EXPLORE THE LOGIC MODEL, BRINGING OUT IT’S ROLE IN MONITORING

AND EVALUATION

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

NAIROBI CBD

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

HEPM 3201: PROJECT MONITORING, CONTROL AND EVALUATION

SOLOMON ASACHA MUGANDA HDE314-C004-3045/2019

COURSE FACILITATOR: DR. JOSEPHINE MUTISO

ASSIGNMENT ONE (INDIVIDUAL)

AUGUST 2020

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Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction.......................................................................................................................2
1.1 Why use logic models?.....................................................................................................5
1.2 Logic Model Benefits........................................................................................................6
2.0 Planning Process...............................................................................................................8
2.1 Approaches to the Development of Logic Models...........................................................9
2.1.0 The Theory Approach Model.........................................................................................9
2.1.1 The activities approach model........................................................................................9
2.1.2 The outcomes approach model.....................................................................................10
2.2 Building logic model.......................................................................................................10
2.2.0 Planning Elements........................................................................................................11
2.2.1 Situation........................................................................................................................11
2.3 Inputs/Resources.............................................................................................................12
2.4 Outputs............................................................................................................................13
2.5 Outcomes........................................................................................................................14
2.6 External Influences.........................................................................................................15
2.7 Evaluation Planning........................................................................................................15
3.0 Developing a logic model for your programme..............................................................16
3.1 Using the logic model to plan for evaluation..................................................................18
4.0 Types of logic models.....................................................................................................26
4.1.0 Theory Approach..........................................................................................................26
4.1.1. Outcomes Approach....................................................................................................27
4.1.2 Activities Approach......................................................................................................28
5.0 Conclusion......................................................................................................................30

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The Logic Model

1.0 Introduction

The Logic Model process is a tool that is used by program managers and evaluators to describe

program effectiveness. In the most basic terms, logic models provide a kind of map for a

program or initiative, helping clarify a program or policy’s destination, the pathways toward the

destination, and markers along the way [ CITATION Sha15 \l 1033 ].

Consider:

i. Where are you going?

ii. How will you get there?

iii. What will tell you that you have arrived?

Logic models provide a simplified picture of the relationships between the program or policy

inputs (resources, strategies, activities) and the desired outcomes of the program. Logic models

present a theory of action or change that drives the program or policy and makes explicit any

assumptions about both the resources at the disposal of the program and the rationale behind the

effort [CITATION Mid16 \l 1033 ].

A logic model is valuable in supporting:

i. Program planning.

ii. Program implementation.

iii. Program monitoring.

iv. Program evaluation.

A logic model:

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 i. Brings detail to broad goals.

ii. Helps identify gaps in program logic and clarify assumptions.

iii. Builds understanding and promotes consensus.

iv. Makes explicit underlying beliefs.

v. Helps clarify what is appropriate to evaluate and when.

vi. Summarizes complex programs for effective communication.

A logic model is useful in designing program and policy evaluation, because a logic model

helps clarify both what the program, initiative, or policy is and what it is not. This kind of

clarification is helpful in building an evaluation design that can capture the program’s or

policy’s influence and impact.

A logic model is not:

a) A strategic or fully developed plan for designing or managing a program or policy.

b) evaluation design or evaluation method.

While logic models are useful tools for building program plans or evaluation designs, additional

work is necessary to create both programmatic and evaluation plans. The model describes logical

linkages among program resources, activities, outputs, audiences, and short-intermediate, and

long-term outcomes related to a specific problem or situation. Once a program has been

described in terms of the logic model, critical measures of performance can be identified. A

programme logic model links outcomes with programme activities/processes and the theoretical

assumptions/principles of the programme. The model facilitates thinking, planning, and

communications about objectives and actual accomplishments. It is a basically a systematic and

visual way of presenting and sharing understanding of the relationships among the resources

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operating a programme, the planned activities, and the anticipated changes or result [ CITATION

Hol11 \l 1033 ].

Logic models are narrative or graphical depictions of processes in real life that communicate the

underlying assumptions upon which an activity is expected to lead to a specific result. Logic

models illustrate a sequence of cause-and-effect relationships—a systems approach to

communicate the path toward a desired result. Logic models support design, planning,

communication, evaluation, and learning. They are often used when explaining an idea, resolving

a challenge, or assessing progress. They can untangle and clarify complex relationships among

elements or parts [ CITATION Sha15 \l 1033 ].

