3/25/2021 Troubleshooting & Repair Guide

Elliott Sound Products Troubleshooting & Repair Guide

Troubleshooting & Repair Guide
© 2003 - Rod Elliott (ESP)
Page Created 24 Apr 2003
Updated May 2011 - Added Figure 1A & Text

Articles Index
Main Index

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Common Problems
2.1 Bad Solder Joints
2.2 Incorrect Components
2.3 Oscillation
2.4 Schematic Errors
3.0 Troubleshooting Tools
3.1 Multimeter(s)
3.2 Signal Source
3.3 Oscilloscope
3.4 Dummy Load
3.5 Power Supply
4.0 Most Common Failures
4.1 Shorted Supplies
4.2 Output Stuck to Supply
4.3 Distortion
4.4 Spontaneous Failure
5.0 Voltage Measurements
5.1 General Principles
5.2 Example
5.3 Summary
6.0 Component Testing
6.1 Transistor Quick Test
6.2 Other Components
7.0 Opamp Tests
8.0 Earthing (Grounding)
9.0 Removing Dead Components
10.0 Testing
10.1 Power Up
10.2 Voltage Checks
10.3 First Power Test
10.4 Final Test
11.0 Preamplifier Tests
12.0 Terminology
13.0 Conclusions
Part 2 (Opamp Circuits)

1.0 Introduction

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Having finished your masterpiece, it is with some distress that you find that it doesn't work.
Such failures range from instantaneous meltdown upon power-up (remember the safety
resistors I always suggest? Now you know why!), through to strange noises, intermittent
behaviour, etc., etc.

It is not possible to write an article that covers every possibility, but hopefully the material
presented here will get you underway with as little pain as possible.

One of the points I have made in a number of places on my site is that if the project does
not work, you have almost certainly made a mistake. While I will usually do what I can to
help you to get the project working, there is only so much I can do, and it is your
responsibility (not mine) to find out what you did wrong.

Since basic troubleshooting techniques are not widely known - or so it seems, I get a great
many requests for help, and have to try to diagnose what went wrong from the description I
am given. It almost goes without saying that many of the descriptions leave me wondering
what I am being asked. This is not to blame the person asking, but shows that even
terminology can be very misleading. There is a huge difference between 'hum' and 'buzz',
but if you don't realise that, then I have to either figure out the most likely (correct) term from
the description, or ask.

This information should be read in conjunction with the Amplifier Design and How Amps
Work articles, and you will need a copy of the amplifier's circuit diagram (schematic) as
reference. I have been very general in this description, since there are a great many
amplifier designs both on my site and elsewhere, and if the descriptions were specific to
only one design, you may have great difficulty when working on something different.

To be excellent at fault finding, you need to understand how the circuit works - this allows
you to make informed decisions, to know what to look for (and where), and to recognise
instantly if a voltage reading is right or wrong. I never said that this was simple!

I have made one major assumption in this article - the forward voltage drop of a diode (or a
transistor junction) is nominally 650mV (0.65V), but it can vary by a considerable margin. In
most descriptions that follow, I will assume 650mV, but expect to see anywhere between
0.55V to 0.75V, depending on type, current, etc.

2.0 Common Problems

There are quite a few common issues that you will be faced with from time to time. If one
channel of a stereo project works and the other does not, this makes fault finding a lot
easier, since you have a reference that you can use. This applies to voltage readings,
resistance measurements, etc., and also eliminates some of the more common errors - for
example leaving the zero volt return line off when the amp is wired into circuit. (If you do
that, neither channel will work.)

Having said that, with any of the PCB projects on The Audio Pages, if it does not work, then
you have made a mistake. There are some occasions where new components are faulty or
incorrectly marked, but other than fake power transistors these are very rare. You do need
to be aware that new components can be faulty, but in general, suspect your own work first.

The following basic guides indicate some of the most common project failures ...

2.1 Bad Solder Joints

When completed, a solder joint should be clean, shiny, and show a perfect adhesion to both
the component lead and the PCB. If there is any sign of the solder being 'frosty', sitting on
the PCB as a 'blob', or not flowing up the component lead in a nice smooth arc, then the
solder joint is incorrectly made. It may appear to work, but the contact is/may be pressure
based, rather than alloy based as it should be (solder forms an 'alloy', or molecular metal
bond between the solder, component lead and PCB). For an excellent tutorial on basic
techniques (and what not to do), see www.epemag.wimborne.co.uk/solderfaq.htm. There

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are a great many such sites on the web, and a web search for 'soldering techniques' will find
you a broad cross section for reference.

The most important thing about making an excellent (as opposed to disgusting or barely ok)
solder joint is cleanliness! The component leads, PCB and soldering tip must be completely
free from any contamination - burnt flux, melted plastic, oxides, old solder, etc. must be
removed. Make sure that the component cannot move as the solder cools, and ensure that
your soldering iron (or station) can supply the right amount of heat. To much heat will burn
the flux (and even the solder itself!) and may damage the component. Too little heat makes
a 'cold' (aka 'dry') joint, where the solder just sits in blobs but does not make a metallic
bond.

2.2 Incorrect Components

All components must be inserted in the correct place, as shown on the PCB overlay and/or
other instructions. While this may seem obvious, it is the most common form of 'component
failure' - the component is not faulty per se, but if it is in the wrong place it will affect the
operation of the circuit. This is made worse by the fact that many components use 'strange'
markings, and it is not always easy to figure out what the value is supposed to be.

With resistors, unless you know the colour code very well, it is a good idea to measure all
colour coded resistors before insertion. This is especially true with 1% 4-band codes, as
they can be very confusing - even for professionals! There is some information about basic
components, markings, etc., in the articles section of this site (see Articles). This is not
comprehensive, and cannot be - there are just too many different devices available to cover
them all.

Always, always, make sure that you download the manufacturers data sheet for transistors,
ICs etc. It is not uncommon that suppliers will substitute brand name parts with 'equivalents'
- these may (or may not) be as good as the original, but they may also have different
pinouts. The only way to know for sure is to get the data sheet from the company who
actually made the device you have - this applies mainly to semiconductors, but also may be
of concern for relays, some electrolytic capacitors (especially power supply filter caps), and
other components as well. For semiconductors, most will be fine, but expensive power
output transistors are regularly counterfeit! See Counterfeit Transistors for more information
on this topic.

