Probability and Statistics (IT302)

4th August 2020 (10:30AM-11:00AM) Class

 Counting Sample Points

In many cases, we shall be able to solve a probability problem by

counting the number of points in the sample space without actually
listing each element.

The fundamental principle of counting, often referred to as the

Multiplication Rule.

Multiplication Rule: If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if

for each of these ways a second operation can be performed in n2 ways,
then the two operations can be performed together in n1× n2 ways.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Multiplication Rule

Example 2.13: How many sample points are there in the sample
space when a pair of dice is thrown once?

Solution: The first die can land face-up in any one of n1 = 6 ways.
For each of these 6 ways, the second die can also land face-up in
n2=6 ways. Therefore, the pair of dice can land in n1n2 = (6)(6) = 36
possible ways.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Multiplication Rule Contd.
Example 2.14: A developer of a new
subdivision offers prospective home buyers
a choice of Tudor, Rustic, Colonial, and
Traditional exterior styling in Ranch,
Two-story, and Split-level floor plans. In
how many different ways can a buyer order
one of these homes?

Solution: Since n1=4 and n2=3, a buyer

must choose from n1n2=(4)(3)=12 possible
homes.
The answers to the two preceding examples
can be verified by constructing Tree
diagrams and counting the various paths
along the branches.
Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Multiplication Rule Contd.

Example 2.15: If a 22-member club needs to elect a chair and a

treasurer, how many different ways can these two to be elected?

Solution: For the chair position, there are 22 total possibilities. For each
of those 22 possibilities, there are 21 possibilities to elect the treasurer.
Using the Multiplication Rule, we obtain n1×n2 = 22×21 = 462 different
ways.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Multiplication Rule Contd.

The Multiplication Rule may be extended to cover any number of

operations. Suppose, for instance, that a customer wishes to buy a new
cell phone and can choose from n1=5 brands, n2=5 sets of capability, and
n3=4 colors. These three classifications result in n1n2n3 = (5)(5)(4) = 100
different ways for a customer to order one of these phones.

The generalized Multiplication Rule covering k operations is stated in

the following.
If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for each of these a
second operation can be performed in n2 ways, and for each of the first
two a third operation can be performed in n3 ways, and so forth, then the
sequence of k operations can be performed in n1n2 ・ ・ ・ nk ways.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Multiplication Rule Contd.

Example 2.16: Sam is going to assemble a computer by himself. He has

the choice of chips from two brands, a hard drive from four, memory
from three, and an accessory bundle from five local stores. How many
different ways can Sam order the parts?

Solution: Since n1=2, n2=4, n3=3, and n4=5, there are

nl×n2×n3×n4 = 2×4×3×5 = 120 different ways to order the parts.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Multiplication Rule Contd.

Example 2.17: How many even four-digit numbers can be formed from
the digits 0, 1, 2, 5, 6, and 9 if each digit can be used only once?

Solution: Since the number must be even, we have only n1=3 choices for
the units position. However, for a four-digit number the thousands
position cannot be 0. Hence, we consider the units position in two parts,
0 or not 0. If the units position is 0 (i.e., n1=1), we have n2=5 choices for
the thousands position, n3=4 for the hundreds position, and n4=3 for the
tens position. Therefore, in this case we have a total of 60 even four-digit
numbers.
n1n2n3n4 = (1)(5)(4)(3) = 60

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Multiplication Rule Contd.

Example 2.17 Contd.: On the other hand, if the units position is not 0
(i.e., n1=2), we have n2=4 choices for the thousands position, n3=4 for the
hundreds position, and n4=3 for the tens position. In this situation, there
are a total of 96
n1n2n3n4 = (2)(4)(4)(3) = 96

Since the two cases are mutually exclusive, the total number of even
four-digit numbers can be calculated as 60 + 96 = 156.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Permutation
A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects.

Consider the three letters a, b, and c. The possible permutations are abc,
acb, bac, bca, cab, and cba. Thus, there are 6 distinct arrangements.

Using Multiplication Rule, we could arrive at the answer 6 without

actually listing the different orders by the following arguments: There are
n1=3 choices for the first position. No matter which letter is chosen, there
are always n2=2 choices for the second position. No matter which two
letters are chosen for the first two positions, there is only n3=1 choice for
the last position, giving a total of n1n2n3=(3)(2)(1)=6 permutations.

In general, n distinct objects can be arranged in n(n−1)(n−2) ・ ・ ・

(3)(2)(1) ways.
Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Permutation Contd.

Theorem 2.2: The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at

a time is

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Permutation Contd.

Example 2.18: In one year, three awards (research, teaching, and

service) will be given to a class of 25 graduate students in a statistics
department. If each student can receive at most one award, how many
possible selections are there?

Solution: Since the awards are distinguishable, it is a permutation

problem. The total number of sample points is

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Theorem 2.4

Theorem 2.4: The number of distinct permutations of n things of

which n1 are of one kind, n2 of a second kind, . . . , nk of a kth kind is

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Example 2.20

Example 2.20: In a college football training session, the

defensive coordinator needs to have 10 players standing in a row.
Among these 10 players, there are 1 freshman, 2 sophomores, 4
juniors, and 3 seniors. How many different ways can they be
arranged in a row if only their class level will be distinguished?

Solution: Directly using Theorem 2.4, we find that the total

number of arrangements is

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Often we are concerned with the number of ways of partitioning a set of n
objects into r subsets called cells.

A partition has been achieved if the intersection of every possible pair of

the r subsets is the empty set φ and if the union of all subsets gives the
original set. The order of the elements within a cell is of no importance.