Logic models are a graphic way to organize information and display thinking. Logic models are

simply a visual display of the pathways from actions to results. The graphic way or map of

relationship between a program’s resources, activities, and intended results, which also identifies

the program’s underlying theory and assumptions. They are a great way to review and improve

thinking, find common understandings, document plans, and communicate and explicate what

works under what conditions. We think theory of change models are distinct from program logic

models in several important ways. Theory of change models present a very high level and simple

explanation of “do and get.” Program logic models offer a detailed map that can be implemented

when supplemented with work plans. A quality feature of logic models is that they are evidence

based. Logic models can be used for learning, improving, and greater effectiveness [ CITATION

Fra16 \l 1033 ].

Logic models are tools that convey a scheme, program, or project in a brief, visual format. Logic

models describe planned action and its expected results. A model is a snapshot of an individual’s

or group’s current thinking about how their idea or program might work.

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Logic Models are typically used in theory-based evaluation, which is designed to explicitly

articulate the underlying theory of change which shapes a transformation programme. The theory

of how you will achieve the desired outcomes and impacts through a series of activities. Theory-

based evaluation recognizes the importance of articulating and analyzing the logic at the very

heart of the programme. Logic models are usually developed alongside narrative descriptions of

a programme as well as frameworks for measuring outcomes and impact. The process of

developing a logic model helps to define various elements of the programme, which creates the

foundation for measurement and evaluation [ CITATION Sav05 \l 1033 ].

1.1 Why use logic models?

Essentially, a logic model helps with evaluation by setting out the relationships and assumptions,

between a programme will do and what changes it expects to deliver. A logic model can be

particularly valuable in drawing out gaps between the ingredients of a programme, the

underlying assumptions and the anticipated outcomes, detailing:

i. What you are trying to achieve and why is it important?

ii. How will you measure effectiveness?

iii. How are you actually doing?

Programme design and planning – a logic model serves as a planning tool to develop programme

strategy and enhance your ability to clearly explain and illustrate concepts and approaches for

key stakeholders.

Programme implementation – a logic model forms the core for a focused management plan to

help identify and collect the data needed to monitor and improve programming.

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Programme evaluation and strategic reporting – a logic model presents programme information

and progress towards goals in ways that inform programme stakeholders and advocate for a

particular programme approach [ CITATION McL15 \l 1033 ].

1.2 Logic Model Benefits

In addition to extraordinary execution, organizational effectiveness ultimately requires design,

planning, monitoring, and success measures.

Logic models also;

i. Develop common language among stakeholders.

ii. Offer highly participatory learning opportunities.

iii. Document and emphasize explicit outcomes- focuses teams on the most important

outcomes and activities.

iv. Clarify knowledge about what works and why.

v. Identify important variables to measure and enable more effective use of evaluation

resources- enables a standardized but flexible approach to evaluation.

vi. Provide a credible reporting framework- structured framework.

vii. Lead to improved design, planning, and management.

viii. Tell the programme’s “story”

ix. Enables a shared understanding and supports communication

x. Can act as a “health check” to identify gaps and inconsistencies

xi. Help to identify key metrics and data required

xii. Supports formative evaluation helping you to see what is and isn’t working.

xiii. Allows capture of key lessons which can be transferred to create an evidence base.

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 xiv. Helps to identify what features of the programme contributed to outcomes.

When logic models and modeling are used as a standard technique, they can influence an

organization’s effectiveness. Logic models offer the strategic means to critically review and

improve thinking [CITATION Mid16 \l 1033 ].

Logic models are a visual method of presenting an idea. They offer a way to describe and share

an understanding of relationships (or connections) among elements necessary to operate a

program or change effort. Logic models describe a bounded project or initiative: both what is

planned (the doing) and what results are expected (the getting). They provide a clear road map to

a specified end. The development of models (or the modeling process) provides an opportunity

to review the strength of connection between activities and outcomes. Through the experience of

critical review and development, models can display participants’ learning about what works

under what conditions. Models are the product of modeling—which we believe is best done in

small groups of stakeholders with the aid of intentional facilitation. They complement systems

thinking as a tool and technique for achieving valid but simplified representations of real-world

complexities. Common synonyms for logic models include idea maps, frameworks, rich pictures,

action, results or strategy maps, and mental models. Although logical frameworks (log frames)

and causal loop diagrams (systems dynamics) are used for purposes similar to logic models, they

are fundamentally different but complementary tools [ CITATION Jea18 \l 1033 ].