Occasionally, you will get a brand new, brand name component that is faulty. Irritating? Of
course it is, but also inevitable. This is where you really do need to hone your fault finding
skills, since it is clearly not the result of a mistake on your part. These faults can be difficult
to find, and require a disciplined approach to troubleshooting to repair.

2.3 Oscillation
The Zobel resistor in most amps is at the output, and is in series with a cap - typically
100nF, but this varies. If the resistor goes up in smoke and/or the amp gets hot fast, either
the amp is oscillating, or you are trying to amplify too high a frequency.

Oscillation is caused by using the wrong value compensation cap (typically between 47 and
220pF), or (and more likely) having input wiring too close to speaker wiring. Input cables to
power amps should always be shielded, and kept as far away as possible from DC power
leads, mains transformers and wiring, speaker leads and connectors, etc. In some cases, it
may be necessary to provide shielding between the input circuits and power amp.

During testing, the heatsink may not be earthed to the power supply common. In some
cases, this can cause oscillation because the heatsink acts as an antenna - as does the
input lead if it is not shielded. Always earth the heatsink - even for just a quick test.

Speaking of heatsinks, never operate any power amplifier without its heatsink. The devices
can overheat very quickly, and are easily damaged by the excess temperatures. A small
clamp may be used to attach a temporary heatsink if you are in that much of a hurry, but
make sure that you monitor temperatures carefully.

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2.3 Schematic/ PCB Errors

I am pleased to be able to say that there are few (if any) schematic errors on The Audio
Pages. This is not always the case however, and there are many errors to be found in
schematics on the Web (some circuits published won't work at all, or will stress all
components way beyond their ratings), and even established and normally reliable
magazines can (and do) make mistakes. Sometimes these mistakes will prevent a circuit
from working at all, so be warned.

While there may be the occasional PCB error in some of the project PCBs, the error is
clearly explained in the construction notes, and will usually only be minor - major mistakes
require the artwork to be re-done (which is expensive), but few ESP circuit boards require
any modification - track errors are fixed, usually when the next PCB revision is done.
Where any error exists, the remedy will be shown in the construction article.

It goes without saying that if you do find a mistake in any of the ESP projects (PCB,
schematic or construction details), then please let me know - this is the main reason that
there are so few - people do let me know, and I appreciate the feedback. If you find a
mistake in someone else's project however, I don't want to know - tell the author - not me.

3.0 Troubleshooting Tools

3.1 Multimeter - To be able to do even the most basic fault finding, you will need at the
very least a multimeter, and preferably two. Most people prefer digital meters, but if you
know how to use an analogue meter you may find things that a digital will miss.

You need to be able to measure ...

Volts, both AC and DC, from a few millivolts to 100V (or more)
Amps, DC only is sufficient, but preferably up to at least 2A
Ohms, from less than 1 ohm up to 10 Megohms
Other functions (transistor tests, capacitance, frequency) are useful, but not essential

3.2 Signal Source - You also need a signal source. While a walkperson (for example) is
useful, it is not a good source of proper test signals, and is therefore limited. There are
several PC based audio oscillators available on the Web, and these are fine (if a little
inconvenient). Ideally, an audio oscillator should be used, see the Projects Pages for details
of test gear you can make quite cheaply.

3.3 Oscilloscope - For some tests, an oscilloscope is almost essential. While few
hobbyists can justify the purchase of such an expensive piece of test gear, for many
professionals the CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) or 'scope, is the first thing that is
attached to anything that does not work. Again, there are many PC programs that allow you
to use your computer as a basic oscilloscope. By nature, most soundcards are limited to
20kHz upper frequency, so such PC based tools will not find all problems.

Warning: An oscilloscope cannot be used in the same way as a multimeter

(unless a self contained hand-held unit is used), since one probe terminal is
connected to the chassis, and thence to mains safety earth. Never, ever
disconnect the safety earth from an oscilloscope - this is an invitation to disaster,
death and/or destruction of something or someone, at some time. This is an
extremely dangerous practice.

3.4 Load - A 'dummy load', usually a high powered resistor or bank of resistors, and ideally
switchable to 4 or 8 ohms. This enables you to perform full power tests without the noise,
and if a fault develops, the load just gets hot, but your speakers do not get fried. If desired,
you can have a 47 ohm 10W resistor from each terminal of your load to an external speaker,
so you can monitor the output signal.

A load resistor bank can also be immersed in oil (light engine oil is fine) or water if you have
a lot of power to dissipate. Water is the best for removing heat, but may cause corrosion if
used with DC. Do not use glycol based coolant (car engine coolant). It is quite conductive,
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and forms very nasty corrosion - especially with DC. Your dummy load should be able to be
used to test power supplies, and the DC will cause the resistor leads to be eaten away by
corrosion and electrolysis. I actually didn't expect problems with glycol, but it is useless for
dummy loads and must never be used. Light engine oil (clean) is my personal favourite,
and that's what I use to cool my load, which has been subjected to up to 1kW at times. I've
been using the same load for well over 30 years, and it has never failed.

3.5 Power Supply - A bench power supply is immensely useful, but possibly even more
useful is a variable voltage transformer ("Variac™"). This allows you to make any power
supply variable, and the amplifier voltage can be slowly increased while monitoring the
amplifier's output voltage (and supply current with your second multimeter). Another useful
test tool for those who cannot justify the expense (again, Variacs are not cheap) is a 'lamp
lead' - a standard light bulb (100W is usually about right), carefully wired in series with a
mains lead (and properly insulated!). An amp with a short circuit fault will cause the lamp to
glow at full brightness, but a normal load will cause the lamp to flash brightly for a moment,
then settle down to a steady dull glow.

One of the most essential power supply tools is a pair of 10 Watt resistors, between 10 and
22 ohms (or as suggested in the project article). These must be used in series with the
supply leads before applying power, and limit the current to a (hopefully) safe value,
especially when used in conjunction with a Variac or lamp lead.

Now that you have the fault finding tools, we can continue on to making some actual
measurements.

4.0 Most Common Failures

This is the part where it all comes together. The first thing to do when you know an amp is
faulty, is to determine the exact nature of the fault. Does it short out the supply (safety
resistors get hot), or does the output swing to one rail or the other and refuse to leave?
Perhaps it seems to be alright, but is badly distorted. Make sure that you identify the fault
completely - there is no point chasing a fault that was incorrectly diagnosed!

4.1 Shorted Supplies

First, let's look at a 'shorted' supply. This is most commonly caused by shorted output or
driver transistor(s), but may also be the result of any of the following ...

Incorrectly installed transistors - PNP instead of NPN (or vice versa), either as drivers
or output devices
Shorts between transistor case and heatsink, due to a punctured mica washer
Open circuit bias servo circuit. The bias servo is the transistor and pot that generates
the bias voltage needed to keep the transistors conducting at just the right level to
avoid crossover ("notch") distortion. An incorrectly installed transistor, faulty (open
circuit, wrong value, or improperly adjusted) pot, dry solder joint or broken track can all
cause the output transistors to turn on fully when power is applied. In some designs,
the bias 'servo' is simply two or more diodes, and may also have a series resistor.
Solder bridges between tracks or component pads.

The first thing to determine is if the short is 'hard' or 'soft'. A hard short will show up as a
very low resistance between the supply rails (less than 1 ohm), when measured with a
multimeter with no power applied. Hard shorts always indicate either blown transistors,
solder bridges or punctured mica washers. If you are lucky, it will be either of the second
two, but don't get your hopes up. Hard shorts are unusual in an amp that has just been built
and is being tested for the first time (using the safety resistors!).

A soft short is identified by the fact that a resistance measurement between the supply rails
to each other, the output and earth (ground) does not show a very low resistance (less than
(say) 650 ohms or so). Resistance readings of around 600-700 ohms are possible in one
direction (this is actually a voltage, and is developed across diode junctions either on real
diodes, or within the junctions of transistors). Resistance may be the same or much higher
in the other direction - swap the meter leads for all such tests so you measure with both
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polarities. You almost certainly have a component (power transistor or driver) installed
incorrectly if you get a soft short, but a faulty bias servo will create the same effect.

If you can vary the voltage, determine the voltage where the soft short comes into play. It is
very rare for soft shorts to be present at extremely low voltages (less than +/-1 or 2 Volts),
but if it is, then something is installed incorrectly.

See Component Tests (below). These techniques will isolate 99% of all soft short problems.

4.2 Output Stuck to Supply

When the output voltage 'sticks' to one supply or the other, there are (as always) several
possibilities. In order of likelihood, these are as follows ...

Incorrectly installed components

Solder bridges between tracks or component pads.
Dry (or cold) solder joint(s)
No earth return between amplifier and power supply
Broken tracks
Faulty transistor(s)

If one output or driver transistor is shorted, this does not cause rail sticking, it causes a soft
short. Rail sticking can be the result of an open circuit transistor, possibly in conjunction
with its opposite being shorted. These faults can be found with a multimeter (as described
above). It is important to eliminate blown devices early, or you will spend a lot of time trying
to find the problem in the wrong place. A common error is to leave off (or forget) the power
supply earth return - this gives a similar effect to supply rail sticking, but it usually happens
slowly (several hundred milliseconds to several minutes)

A stuck rail can be caused by any of the following faults closer to the input ...

Open circuit feedback resistor (or track)

Open circuit (or simply non conducting) class-a driver transistor
Open circuit (or simply non conducting) current source/sink transistor
Open circuit bootstrap resistor chain
Solder bridges between tracks or component pads.
Incorrectly installed transistors, diodes, LEDs, etc. (As always, and anywhere)
Non-functional long tailed pair input circuit/ error amplifier.

Again, the hard part is finding the fault, and this is where the next section will be useful. The
most common problem by far is still incorrect components, but when a visual check fails to
find the problem, then you need to measure voltages.

4.3 Distortion
Distortion comes in many flavours, but may be roughly categorised as 'gross' or 'subtle'.
Both are in reality gross, but from a testing perspective it is essential to separate the two
somehow. I would consider gross distortion as being a state where only half of the signal is
reproduced. From a listening perspective, this is way beyond mere gross - it is totally
unlistenable! 'Subtle' distortion is also unlistenable, but some people don't notice it (true).

Should only half the signal be reproduced (or a small amount of one polarity and the full
amount of the other), then you almost certainly have an open circuit somewhere in the
driver or output stage. It may be an open transistor (rare) but is more likely to be ...

A bad solder joint, leaving part of the output stage inoperable

Incorrectly installed components (as always)
A fault in the Class-A driver circuit, such that there is insufficient current to drive one
output or the other

This is where an oscilloscope is almost essential - faults of this nature are very hard to
diagnose if you can't see the waveform. The above fault list will help you to solve most
gross distortion problems relatively easily.

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Subtle distortion is more insidious, as there are several possibilities. Again, very difficult to
determine without an oscilloscope, but voltage measurements will isolate some of the more
likely issues. The things to look for are ...

Incorrectly set quiescent (idle or bias) current

Faulty or shorted bias servo
Solder bridges between tracks or component pads.
Parasitic oscillation

The first three are easy enough to test, requiring only a multimeter. A few measurements
will isolate the problem fairly quickly, and all should be well.

Parasitic oscillation is a lot harder, and usually needs an oscilloscope. I can say with
confidence that the designs on the ESP website will be free from parasitic oscillation
provided that all normal precautions against continuous oscillation are taken - earthed
heatsink, shielded input leads (separated from output or DC wiring), and input connectors a
sensible distance from output connectors (or shielded by an earthed metal cover).

Also, make sure that bypass capacitors are fitted as required, and keep DC supply lines as
short as possible. Distortion tests will almost always require a load to show up. While a
small amount of distortion may be visible with no load, most will reveal themselves either
fully or partially with as little loading as 20 ohms or more at the speaker output.

4.4 Spontaneous Failure

The amplifier has been working for some time (from minutes to weeks) then fails. You have
eliminated nearly all of the potential construction faults, since the amplifier has shown that it
does (or did) work. Unfortunately, this does not make your job any easier.

One of the most common problems in the case of spontaneous failure is counterfeit power
transistors. See the article Counterfeit Transistors for more information on this topic. Other
things to look for are ...

Infant Mortality - the term usually used to describe components that fail a short time
after a device is first used. Most common failures are semiconductors - specifically
transistors or ICs, but other components may be affected as well (electrolytic
capacitors - rare but it happens, diodes, zeners, etc.) Infant mortality failures are not
as uncommon as you may hope for, but are still comparatively rare. This is completely
normal (albeit very irritating).
Dry solder joints - seemed Ok when first tested, but failed after use (not uncommon!)
Excessive supply voltage, causing component stress
Inadequate heatsinking, allowing components to overheat
Incorrectly set bias current (too high), causing overheating
Incorrectly mounted power transistors, with inadequate thermal contact to the heatsink
Short circuited outputs, usually the result of inadequate (or no) insulation, or changing
speaker leads around with the amp on and with a signal present - not recommended,
even if an amp has short circuit protection

Since most cases of spontaneous failure result in shorted power transistors, these are
usually easily found with a multimeter. The amp's fuse(s) may blow, but transistors (aka '3-
legged fuses') are much faster than any conventional fuse :-( If a fuse blows, apply proper
testing procedures (look for shorts, etc) rather than replace the fuse and hope that all will be
well. This rarely happens, but additional damage (and to more components) is common.

For all projects on The Audio Pages, there are quite specific absolute maximum supply
voltages, and minimum specified load impedances (which may vary with applied voltage). It
is extremely important that this information is adhered to, or individual device ratings may be
exceeded, resulting in premature failure. None of the project amps is designed to work with
a 2 ohm load, and simply adding parallel output transistors (for example) just makes the
driver transistor subject to failure, and having failed, it will nearly always result in output
device failure as well.

It is worth noting that the principle failure mode for a BJT is short circuit.
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Open circuit devices will be found, but this occurs when another device
shorts, and the internal bonding wires then fuse. The device then measures
as open circuit, but the die (the silicon 'chip' inside the transistor) has failed
short circuit. External fuses are not intended to protect the transistors - they
are there to prevent catastrophic failures (including fire) should an output
device fail.

When one or more output devices fail, it is usually a good idea to replace all output and
driver devices, even though they may seem to be alright. It is almost certain that they have
been stressed, and may be more prone to failure at some later date. In some cases, an
output stage fault can also damage the Class-A driver (and/or the current sink, if used).
This rarely affects the input stage, which normally survives even the most destructive
failure. Note that in some cases the fault current can be so high as to open-circuit the
emitter resistors (usually not all, but one or two can fail). Always check these if an amp
fails, preferably after you have removed the power transistors and drivers.

Unless the failure can be positively attributed to counterfeit transistors (which will fail at
much lower power levels than the genuine device), try to determine exactly what went
wrong before re-commissioning the amplifier. Check speaker leads, supply voltages and
speaker impedance - something caused the amp to fail, and it is better fixed than allow it to
happen again.

5.0 Voltage Measurements

Voltage measurements must be done with the greatest of care. A simple and cheap fault
can easily turn into a complex expensive one with just the slip of a probe!

In keeping with the general nature of this article, I will not refer to any specific voltages until
a little later, but will rather give an overview of what to look for. At this point, a good
understanding of the basics of transistor operation is expected and necessary, otherwise
you will not be able to understand what you are seeing on you meter or oscilloscope.

Always measure your supply voltages first !

Countless man-hours (person-hours?) have been wasted trying to locate 'bizarre' faults,
when all that has happened is that the supply voltage(s) are either not present or are
incorrect. This is the very first voltage measurement you should make - always !

5.1 General Principles

In the most general of terms, with any bipolar transistor (FETs and MOSFETs are
completely different!), there should be about 600-700mV measured between the emitter and
base, and in linear circuits (such as conventional amplifiers) there will be some higher
voltage of the same polarity between emitter and collector as that between base and
emitter. For example, on a PNP transistor, with the red meter lead to the emitter, there will
be around -650mV between emitter and base, and anything from (negative) a few volts to
several tens of volts between emitter and collector.

An oscilloscope will show perhaps almost no AC voltage at all on the base, but a large AC
signal on the collector - this is usually quite normal. The DC voltage readings will tell you if
the transistor is correctly biased, and therefore able to do its job. A voltage of 650mV
between emitter and base, but full supply voltage on the collector is not necessarily wrong -
you must read the voltage with reference to the circuit diagram.

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Figure 1 - Amplifier Input Stage

5.2 Example
Let's assume for a moment that you have a conventional NPN long-tailed pair for the input
circuit (Q1 and 2, Fig 1). The emitters are tied together, with perhaps small resistance
values in series with each emitter in some designs. The voltage at the bases will probably
be a few millivolts negative, and the emitter to base voltage should be around 650mV. The
collectors will be at almost the full supply voltage in most circuits (there are exceptions
though). If you were to see that the output was stuck to one of the supply rails, then that will
upset the long-tailed pair, and all voltages will be wrong. This could mean that one of the
long-tailed pair transistors is faulty, but maybe not!

This is where you need to play detective, to ascertain why the output is stuck to the supply
rail (having eliminated all the previous fault types - incorrect components, bad solder joints,
etc.). The next device to test is the class-a driver (Q5). Check the emitter-base voltage,
and make sure that it is around 650mV. If that is correct, then the collector should be at
close to zero volts, but it won't be. Instead, you may find that it is sitting at (or near) one
supply rail voltage. Look at the circuit - the class-a driver is PNP (using the previous
example) and the collector is at full positive supply, that means that the transistor is fully
turned on ... why? Or is it?

The next step is to look at the current sources (Q3 and Q4). Between the emitter and base
of each there should be 650mV or thereabouts, and the current through each is easily
determined. Measure the voltage across each emitter resistor - it should be about ...
650mV (can you see why this would be so? The answer is a little further down this page -
section 5.3). The current is equal to V/R so if the emitter resistor is (say) 100 ohms, then
the current should be 0.65/100 = 6.5mA (close enough).

The collector of Q3 should be at around -700mV, and that of Q4 at around zero volts. If this
is the case then the amp should be working. Assume that the collector of Q5 is almost the
full supply voltage, and likewise that of Q4 - there are either of two possibilities - Q5 is
shorted (or turned on fully), or it has no collector current. The job of Q5 is to pull the output
high as it turns on, and let it swing low when it turns off, but if Q4 were supplying no current,
then the output will swing high. The input stage will try to turn Q5 off, but will become
unbalanced by the voltage at the feedback input. This will make the circuit inoperable until
the fault is located - this is your mission, should you choose to accept it, of course ;-)

So, Q5 has full positive supply at its collector, give or take a volt or so (not important at this
stage). The collector voltage at Q4 should be about the same, and the current should be
about 6.5mA, but wait! If everything were working as it should, the amp would be functional,
so there is something amiss - but we knew that already. What is the voltage at Q4's
collector? Is the voltage across Q4's emitter resistor 0.65V as it should be?