Consider the set {a, e, i, o, u}. The possible partitions into two cells in
which the first cell contains 4 elements and the second cell 1 element
are {(a, e, i, o), (u)}, {(a, i, o, u), (e)}, {(e, i, o, u), (a)}, {(a, e, o, u), (i)},
{(a, e, i, u), (o)}.

There are 5 ways to partition a set of 4 elements into two subsets, or cells,
containing 4 elements in the first cell and 1 element in the second.
Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Theorem 2.5

The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into r cells with

n1 elements in the first cell, n2 elements in the second, and so forth, is
where n1 + n2 + ・ ・ ・ + nr = n.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Example 2.21

Example 2.21: In how many ways can 7 graduate students be

assigned to 1 triple and 2 double hotel rooms during a conference?

Solution: The total number of possible partitions would be

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Theorem 2.6

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.21: Registrants at a large convention are offered 6

sightseeing tours on each of 3 days. In how many ways can a person
arrange to go on a sightseeing tour planned by this convention?

Answer: With n1 = 6 sightseeing tours each available on n2 = 3 different

days, the multiplication rule gives n1n2 = (6)(3) = 18 ways for a person to
arrange a tour.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.22: In a medical study, patients are classified in 8 ways

according to whether they have blood type AB+, AB−, A+, A−, B+, B−,
O+, or O−, and also according to whether their blood pressure is low,
normal, or high. Find the number of ways in which a patient can be
classified.

Answer: With n1 = 8 blood types and n2 = 3 classifications of blood

pressure, the multiplication rule gives n1n2 = (8)(3) = 24 classifications.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.23 If an experiment consists of throwing a die and then

drawing a letter at random from the English alphabet, how many points are
there in the sample space?

Answer: Since the die can land in n1 = 6 ways and a letter can be selected
in n2 = 26 ways, the multiplication rule gives n1n2 = (6)(26) = 156 points in
S.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.24 Students at a private liberal arts college are classified as

being freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors, and also according to
whether they are male or female. Find the total number of possible
classifications for the students of that college.

Answer: Since a student may be classified according to n1=4 class

standing and n2=2 gender classifications, the multiplication rule gives
n1n2=(4)(2)=8 possible classifications for the students.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.25 A certain brand of shoes comes in 5 different styles, with

each style available in 4 distinct colors. If the store wishes to display pairs
of these shoes showing all of its various styles and colors, how many
different pairs will the store have on display?

Answer: With n1=5 different shoe styles in n2=4 different colors, the
multiplication rule gives n1n2=(5)(4)=20 different pairs of shoes.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.27 A developer of a new subdivision offers a prospective home

buyer a choice of 4 designs, 3 different heating systems, a garage or
carport, and a patio or screened porch. How many different plans are
available to this buyer?

Answer: Using the generalized multiplication rule, there are n1×n2

×n3×n4=(4)(3)(2)(2) = 48 different house plans available

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.29 In a fuel economy study, each of 3 race cars is tested using
5 different brands of gasoline at 7 test sites located in different regions of
the country. If 2 drivers are used in the study, and test runs are made once
under each distinct set of conditions, how many test runs are needed?

Answer: With n1=3 race cars, n2=5 brands of gasoline, n3=7 test sites, and
n4=2 drivers, the generalized multiplication rule yields (3)(5)(7)(2)=210
test runs.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.30 In how many different ways can a true-false test

consisting of 9 questions be answered

Answer: With n1=2 choices for the first question, n2=2 choices for the
second question, and so forth, the generalized multiplication rule yields
n1n2 ··· n9 = 29 = 512 ways to answer the test.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises
Question 2.33 If a multiple-choice test consists of 5 questions,
each with 4 possible answers of which only 1 is correct,
(a) in how many different ways can a student check off one answer to
each question?

Answer: With n1=4 possible answers for the first question, n2=4 possible
answers for the second question, and so forth, the generalized
multiplication rule yields 45 = 1024 ways to answer the test.

(b) in how many ways can a student check off one answer to each
question and get all the answers wrong?
Answer: With n1=3 wrong answers for the first question, n2=3 wrong
answers for the second question, and so forth, the generalized
multiplication rule yields n1n2n3n4n5 = (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) = 35 = 243 ways to
answer the test and get all questions wrong.
Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.35: A contractor wishes to build 9 houses, each different

in design. In how many ways can he place these houses on a street if
6 lots are on one side of the street and 3 lots are on the opposite side?

Answer: The first house can be placed on any of the n1=9 lots, the
second house on any of the remaining n2=8 lots, and so forth.
Therefore, there are 9! = 362,880 ways to place the 9 homes on the 9
lots

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.3: In how many ways can 4 boys and 5 girls sit in a row if
the boys and girls must alternate?
Answer: The first seat must be filled by any of 5 girls and the second seat
by any of 4 boys. Continuing

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.38 Four married couples have bought 8 seats in the same
row for a concert. In how many different ways can they be seated
(a) with no restrictions?
Answer: 8! = 40320.
(b) if each couple is to sit together?
Answer: There are 4! ways to seat 4 couples and then each
member of a couple can be interchanged resulting in
24(4!) = 384 ways.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall
 Exercises

Question 2.39: In a regional spelling bee, the 8 finalists consist of 3 boys

and 5 girls. Find the number of sample points in the sample space S for the
number of possible orders at the conclusion of the contest for all 8
finalists.
Answer: Any of the n1 = 8 finalists may come in first, and of the n2=7
remaining finalists can then come in second, and so forth. there 8!=40320
possible orders in which 8 finalists may finish the spelling bee.

Source : Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, by Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers, Keying Ye, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall