Lesson Two

THE LIFE OF THE APOSTLE PAUL

Introduction
Paul is a figure of monumental significance in Christian history and theology. Almost half of the books of
the New Testament are said to be written by him (thirteen out of twenty- seven), and more than half of the
book of Acts is devoted to recounting his exploits. He was responsible not only for expanding the Christian
movement numerically and geographically but also for extending it along ethnic lines (through the inclusion
of Gentiles). Evaluating all these and impact of his writings, a famed German church historian Adolf Von
Harnak states that Paul is the most influential figure of Christian faith and thinking after Jesus Christ.
He remains a towering figure of intellectual brilliance, regarded by secular and religious historians alike as
one of the greatest moral teachers of history and as the most influential Christian theologian who has ever
lived.

1. The Life of Paul

Paul alludes to various aspects of his life in key portions of his undisputed letters: Philippians 3:4–6 (his
upbringing); Galatians 1:13–17 (his calling); Galatians 1:18–2:14 (his trips to Jerusalem); 1 Thessalonians
2:1–12 (his ministry); 2 Corinthians 11:23–29 (his hardships). In addition, the book of Acts relates
numerous narratives of his life (7:58–8:3; 9:1–30; 11:25–30; 12:25–28:31) and presents speeches in which
he offers brief summaries of his own biography (see especially 22:1–21; 26:2–23).

a) Early Years in Judaism

Through Paul’s own account we know that he was born and brought up in a Jewish family (see Rom. 11:1; 2
Cor. 11:22; Gal. 1:13–14; Phil. 3:4–6). Though the exact date or circumstances of his birth is not known
Paul tells us that he was circumcised on the eighth day of his life, as was traditional among devout Jews. He
was born and raised as “a member of the people of Israel,” as a “descendant of Abraham,” and more
specifically as a member of the tribe of Benjamin. He is proud to identify himself as “a Hebrew born of
Hebrews” and, indeed, as a Pharisee. He maintains that he observed the Jewish law in a manner that was
“blameless” and that he “advanced in Judaism” beyond many of his peers. According to the book of Acts
Paul’s Jewish name was Saul (7:58-13:9; 22:7; 26:14) and he was known in the Greco-Roman world as
Paul. He was brought up in Jerusalem and was educated under then a famous rabbi, Gamaliel (22:3; cf. 5:34-
39). Paul was, however, actually a native of Tarsus, the capital city of Cilicia (22:3; cf. 9:11; 21:39), and
furthermore, he was a Roman citizen (16:37–38; 22:25–29). Probably of because of his upbringing Paul
seems equally at home in both in Jewish and Gentile environments (1 Cor. 9:19–23) as we see his life
unfolding in the future.

b) A Life Changing Revelation

Paul tells us in his letters that he persecuted the early Christian church violently and tried to destroy it (1
Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13, 23; Phil. 3:6; cf. 1 Tim. 1:13; Acts 22:3–5, 19; 26:9–11). He never says exactly what it
was about the new faith that provoked his ire, but he does say that he was driven by zeal for ancestral
traditions, which he apparently believed were being challenged.

But then Paul received a revelation from God that turned his life around (Gal. 1:15–16). Paul says that
the risen Jesus appeared to him in the same way that he had appeared to many of his followers in the days
following his crucifixion (1 Cor. 15:3–8; cf. 9:1). He gives no details regarding what Jesus said or did, but as
a result of the experience, Paul’s life was forever changed. Christians traditionally refer to this episode in
Paul’s life as his “conversion,” but Paul himself seems to have regarded it more as the reception of a
prophetic call or simply as a moment of enlightenment: God corrected his misguided zeal (cf. Rom. 10:2)
and gave him a new purpose in life. Paul did not quit one religion to join another (as the word conversion
might imply), but he did begin proclaiming the faith that he previously had tried to destroy and he would
always regard the divine revelation that brought about this change as an act of unmerited grace that God had
performed on his behalf (Rom. 1:5; 1 Cor. 15:10).

The book of Acts provides narrative descriptions of these pivotal events in Paul’s life. With regard to
persecuting the church, Acts says that Paul (then known as Saul) was present in Jerusalem for the murder of
Stephen, the first Christian martyr, holding the coats of those who stoned him and approving of the deed
(7:58; 8:1; 22:20); he also ravaged the church, going from house to house and dragging men and women
away to prison (8:3). According to Acts, Paul had believers bound and punished (tortured?) in order to
force them to deny their faith, and when they would not do so, he voted to have them condemned to death
(26:10–11; cf. 22:4, 19). Further, Acts tells us that Paul wanted to expand this persecution to other areas as
well (9:1–2, 13–14, 21; 22:5) and that he was on his way to Damascus to do so when the dramatic
conversion experience occurred. The story of that transforming event is recounted three times in Acts with
lively and colourful details not mentioned elsewhere (see 9:1–22; 22:6–21; 26:4–23).