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If the collector voltage is near the negative supply rail, or the emitter voltage is a lot lower
than 0.65V, then Q4 is open circuit at the collector - this is not a common failure mode for a
bipolar transistor, so it is likely that there is a bad solder joint at the collector of Q4 (or
perhaps a hairline crack on the PCB). If the collector voltage were at close to positive
supply, then the emitter resistor could be open - probably a bad solder joint, as resistors
rarely go open without a lot of smoke and fuss. Check the value carefully - was a 100k
resistor inserted by mistake?

Figure 1A - Amplifier Example (P101)

Figure 1A shows an example, in this case based on P101. The only difference between this
and any other amp is the MOSFETs, but the basic principles are identical. You need a
multimeter and Ohm's law, and very little else to monitor and verify the voltages and
currents that should exist in virtually any amplifier design, regardless of topology.

Let's look at the schematic above. Voltages are shown for each major point on the circuit,
and from those voltages we can work out the current through resistors and many of the
transistors. As an example, R5 is 47k and R6 is 560 ohms. There is 0.65V across R6,
therefore ...

R6 current = V / R = 0.65 / 560 = 1.16mA

Q1 current = R6 current / 2 (the transistors are supposed to draw 1/2 the current each)
= 0.58mA
R5 current = V / R5 = 56 / 47k = 1.2mA

Why didn't I subtract the 1.3V from the power supply voltage? There is an obvious error, but
it's important to realise that the exact value is unimportant. What matters is that the
voltages, currents and resistances make sense. This applies to every part of the circuit, and
there is one thing of which you can be certain ...

If the output voltage is not close to zero, all other voltages are likely to be wrong!
If the output voltage is close to zero, then the amp should be working, but only if it
has power.

For this reason, I generally never bother to show voltages at various parts of any circuit,
because the voltages will only be correct when the circuit is working properly. It would be

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silly for me to try to give voltage readings for every possible fault scenario, and the
information would be completely useless to you anyway.

Most of the time, you can analyse the circuit and calculate the likely voltages that should
appear at various points. They do not need to be accurate, but they must make sense. It
doesn't make sense if the base-emitter voltage of a transistor measures 15V - that
immediately indicates that the transistor is either the wrong type, is inserted incorrectly, or is
faulty. Double check the datasheet, then replace it with a new one of the correct type! If you
suspect that a transistor has been inserted the wrong way around, once power has been
applied to the circuit you've probably damaged the device. Do not reuse damaged devices -
there's a place for them - the rubbish bin.

Circuit analysis for servicing is not a simple task, but if you apply logic and basic principles
you have a good chance that you'll find the problem. Sending me an email saying "It
doesn't work." is pointless - I don't know why it doesn't work, and a single symptom can
have a multitude of possible causes. Most of the time, voltage readings are of no help
either, because they are often taken the wrong way. Look at how the voltages are shown
above.

The voltage across R6 is 0.65V, not 55.35V. The latter reading is pointless, because the
supply voltage will vary as you take a reading, and the reading will probably be so far in
error that it's unusable. Many other readings are taken the same way. Needless to say, you
must take great care when readings are referred to the supply rail(s), because a slip of a
probe can easily cause much greater problems than you started with.

5.3 Summary
The purpose of this exercise was to demonstrate the general processes of elimination that
should be used to locate the type and nature of a fault, and then it can be easily corrected.
It is not possible to cover every possibility here, even with the simple circuits shown, but by
carefully measuring the voltages you will be able to track down the most likely cause,
without having to rebuild the whole circuit!

The answer to the little riddle for Figure 1 above ... There must be about 650mV across the
emitter resistor of the current sink because there are two diodes in series. D1 balances out
(or 'cancels') the emitter-base voltages of both Q3 and Q4 - also 650mV. Whatever voltage
exists across D2 (and we know it must be 650mV), must also appear across the emitter
resistors. It really is that simple, but it may take a bit more experience before you see it
clearly.

A useful thing to remember about transistors - if it gets hot, it is working (or trying to).
Looking at Figure 1 again, if Q4 gets hot and Q5 is dead cold, then Q5 is probably the faulty
device - not Q4 as you may think at first.

These guidelines are as far as I can take you in a basic article. The ability to think logically
and methodically and to work your way through the circuit is essential. Blindly measuring
voltages without understanding what they mean in context will not reveal an answer, but if
you can go about the task as outlined here you'll learn a great deal more than you might
have expected.

6.0 Component Testing

Transistors can be tested for basic functionality with a multimeter. If you use an analogue
meter, be aware that when on the ohms range, the red probe is negative. Digital meters
retain the 'correct' polarity. A BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) can be thought of in terms of
two diodes, as shown in Fig. 2. As with any diode, they should conduct in one direction, but
not in the other. All BJTs may be tested this way, revealing open circuit, leaky or shorted
junctions. The test tells you nothing about gain, voltage breakdown, or anything else, only
that the device is likely to be functional.

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Figure 2 - Basic Transistor Test Model

6.1 Transistor Quick Check

Check in both directions with your multimeter between the base and emitter/collector of
each power and driver transistor. An NPN transistor will show a 'resistance' of 600-700mV
(shown as ohms, but is actually voltage with 99% of digital meters) with the positive (red)
lead of a digital meter connected to the base, and the black lead on emitter and collector.
Reverse red and black and measure again - in some cases, one connection may still show
600-700mV because of a connected power or driver transistor - this is normal.

By using this method, the proper conduction of each diode can be checked - as with any
diode, the forward voltage drop is around 650mV (which as explained above shows on most
digital multimeters as 0.65k ohms), and the reverse bias condition should show infinity(keep
your fingers away though). In-circuit tests can also be done like this, but the results may be
misleading because of other devices in the circuit.

In case you were wondering (and you are by no means the first to do so), you cannot use
two ordinary diodes wired as shown as a transistor. Transistor operation relies on the
junction between the 'diodes' (hence bipolar junction transistor).

6.2 Other Components

Resistors should read their correct value, but again, in-circuit tests can be misleading. All
diodes should show proper conduction and blocking as the probes are switched from one
end to another. This is not a useful test for LEDs or zener diodes, but at least you will know
if it is open or short circuit.

Capacitors really need a capacitance meter (as well as an ESR [Equivalent Series
Resistance] meter) to test properly, but you can still get a fair idea with a multimeter. Shorts
are uncommon in film caps, but can occur, although in most projects this is highly unlikely.
Electrolytics should show a low resistance at first, which will rise as the cap charges.
Reverse the leads and make sure that the cap discharges (expect to see silly resistance
values at first), and charges up again. Low voltage reverse polarity will not harm electros.