A theory of change logic model offers the big picture of strategies that could generate your

intended results (or impact). A basic theory of change model contains just two elements:

strategies and results. The intent is to illustrate the connection between what you will do with

what you hope to get. Strategies reflect a choice of optimal actions (via activities or tactics) to

secure intended results. They represent an allocation of resources focused on a clearly defined

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objective. Marketing, training, political advocacy, and fund development are examples of

common strategies. This element describes your actions or what you plan to do. Strategy is the

overall plan that gives coherence and purpose to the specific actions that organizations

undertake. For some nonprofits, however, the meaning can be murkier and framed as an

ambiguous aspiration. Results reflect the long-term effect of strategies. They are the “get” from

what we are doing. Results are ultimately secured through the change(s) generated by the

preceding strategies. They can reflect a single outcome or multiple outcomes over time

[ CITATION McL15 \l 1033 ].

A common concern of impact measurement is that of limited control over complex outcomes.

Establishing desired long-term outcomes, such as improved financial security or reduced teen-

age violence, is tenuous because of the limited influence we may have over the target audience,

and complex, uncontrolled environmental variables. Logic models address this issue because

they describe the concepts that need to be considered when we seek such outcomes. Logic

models link the problem (situation) to the intervention (our inputs and outputs), and the impact

(outcome). Further, the model helps to identify partnerships critical to enhancing our

performance [ CITATION McL15 \l 1033 ].

2.0 Planning Process

Planned work- describes what resources are needed to implement the programme and what

activities are intended.

The logic model was characterized initially by program evaluators as a tool for identifying

performance measures. Since that time, the tool has been adapted to program planning, as well.

The application of the logic model as a planning tool allows precise communication about the

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purposes of a project, the components of a project, and the sequence of activities and

accomplishments. Further, a project originally designed with assessment in mind is much more

likely to yield beneficial data, should evaluation be desired. In the past, our strategy to justify a

particular program often has been to explain what we are doing from the perspective of an

insider, beginning with why we invest allocated resources [ CITATION Sav05 \l 1033 ]. Our

traditional justification includes the following sequence:

1) We invest this time/money so that we can generate this activity/product.

2) The activity/product is needed so people will learn how to do this.

3) People need to learn that so they can apply their knowledge to this practice.

4) When that practice is applied, the effect will be to change this condition;

5) When that condition changes, we will no longer be in this situation.

2.1 Approaches to the Development of Logic Models

2.1.0 The Theory Approach Model

Is used to articulate the underlying programme theory- how and why the programme will work.

It poses 4 questions:

i. What issues or problems does the programme seek to address?

ii. What are the specific needs of the target audience?

iii. What are the short- and long-term goals of the programme?

iv. What barriers or supports may impact the success of the programme?

2.1.1 The activities approach model

Is designed to support implementation by setting out the programme activities in detail to a

timescale. This model also incorporates monitoring processes and approaches to identifying and

managing barriers.

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2.1.2 The outcomes approach model
Is focused on demonstrating impact of the programme and is recommended for short and longer

term follow up.

2.2 Building logic model

Your logic model should incorporate the underlying assumptions, or programme theory, which

articulates how what you’re doing- interventions and mechanisms, will resolve the problems

your programme aims to resolve.

1) What is the current situation that we intend to impact?

2) What will it look like when we achieve the desired situation or outcome?

3) What behaviors need to change for that outcome to be achieved?

4) What knowledge or skills do people need before the behavior will change?

5) What activities need to be performed to cause the necessary learning?

6) What resources will be required to achieve the desired outcome?

