while solving for the mean absolute deviation.

Class Interval Class Frequency (f) Class Mark | X− X́| f | X− X́| 2

(x) f | X− X́|
47 – 51 4 49 18.7 74.8 1398.76

52 – 56 3 54 13.7 41.1 563.07

57 – 61 3 59 8.7 26.1 227.07

62 – 66 4 64 3.7 14.8 54.76

67 – 71 5 69 1.3 6.5 8.45

72 – 76 3 74 6.3 18.9 119.07

77 – 81 3 79 11.3 3.9 383.07

82 – 86 1 84 16.3 16.3 265.69

87 – 91 4 89 21.3 85.2 1814.76

Σf = N = 30 2
Σf | X− X́| =4834.7

σ = √ Σf ¿ ¿ ¿

4834.7
σ=
√ 30
σ = 12.69
Solving for the Variance

σ 2 = Σf ¿ ¿
4834.7
σ2 =
30
σ 2 = 161.16

50
Biostatistics
Biostatistics are the development and application of statistical method to a wide range of topics
in biology. It encompasses the design of biological experiments, the collection and analysis of data
from those experiments and the interpretation of the results.

Bioinformatics advances in Databases, the mining, and biological interpretation

The development of biological databases enables storage and management of biological
data with the possibility of ensuring access for users around the world. They are useful for researchers
depositing data, retrieve information and files (raw or processed) originated from other experiments or
indexing scientific articles, as PubMed.
Another possibility is search for the desired term (a gene, protein, a disease, an organism, and
so on) and check all results related to this research. There are databases dedicated to SNPs (dbSNP),
the knowledge on genes characterization and their pathways and the description of gene function
classifying it by cellular component, molecular function and biological process.
In addition to databases that contain specific molecular information, there are others that are
ample in the sense that they store information about an organism or group of organisms.
As an example of a database directed toward just one organism, but that contains much data
about it, is the Arabidopsis thaliana genetic and molecular database.

51
Statistics in Social Work
An Introduction to Practical Applications
Understanding statistical concepts is essential for social work professionals. It is key to
understanding research and reaching evidence-based decisions in your own practice―but that is only
the beginning. If you understand statistics, you can determine the best interventions for your clients.
You can use new tools to monitor and evaluate the progress of your client or team. You can recognize
biased systems masked by complex models and the appearance of scientific neutrality. For social
workers, statistics are not just math, they are a critical practice tool.
This concise and approachable introduction to statistics limits its coverage to the concepts
most relevant to social workers. Statistics in Social Work guides students through concepts and
procedures from descriptive statistics and correlation to hypothesis testing and inferential statistics.
Besides presenting key concepts, it focuses on real-world examples that students will encounter in a
social work practice. Using concrete illustrations from a variety of potential concentrations and
populations, Amy Bachelor creates clear connections between theory and practice―and
demonstrates the important contributions statistics can make to evidence-based and rigorous social
work practice.
“This is an excellent introduction to statistics for both students and practitioners in social works – it
demystifies terms and procedures and uses real world examples to help the reader to see the
everyday applicability of statistical knowledge, whether in practice or in study.”
- John Devaney Coauthor of Quantitative Research Methods for Social Work.

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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

Exercise 6
Measure of Deviation
Find the measures of variation (Range, QD, MAD, SD, and Variance) of the following:
1. In the exams given to the top 40 students, the following scores were obtained:

33 54 59 43 31 51 29 64 55 35
31 31 46 61 35 44 57 29 61 59
65 48 42 33 37 42 57 56 31 49
31 64 63 63 51 45 34 62 32 30

3. Jake listed all scores that he got in all of his Math exams since the first term and are
summarized as follows:

12 15 22 12 10 38 21 16 24 15 18 22
20 13 22 33 35 21 22 11 15 18 21 27

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References

Introduction to Statistics Statistical Data Analysis

Francisco A. Febre, Jr. By Dr. Dang Quang A and Dr. Bui The
Hong
Statistics and Probability Biostatistics
Joy N. Carpio IndranilSaha and Bobby Paul
Jaymie M. Guillermo
Raul G. Angeles
Rowena R. De Guzman
www.mathwarehouse.com

Probability and statistics - Risks, expectations, and fair contracts | Britannica

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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

I. Learning Insight

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Name:__________________________________________________Score:____________
Name of Teacher:_________________________________________Date:_____________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________________

II. Reflection

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