Most other components (transformers, connectors, wiring) need only to be checked for
continuity, and that all wiring is connected to the proper place. Verify that voltage actually
goes somewhere - an open circuit or dry solder joint will show up as voltage present at one
point, but not at another that is meant to be directly connected. This can be especially true
of a printed circuit board that has been damaged. A broken track may be invisible, but it will
still be an open circuit for the voltages that are normally present.

7.0 Opamp Circuits

There is not much that can go wrong with an opamp circuit. Most linear circuits (as used in
preamps) have one thing in common - the two inputs should be at almost exactly the same
voltage, and so should the output. The most common problem is oscillation - especially with
very fast opamps. The ESP boards are designed so that bypass capacitors are as close as
possible to the opamps, and there is also additional filtering using small electrolytics.

It is still possible to make an opamp circuit oscillate though, so sensible precautions should
be taken - keep inputs and outputs shielded and apart, and always use a 100 ohm resistor
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in series with the output of any opamp that connects to a cable - regardless of length.

Other problems can occur, but normally they will be the result of bad solder joints (as
always), damaged PCB or incorrectly installed components. All ESP boards will function
first time, every time if assembled according to the instructions, but if yours doesn't, then
there is a mistake in the component placement, or the opamp is faulty. Yes, opamps can be
faulty from new - it doesn't happen very often, but it does happen.

As with power amps, leaving off (accidentally or otherwise) the power supply earth (zero
volt) line is quite a common 'fault'. A +/- supply means that the earth (or ground) lead is
required - it is not optional!

8.0 Earthing (Grounding)

This is the area where it all goes to pieces. Hum or buzz is the usual symptom, but
unfortunately, there are no fixed rules that can be applied in all cases to cure the problem.

The distinction between a 'hum' and a 'buzz' is extremely important! If you describe a noise
as a hum, then the expectation of anyone knowledgeable in the field will think "low
frequency, no (or few) harmonics". This describes the noise made by an earth loop - a
situation where two or more pieces of circuitry are joined by the mains safety earth lead and
the shield of an interconnect (for example), forming a loop. This can inject a very low
voltage (but sometimes surprisingly high current) into the loop, and the signal is picked up
by the inputs. You hear hum - a single low frequency tone.

"Buzz" has a sharp edge to it - there is usually a low frequency component, but it has a hard
sound that may even be audible in tweeters at times. Buzz is caused by any number of
things - input leads close to mains wiring, power transformer or bridge rectifier (and
associated wiring), bad or no earth connection, loops (they can cause buzz as well as hum),
the list is almost endless.

Sporadic oscillation in an amp can also create a buzz or hum in some cases - follow the
guidelines above to ensure that the amp is stable under all conditions - low level oscillation
can usually only be detected with an oscilloscope, but you may be able to detect it using an
RF 'detector' probe - see the projects page for a suitable example.

With any of these problems, it is almost impossible to give a standard 'fix'. The solution is
different in nearly every case, and sometimes the best result is obtained with an
arrangement that should not work at all. My normal approach is to keep lots of separation
of input cables from anything else, and for locating the optimum earth location, I use the
following methods ...

Make a 'soft' earth connection with a 10 ohm resistor, usually from the amp's input to a
convenient place on the chassis
Get an alligator clip lead, connected to the amp's input earth point, and probe likely
places for low noise - the star earth point for the filter caps, right next to the input
connectors, etc., until the quietest place is found. Just hope that it doesn't end up
being to some part of your anatomy or the cat :-)
Make the 'sweet spot' a solid connection, and do tests to determine if there is any
possible way to improve matters.

This method usually works well, and if you really do find the optimum location, you will need
another amplifier to be able to hear any noise. It should be possible to earth the end of the
input lead to any of your other equipment without adding noise, but there is a point where it
is fruitless to try to make it better.

If you have to put your ear right next to a speaker to hear anything, then from the listening
position it is effectively completely silent. Further improvements will not yield any audible
benefit.

A common mistake (and an excellent source of undesirable noises) is to

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take the DC from the rectifier. DC must always be taken from the filter caps,
and never from the rectifier. Those short leads will develop serious noises
when the amp draws current, and may create a background 'haze' that is
audible as a background noise from the amp - but only when it is playing!
This is very insidious, since the amp seems dead quiet with no signal. An
oscilloscope and/or distortion meter is essential for locating problems of this
type.

9.0 Removing Dead Components

Once you have determined that a component is dead (or is probably dead), you need to
remove it from the PCB. Never attempt to just heat the leads and prise them from the
board, and resist the temptation to use a solder sucker (or solder wick) to remove the solder
prior to prising the component out. This will nearly always result in damaged PCB pads and
tracks. It is far better to use a very slim cutter, and cut off the legs first. Cut as close to the
PCB surface as you can (for both component-side and copper side mounted parts - be
careful that the cutter does not damage the pad or track!), and then use a sucker or wick to
extract remaining solder and the remnant of component lead.

While desoldering, a clean soldering tip is just as important as when soldering. A clean
(and properly 'tinned') tip requires less heat and time than a dirty one, and therefore lessens
the chance of damage. In some cases, it may be necessary to apply a small amount of new
solder to an existing joint to facilitate desoldering - it is important to keep temperatures as
low as possible and make the desoldering activity as short as possible to prevent PCB
damage.

None of this will guarantee that you will not damage the board, but such damage is a lot
less likely. Should a pad be lifted while desoldering, do not rely on that pad when the
replacement component is resoldered. Instead, fold the component lead down flat against
the PCB, directly along the connected track (5mm or so is recommended). Carefully solder
the lead and track to make a solid connection - the pad is now almost irrelevant, but the
component is properly connected.

In the case where more than one track runs from a pad, make sure that the remaining
section of track is intact - use a multimeter!

Hairline cracks
Cracked copper traces (hairline cracks) caused by PCB damage are quite common, and are
very hard (sometimes almost impossible) to see. It is far easier to make a quick
measurement whilst doing the repair than to try to find the fault later.

The most common reason for PCB failures (lifted pads and tracks, hairline cracks, etc.) is
excessive heat and/or force. The copper is held onto the PCB laminate by an adhesive,
and there are very few adhesives that can withstand soldering temperatures for any length
of time. A damaged PCB can always be repaired using tinned copper wire soldered along
the faulty section of track and to the component lead(s), but future repairs will be more
difficult, and the result may be very untidy.