Hence:

i. Collection of information needed to develop the model. This will involve working

with multiple sources, including, the published literature; programme documents and

stake holders.

ii. Description of the problem(s) the programmes aims to address and context in which

you’re working, including the factors which contribute to the problem

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 iii. Definition of the individual elements of the logic model. At this stage, it may be

helpful to ask constructively challenging how, and why questions to articulate what

you are doing and why.

iv. Construction of the model.

v. Verification of the model, working closely with stakeholders, which sets the tone for

continuous review.

2.2.0 Planning Elements

Using the logic model as a planning tool is most valuable when we focus on what it is that we

want to communicate to others. By describing the characteristics of our programs that

communicate relevance, quality, and impact, we foster buy-in from our stakeholders and

audience. By including these characteristics within the various elements of the model, we

communicate to others why our programs are important to them.

2.2.1 Situation
The situation statement provides an opportunity to communicate the relevance of the project.

Characteristics that illustrate the relevance to others include:

i. A statement of the problem, (What are the causes? What are the social, economic,

and/or environmental symptoms of the problem? What are the likely consequences if

nothing is done to resolve the problem? What are the actual or projected costs?);

ii. A description of who is affected by the problem (Where do they live, work, and shop?

How are they important to the community? Who depends on them–families,

employees, organizations?);

iii. Who else is interested in the problem? Who are the stakeholders? What other projects

address this problem?

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The situation statement establishes a baseline for comparison at the close of a program. A

description of the problem and its symptoms provides a way to determine whether change has

occurred. Describing who is affected by the problem allows assessment of who has benefited.

Identifying other stakeholders and programs builds a platform to measure our overall

contribution, including increased awareness and activity, or reduced concern and cost logic

[ CITATION Sha15 \l 1033 ].

2.3 Inputs/Resources

Include- human, financial, organizational and community resources a programme has available

to direct towards doing the work.

Inputs include those things that we invest in a program or that we bring to bear on a program,

such as knowledge, skills, or expertise. Describing the inputs needed for a program provides an

opportunity to communicate the quality of the program [ CITATION Fra16 \l 1033 ]. Inputs that

communicate to others that the program is of high quality include:

i. Human resources, such as time invested by faculty, staff, volunteers, partners, and

local people;

ii. Fiscal resources, including appropriated funds, special grants, donations, and user

fees;

iii. Other inputs required to support the program, such as facilities and equipment;

iv. Knowledge base for the program, including teaching materials, curriculum, research

results, certification or learning standards etc.

v. Involvement of collaborators - local, state, national agencies and organizations

involved in planning, delivery, and evaluation.

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Projects involving credible partners, built on knowledge gained from research and delivered via

tested and proven curricula, are readily communicated as quality programs. Assessing the

effectiveness of a program also is made easier when planned inputs are adequately described. By

comparing actual investments with planned investments, evaluation can be used to improve

future programs, justify budgets, and establish priorities [ CITATION Uwi20 \l 1033 ].

2.4 Outputs

Direct products of programme activities and may include types, levels and targets of services to

be delivered by the programme. Outputs are those things that we do (providing products, goods,

and services to program customers) and the people we reach (informed consumers,

knowledgeable decision makers). Describing our outputs allows us to establish linkages between

the problem (situation) and the impact of the program (intended outcomes) [ CITATION

McL15 \l 1033 ]. Outputs that help link what we do with program impact include:

i. Publications such as articles, bulletins, fact sheets, handbooks, web pages;

ii. Decision aids such as software, worksheets, models;

iii. Teaching events such as workshops, field days, tours, short courses;

iv. Discovery and application activities, such as research plots, demonstration plots, and

product trials.

The people we reach also are outputs of the program and need to be the center of our model.

They constitute a bridge between the problem and the impact. Information about the people who

participated and what they were taught can include:

i. Their characteristics or behaviors;

ii. The proportion or number of people in the target group that were reached;

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 iii. Learner objectives for program participants;

iv. Number of sessions or activities attended by participants;

v. Level of satisfaction participants expresses for the program.

2.5 Outcomes

Specific changes in programme participants behaviour, knowledge, skills, status and level of

functioning. Program outcomes can be short-term, intermediate-term, or long-term. Outcomes

answer the question “What happened as a result of the program?” and are useful to communicate

the impacts of our investment [ CITATION McL15 \l 1033 ]. Short-term outcomes of

educational programs may include changes in:

i. Awareness–customers recognize the problem or issue;

ii. Knowledge–customers understand the causes and potential solutions;

iii. Skills–customers possess the skills needed to resolve the situation;

iv. Motivation–customers have the desire to effect change;

v. Attitude–customers believe their actions can make a difference.

Intermediate-term outcomes include changes that follow the short-term outcomes, such as

changes in:

i. Practices used by participants;

ii. Behaviors exhibited by people or organizations;

iii. Policies adopted by businesses, governments, or organizations;

iv. Technologies employed by end users;

v. Management strategies implemented by individuals or groups.

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Long-term outcomes follow intermediate-term outcomes when changed behaviors result in

changed conditions, such as:

i. Improved economic conditions–increased income or financial stability;

ii. Improved social conditions–reduced violence or improved cooperation;

iii. Improved environmental conditions–improved air quality or reduced runoff;

iv. Improved political conditions–improved participation or opportunity.

2.6 External Influences

Institutional, community, and public policies may have either supporting or antagonistic effects

on many of our programs. At the institutional level, schools may influence healthy eating habits

in ways that are beyond our control but that may lead to social change. Classes in health

education may introduce children to the food pyramid and to the concept of proportional intake,

while the cafeteria may serve pizza on Wednesdays and steak fingers on Thursdays. The

community also can influence eating habits through availability of fast-food restaurants or

produce markets. Even public policies that provide support (food bank, food stamps) to acquire

some items but not others might impact healthy eating habits [ CITATION Mid16 \l 1033 ].

Documenting the social, physical, political, and institutional environments that can influence

outcomes helps to improve the program planning process by answering the following:

i. Who are important partners/collaborators for the program?

ii. Which part(s) of the issue can this project realistically influence?

iii. What evaluation measures will accurately reflect project outcomes?

iv. What other needs must be met in order to address this issue?

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 2.7 Evaluation Planning

Development of an evaluation plan to assess the program can be superimposed, using the logic

model format. The evaluation plan should include alternatives to assess the processes used in

planning the program [ CITATION Mid16 \l 1033 ]. Process indicators should be designed to

provide a measurable response to questions such as:

i. Were specific inputs made as planned, in terms of the amount of input, timing, and

quality of input?

ii. Were specific activities conducted as planned, in terms of content, timing, location,

format, quality?

iii. Was the desired level of participation achieved, in terms of numbers and

characteristics of participants?

iv. Did customers express the degree of customer satisfaction expected?

The evaluation plan also should identify indicators appropriate to the desired outcomes,

including short-, medium-and long-term outcomes. Outcome indicators also should be

measurable, and should be designed to answer questions such as:

i. Did participants demonstrate the desired level of knowledge increase, enhanced

awareness, or motivation?

ii. Were improved management practices adopted, behaviors modified, or policies

altered to the extent expected for the program?

iii. To what extent were social, economic, political, or environmental conditions affected

by the program?

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3.0 Developing a logic model for your programme

In creating a logic model, you will address the following planning and evaluation issues:

i. Cataloguing of the resources and actions needed to reach intended results;

ii. Documenting connections among available resources, planned activities and

expected results;

iii. Describing the results aimed for in terms of specific, measurable, action-orientated,

realistic and timed outcomes.

A basic template for gathering the required information for the logic model:

Issues Resources Activities Outputs Outcomes Impact

The aims/ In order to In order to We expect We expect We expect

objectives of achieve the address the that once that if that if

the programme set of aims and accomplished accomplished accomplished

are: activities objectives we these these these

to fulfill will activities will activities will activities will

these aims/ accomplish produce the lead to the lead to the

objectives the following following following following

we need activities: evidence/ changes in changes in

the service knowledge, service,

following: delivery: skills, organisation

behaviour or

etc.: community:

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 3.1 Using the logic model to plan for evaluation

There are two types of evaluation questions – formative help improve the programme, and

summative help prove whether the programme worked in the planned.

Formative Evaluation – Improve Summative Evaluation – Prove

Provides information that helps improve Generates information that can be used to

programmes. Generates periodic reports. demonstrate the results of the programme to

Information can be shared quickly. funders and the community.