10.0 Testing

Once repairs are done, or at least thought to be done, the next step is to test the amp (or
preamp, etc) to make sure that everything is now working properly. There is a natural
tendency to want to hear it working immediately, but it is important that you resist the
temptation, lest you be showered with fire, brimstone, and capacitor guts.

Make sure that you have everything needed to hand - multimeters, signal source, dummy
load (for power amps), etc. In all cases, the first power-up should be done with a low
voltage, current limited supply (if available), or use safety resistors in series with the supply
leads. The idea is that since you have most likely replaced possibly expensive components,
it is preferable that they don't blow up because there is a secondary fault that you did not
find the first time.
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Such secondary faults are very common, and their destructive capabilities should never be
underestimated. By using limiting resistors and a Variac (or a 100W light globe wired in
series with the mains cable) the energy available is greatly reduced, and the chances of
(further) component damage are minimised.

For the remainder of this section, I have assumed a power amplifier, since they cause far
more grief than anything else. Before testing, make sure that all power transistor hold-down
screws are very firm - do not overtighten, but screws must exert sufficient pressure to
ensure that a small amount of heatsink compound is forced out around all transistors.

10.1 Power Up
Initially, do not connect your dummy load. Use alligator clip leads from your multimeter, and
connect to the supply rails (positive and negative). Any quiescent current setting pot should
be set for minimum current (see the original project article). If you use a Variac, advance
the voltage slowly and observe the voltage. Check the safety resistors for heat - they
should remain cool! Any heat (from anything) as the voltage is advanced is an indication
that something is amiss. Should you find heat do not advance the voltage further. Measure
the voltages before and after the safety resistors to determine the nature of the fault.

If you use the series light globe method, then initially, turn the power on for a brief period -
the lamp should flash brightly, then settle to a dull glow. When turned off again, the voltage
should decay relatively slowly (typically a few seconds) - if the lamp remains at full
brightness and the voltage collapses quickly, then there is a fault. The safety resistors will
probably be warm to hot.

If everything is ok, leave the amp on for a few minutes, and check everything for heat.
Some components are expected to get warm, but anything that causes you to exclaim
'RudeWord!' is an indicator that something is amiss. Refer back to the fault finding sections
of this page, and locate the fault. Any remaining fault calls an immediate halt to the test
process.

10.2 Voltage Checks

Having successfully reached this part, you should now verify that all voltages are normal.
The voltage across each safety resistor should be only a few millivolts to up to a volt or so,
depending on the amp design. The output voltage should be close to zero - as a rule of
thumb, any offset in excess of 100mV or so is excessive, but be aware that some amplifiers
may not be able to better this while the safety resistors are still installed (uncommon but
possible).

If the output voltage is at zero volts, and the supply rails are close to normal voltage, there is
a good chance that the amp will work. I don't suggest that you start shouting "Hurrah!" just
yet though (sorry ).

10.3 First Power Check

Making sure that your dummy load is set to 8 ohms (or more), connect it to the output (do
not disconnect the safety resistors!). Connect your signal source (output set to zero!), and
then slowly advance the level while monitoring the voltage at the amplifier side. Advance
the level until there is about 5V across each safety resistor. The voltages should be the
same across each resistor. Voltage across one but not the other indicates an open circuit
power stage. You may also use a speaker, with a series resistor of around 22 to 47 ohms.
If the sound is heavily distorted, then there is something wrong. Advance the level a little
more to determine if you are hearing crossover or 'rectification' distortion. If distortion
lessens as the signal level increases, then it is crossover distortion, and you have nothing to
worry about (the quiescent current is set to minimum, remember).

10.4 Final tests

Having verified basic functionality, at least to the best of your ability, just do a quick re-cap of
the tests ...

Supply voltage at amp terminals (with safety resistors) is within 1V of the voltage
across the filter caps

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Nothing gets hot - including safety resistors (slightly warm only)

Output voltage is within 100mV or so of zero volts (preferably less than 50mV)
A basic power test shows that both sides of the amp draw current, and a reasonable
signal is heard on a speaker.

You are now ready to test the amp at full power (but still use the Variac or light bulb lead for
safety). Disconnect the safety resistors, and replace any fuses you removed with the
correct value. You may leave the speaker connected with the series resistor - just in case.
Turn on the power (or wind up the Variac) - all voltages should come up to normal, but they
may be a little low if you use the 'lamp lead'. Check carefully for anything that may be hot
(or getting hot).

If all is well, adjust the quiescent current to about 1/2 the recommended value, inject a
signal, and verify that the amp sounds clean. Do not try to get full power if you still have the
lamp lead. Leave everything for at least 10 minutes, checking that bias (quiescent) current
remains stable, and that no components are too hot. Note that some devices do run quite
warm in many amps, but you should be able to hold all small/ medium transistors without
being burnt.

When you are satisfied that everything is working properly, switch off, remove the Variac or
lamp lead, and switch on. Double check the supply and output voltages, and apply a signal
- if you still have the series resistor in series with your speaker, you can advance the input
level until the sound becomes distorted (clipping).

Check all temperatures (again! I know this is tedious, but it is worth the effort). Set
quiescent current to the recommended value, using the method suggested in the project
article (this can vary considerably). Leave the amp to stabilise, monitoring temperatures -
transistors, resistors, heatsink. After the temperature has settled (typically about 15
minutes), verify the quiescent current, and adjust as needed.

Note: If the heatsink temperature continues to increase (and so does quiescent current),
you have a problem! Switch off immediately, and reduce the current setting. Do not apply
power until the heatsink cools (a fan will make this a lot faster). The amplifier may have a
thermal stability problem - verify that the bias transistor (if used) is mounted according to
instructions. Thermal runaway (as this problem is known) is usually the result of insufficient
thermal feedback. Consult the project designer for information on how to solve the problem.

Never use an amplifier while this problem persists - it will overheat and fail.

11.0 Preamplifier Tests

This is a very short section, since the range of tests on preamps is minimal - especially for
opamp designs. As always, an oscilloscope is very useful, but not everyone has the luxury
of ownership. As a result, other methods need to be found to enable you to track the signal
through the preamp, until the point where it disappears is found. This narrows down the
search area, and makes it a lot easier to find the problem.

First, check that the opamp outputs are at (or near) zero volts, and that you have +/-15V (or
whatever your supply voltage is supposed to be) at the supply pins. This is fairly obvious,
but when you are desperate, it is often overlooked. Also, make sure that the 0V (GND)
connection from the power supply is connected - this is a common error.