Focuses on programme activities, outputs Focuses most on intermediate-term

and short-term outcomes for monitoring outcomes and impact. Although data is

progress and making mid-course corrections collected throughout the programme, the

when needed. purpose is to determine the value and worth

of a programme based on results

Helps in bringing suggestions for Helpful in describing the quality and

improvements. effectiveness of the programme by

documenting its impact on participants and

the community.

A logic model can help frame evaluation questions, looking at context, implementation and

outcomes:

Context – how the programme functions within the economic, social and political

environment of its community. Also addresses questions that explore issues of programme

relationships and capacity.

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 Implementation – assesses the extent to which activities were executed as planned, since a

programme’s ability to deliver its desired results depends on whether activities result in the

quality and quantity of outputs specified.

Outcomes – determine the extent to which progress is being made toward the desired changes

in individuals, organisations, systems and communities.

Context: Implementation Outcomes

Relationships & Quality & Quantity Effectiveness, Magnitude, Satisfaction

capacity

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 Influences

Activities Outputs Short-term Intermediate Impact

outcomes outcomes

Resources

Formative evaluation and/or Summative evaluation

what aspects what did our programme what is our assessment what have we

of our situation accomplish in our community? of what resulted from our learned about

most shaped work in the community? doing this kind

our ability to do of work in a

the work we set community like

out to do? ours?

It is important to remember that programmes are not linear, and outcomes and outputs

can happen at any time. The logic model for evaluation should therefore look more like

this:

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Situation/ Outcomes/
Outputs Outputs Outcomes/ Outcomes/
Priorities Inputs Impact
Activities Participation Impact Impact
  Short term Medium term Long term
 

Satisfaction

Assumptions External Factors

 

PROCESS

Needs Outcomes Impact

Indicators

In order to answer evaluation questions, indicators will be used as measures of success.

Indicators are usually quantitative, but can include a mix of qualitative and quantitative

information.

Focus Area Questions Indicators Information needed

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 Key questions or Data/information List of specific data or

Individual issues within required to information, and its

aim/objective aim/objective measure the location

success in

answering

questions or issues
e.g. To generate Were the Count of events List of networks,

research findings/outcomes of with an workshops, conferences

findings and international international and details of

outcomes of significance/quality? element content/focus

international

significance and Were they

quality, to disseminated to an Count of number Attendance lists with

disseminate international of international addresses

these to an audience? people attending

international

research Were networks International Access to EARs for

audience, and to created in and elements included awards

develop beyond the UK? in End of Award

networks of Reports (EARs)

researchers in

and beyond the International List of membership of

UK. representation on steering/commissioning

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steering committees

committees and

commissioning

committees

Case studies of Information on notable

notable events events, access to key

people

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 Example of Logic Model

ASSUMPTIONS RESOURCES PROCESSES/ OUTPUTS OUTCOMES IMPACT

* ACTIVITIES
That images are affected AHRC grant Image making Images Feelings of comfort for renal Scope to

by the image maker: patients from seeing shared encourage

person and method Carnegie Contact with Visitors: experiences scientists to

grant hospitals and other look beyond

That multiple organisations  Renal patients Possible clarification of thoughts the current

interpretations help to College grant and feelings around dialysis and aesthetic of
 Staff in rental
reveal the filters used by and help in Exhibitions transplants digital images
units
different image makers kind
 The general
and methods Appreciation that people see things Scope to help
public
Help in kind differently and different patients to
Catalogue
from galleries interpretations are valid communicate

That patients are active and interpret

seekers after meaning Understanding of the subjectivity of their

and diagnosis, rather than images, including medical images, experiences

passive and the way the method affects the individually

image and

That information is collectively

power. Understanding of the information

overload of medical experiences

Those pictured have and, for staff, a direction of attention

rights over their towards the responsibility in giving

information including a that information

right to personal

interpretation Conceptual understanding of the

experience of dialysis and kidney

That visual images can transplant e.g. in terms of filtering

25
provide insights into and displacement

information additional to

those provided by words Link to other experiences of filtering

and text e.g. and displacement

conceptualization,

linkages, context and

emotional meaning

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4.0 Types of logic models

Not all logic models are the same, nor are they designed for the same purpose. Just as logic

models may aid in program design, implementation, and evaluation, the type of model developed

varies somewhat based on its purpose.