Then, apply a signal from a PC sound card, tuner or CD player, and use an old active PC
speaker as an audio probe (it must be an active speaker, with its own internal amplifier).
That way, you can check the signal level at the input, output of 1st opamp, etc. You need to
find where the signal stops, and you can do that easily by just following the signal path, and
monitoring the signal. Check for level, distortion, or anything else that may be amiss.

Remember that the PC-speaker input lead's shield must be connected to the ground
(common) of the preamp, and the centre wire is used to probe the circuit under test. These
speakers are low power, but I recommend that the level be adjusted so that you have a
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clean signal in the speaker. Never connect the PC-speaker input to the supply voltage(s),
as you may damage the internal amplifier. A 1k resistor in series with the signal lead is a
good idea.

In nearly all cases, there is a mistake somewhere, as all PCBs have been fully verified and
definitely work if wired properly. Faulty opamps are possible, but very rare. Because of the
ground-plane in some designs, there are a lot of very closely spaced tracks, and solder
bridges are easy to make.

This method can be used on almost any opamp based circuit, be it preamp, equaliser, or
whatever - however it is limited to audio frequency circuits for obvious reasons.

12.0 Terminology

There are all sorts of strange noises that electronics can make through loudspeakers, and
only a few are intentional. Clicks, pops, farts, hum, buzz, hiss, thumps - all have meaning,
but the meanings are sometimes confused (such as 'hum' and 'buzz'). I can't (and won't)
attempt to cover them all, but will go over some of the more important (and common) ones.

Hiss: The sound of an FM tuner that is not on a station, or the sound of air between your
teeth. The 'sss' sound in the letter ess. Those are all hiss - anything that does not sound
like one of those is not hiss. Some hiss is inevitable - all components make noise - even
cables, and the use of low noise components (especially opamps and resistors) will reduce,
but never eliminate, hiss.

Hum: As described above - a smooth, 50/60Hz low frequency, with no harshness or high
frequency energy at all.

Buzz: Any frequency, but usually 100 or 120Hz depending on your mains frequency. Buzz
has a harsh tonality, and is typical of rectifier noise, TV frame synchronisation noise (run a
signal lead behind the telly to hear that one), and general mains noise. Probably the
hardest to fix.

Crackle: Sometimes crackles can be caused by a faulty component (transistor, opamp,

etc.), and dry solder joints are also a good source of crackles, pops, farts, and other noises
of similar ilk. Occasionally (especially in valve equipment), crackles may be caused by the
valve itself, or a faulty capacitor. Usually easy enough to find, except crackles and pops
(etc.) almost never occur when test equipment is nearby - can be very sneaky. Try lightly
tapping the board and components with an insulated probe of some kind (a plastic
screwdriver handle works well), as many such noises are vibration sensitive.

Distortion: Extremely variable. A couple of the more common types are ...

Crossover (or 'notch') distortion sounds similar to tearing paper, and is only present
when there is a signal. It gets worse as the level is reduced. Severe crossover
distortion will allow an amplifier to stop reproducing anything other than signal peaks
at low volumes.
There are many other forms of distortion as well - 'rectification' distortion can occur if
only half the signal is reproduced, and is typical of open circuit power transistors,
faulty drivers or current sources. It is sometimes difficult to hear some forms of
distortion (such as that caused by an amplifier oscillating).

An oscilloscope is essential for detecting oscillation induced distortion - there is no other

way to see exactly what is happening to the signal.

Thump: A low frequency noise, often as power amps (in particular) are turned on or off.
This is usually a design issue, and most thumps are not of concern - unless you use an amp
that thumps to drive tweeters in a biamp or triamp setup! You will almost always need a
speaker delay relay to get rid of thumps, since the only real alternative is to redesign the
amp. Some opamp circuits also thump (or Crack!) as power is applied or removed. High

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speed opamps in the P09 electronic crossover is a prime example. Again, relays and a
delay circuit are the best solution.

Chirps: Some power amps (notably some otherwise excellent power opamps) emit a 'chirp
or bird-like noise as power is removed. Like thumps and cracks, this is a design issue that
is very difficult to prevent. If it really annoys you, then a loudspeaker mute relay is the only
real solution.

13.0 Conclusions

As stated right at the beginning, there are just too many possibilities to try to cover them all.
Nonetheless, I hope that this article helps you to debug your project, and allows you to
concentrate on listening to music. I doubt that there are many things more disheartening
than a shelved project that you just could not get to work properly.

As I find out more of the problems that people face, I will add to this article, and will try to
ensure that it is up to date with the latest and greatest faults. It is probable that the vast
majority have been covered here, but there is always a new one, or one I didn't think of at
the time of writing.

Should you go through the steps outlined for your particular problem, and still not find the
solution, then let me know - I will help you solve it if I possibly can.

Note that this only applies to ESP projects - if you found a circuit or project elsewhere, then
you must discuss it with the designer or publisher - not with me. I not only do not have the
time to discuss other people's designs, but have a distinct lack of inclination to do so.

Of all the issues I have discussed here, the most common problem of all is failure to follow
the instructions, and/or failure to place all components where they are supposed to be. I
would estimate that well over 90% of all faults are caused by incorrect component
placement - "I have checked and double checked" is a phrase I have seen in e-mails
countless times, but the problem still turns out to be wrongly installed parts. This must tell
you something ;-)

This is not to be taken as an insult to your intelligence by any means - everyone does it.
When one of my prototypes fails to work as expected, there are two possibilities ...

I made a mistake in the board layout

I installed something incorrectly

So far, incorrect components have accounted for maybe 60% or more of original failures - in
some cases because I goofed in the design phase, but mostly I just did what everyone else
does - put something in the wrong place.

If it helps at all, just remember ... "The person who makes no mistakes, makes nothing at all
!"

Troubleshooting - Part 2 (Opamp Circuits)

Articles Index
Main Index

Copyright Notice. This article, including but not limited to all text and diagrams, is the intellectual property of
Rod Elliott, and is Copyright © 2003. Reproduction or re-publication by any means whatsoever, whether
electronic, mechanical or electro-mechanical, is strictly prohibited under International Copyright laws. The
author (Rod Elliott) grants the reader the right to use this information for personal use only, and further allows
that one (1) copy may be made for reference. Commercial use is prohibited without express written
authorisation from Rod Elliott.
Page created and copyright (c) 24 Apr 2003./ Updated May 2011 - added Figure 1A and extra text.

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3/25/2021 Troubleshooting & Repair Guide

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