There are three main types of logic models:

i. Theory approach.

ii. Activities approach.

iii. Outcomes approach.

4.1.0 Theory Approach

Emphasizes the theory of change that has influenced the design and plan for the programme.

This model provides an explanation of the reasons for beginning to explore an idea for a given

programme [ CITATION Jea18 \l 1033 ]. They can also specify the problem or issue addressed

by the programme, describe the reasons for selecting certain types of solution strategies, and

connect proven strategies to potential activities. Logic models that describe the overall theory of

change provide a “big picture” of the program and may be useful for program design and overall

communication of the program theory [ CITATION Sav05 \l 1033 ]. These models provide a

clear description of why the developers believe the program or policy will be effective in

achieving the goals. In the blended learning case, a theory approach logic model might help

clarify the assumptions implicit in the push for alternatives to traditional brick and mortar

classrooms and describe the relationship between initiating blended learning and the expected

outcomes for students who participate.

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 An example of a theory logic model would be:

Inputs

Assumptions

Activities Outputs Outcomes

Impact

Inputs Outcomes

Outputs

Activities
Outcomes Impact

Inputs

Beginnings Planned work Intended results

4.1.1. Outcomes Approach

Focuses on the early aspects of programme planning and attempts to connect the resources

and/or activities with the desired results in a workable programme. Outcomes approach models

are most useful for program evaluation. They consider the strategies and activities as they relate

to the desired results of a program or policy. In these models, the focus is on outcomes, and they

often divide the outcomes into short-term outcomes, long-term outcomes, and impacts

[ CITATION Hol11 \l 1033 ]. A theory of change drives these models just as it does the others.

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But in an outcomes approach logic model, the emphasis is on examining the outcomes and

making the case that the program or policy is responsible for the desired outcomes.

An example of an outcome logic model would be:

Activities Outputs Outcomes

Inputs Impact

Activities Outputs Outcomes

Impact
Inputs

Activities Outputs Outcomes

Planned work Intended results

4.1.2 Activities Approach

Pays attention to the specifics of the implementation process, linking the various planned

activities together in a manner that maps the process of programme implementation. Activities

approach models focus on laying out the specific strategies and activities associated with a

program. These models closely examine the relationship among the activities, considering

sequence and timing of implementation, as well as how the activities link to outcomes

[ CITATION Fra16 \l 1033 ]. This type of logic model is most useful in program

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implementation, monitoring, and management. In this type of model, relationships among

variables are made explicit with arrows, concentric circles, and other graphic representations of

relationships.

An example of an activities logic model would be:

Deliverable –
Milestone Aim/
Objective
Activities

Milestone

Activities Outcomes

Milestone

Activities Outcomes

Milestone Outputs

Activities
Outcomes

Outcomes

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5.0 Conclusion

Developing appropriate and measurable indicators during the planning phase is the key to a

sound evaluation. Early identification of indicators allows the program manager/team to learn

what baseline data already may be available to help evaluate the project, or to design a process to

collect baseline data before the program is initiated. The logic model is useful for identifying

elements of the program that are most likely to yield useful evaluation data, and to identify an

appropriate sequence for collecting data and measuring progress. In most cases, however, more

work on a project will be required before indicators are finalized. Outcome indicators to measure

learning should be based on specific learner objectives that are described as part of the

curriculum. Indicators to measure behavioral change should specify which behaviors are targeted

by the program. Conditional indicators may require a significant investment of time to link

medium-term outcomes to expected long-term outcomes through the application of a targeted

study or relevant research base.

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Jeanatte, C. A. (2018). Role of Theories of change and programme logic models in policy
evaluation.
McLaughlin, A. J., & Jordan, G. B. (2015). Using Logic Models- Handbook of Practical
Program Evaluation.
Midlands, & Lancashire. (2016). Using Logic Models in Evaluation. NHS.
Savaya, R., & Waysman, M. (2005). The Logic Model: A Tool for Incorporating Theory in
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Shakman, K., & Rodriguez, S. (2015). Logic Models for Program Design, Implementation, and
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Uwizeyimana, E. D. (2020). The logframe as a monitoring and evaluation tool for government
interventions in a chaotic and complex environment. Africa's Public Service delivery and
Programme Review.

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