c) Interim Years
Paul indicates in his letters that the first few years following his encounter with Christ were spent in the
region of Arabia and in the city of Damascus, in southern Syria (Gal. 1:15–24; cf. 2 Cor. 11:32–33). After
three years, he went to Jerusalem and stayed with Peter for fifteen days; he also met James the brother of
Jesus at that time. Then he went into the regions of Syria and Cilicia and spent more than a decade there.
Those years are often viewed as a time of formation for Paul, a period during which he honed his missionary
skills and developed his theological understanding of the gospel. For one thing, he became persuaded that
uncircumcised Gentiles could be put right with God through faith in Christ without first becoming Jews. It
was this conviction that brought him back to Jerusalem after fourteen years to have “a private meeting” with
leaders of the church. He shared the gospel that he was proclaiming among Gentiles, and Peter, James, John,
and others gave him their support. Letter a Law observance controversy broke out in the church in which he
took side in favour of the Gentile believers.

d) Missionary Work in the Mediterranean World

Paul eventually left the areas of Syria and Cilicia in which he had been at home for a considerable period of
time and ventured out into the provinces of the Roman Empire north of the Mediterranean Sea. The bulk of
this work appears to have occurred in four major areas: Galatia, Asia, Macedonia, and Achaia. The book of
Acts records the picture of Paul’s missionary work as he and his colleagues embarked on as they travelled
about the Roman world. The Paul’s missionary account of Acts shows that the apostle seems to have
travelled almost every part of Galatia, Asia, Macedonia, and Achaia:

 First Missionary Journey (Acts 13:1–14:28)—to the island of Cyprus and to cities in southern Asia
Minor, including Pisidian Antioch, Lystra, Derbe, and Iconium, for a total distance of about 1,400
miles.
 Second Missionary Journey (Acts 15:36–18:32)—through Asia Minor to Macedonia (especially
Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea), and then on to Achaia (especially Athens and Corinth), for a total
distance of about 2,800 miles.
 Third Missionary Journey (Acts 18:23–21:15)—through Galatia and Phrygia to Ephesus, then on to
Macedonia and Achaia, for a total distance of about 2,700 miles.

Paul did his ministry very systematically. His missionary endeavour turned out to be very fruitful. Paul
carried out his missionary work in a strategic manner:
  First, he appears to have targeted urban commercial centres as prime locations for founding
churches that could help him take the gospel to the world. Four cities are mentioned
repeatedly: Ephesus (in Asia), Philippi and Thessalonica (in Macedonia), and Corinth (in
Achaia).
 Second, he worked as the leader of a missionary team. Numerous assistants and emissaries
are mentioned in his letters, though we are left to imagine just what their job descriptions
might have been. In some cases, trusted assistants such as Timothy (1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10; Phil.
2:19, 23; 1 Thess. 3:2, 6) and Titus (2 Cor. 7:6–8, 13–15) seem to function as his trouble-
shooters: he sends them to churches where there are problems, investing them with authority
to act on his behalf in negotiating settlements.
 Third, he often supported himself financially by practicing a trade within the community (1
Cor. 9:14–15; 2 Cor. 11:9; 1 Thess. 2:9; cf. Acts 18: 3).
 Fourth, his missionary work was independent of any human (ecclesiastical) authority.
Perhaps for this reason, Paul indicates that his typical goal is to proclaim the gospel in new
areas and to found churches in places where other missionaries have not worked—he does
not want to “build upon another’s foundation” (Rom. 15:20; cf. 2 Cor. 10:13–16).

The book of Acts records that God worked mightily through the life of Paul and many miracles such as
casting out the demons (Acts 16:16–18), healing of the sick (Acts 14:8–10; 28:8) even through the aprons
and handkerchiefs he used (Acts 19:2), took place. Both Acts and his letters testify that Paul endured
numerous trials and tribulations while engaged in missionary work. He was shamefully mistreated, had to
fight with the beasts, and suffered a great affliction as to despair of life itself (cf. 1 Thess. 2:2; 1 Cor. 15:32;
2 Cor. 1:8–9). He was beaten several times, went through hunger and thirst, was shipwrecked, looted,
imprisoned, and always pursued by the enemies of the gospel (2 Cor. 11:14-28). All through his ministry
Paul remained unmarried (1 Cor. 7:7, 25–40; cf. 9:5) and had a painful affliction in his body (2 Cor.12:7–9).

e) Final Years
There is very less information about Paul’s final days in his undisputed letters. Paul wished to come to
Rome and go to Spain for the ministry (Rom. 15:22-24), and it is not certain yet as to what happened next.
The book of Acts reports that after the period of Paul’s great missionary work he was arrested in Jerusalem,
imprisoned for two years in Caesarea, and then, after a perilous sea voyage, was imprisoned for another two
years in Rome (21:17–28:31). This information is generally accepted as a reliable postscript to what can be
known about Paul’s life from his letters. Some scholars believe that certain of Paul’s letters perhaps were
written while he was a prisoner in Rome, and if that is the case, those letters might be read as a witness to
Paul’s thoughts and priorities at this time. Even then, however, we would obtain few biographical details
about his life situation. After Paul was taken to the book of Acts also sits silent. But one of the widely
accepted church traditions says that he was executed under the emperor Nero (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical
History 2.22.3) and that he was killed in the same manner as was John the Baptist, by beheading. To the
contrary, some still suggest that Paul was released from the prison and went to Spain for ministry post his
imprisonment in Rome and probably was martyred later.

2. Chronology of Paul’s Life

Neither Paul’s letters nor the book of Acts provide dates that designate when the events to which they refer
took place. A number of factors make exact dates difficult to determine. Here we look at the earliest and the
latest dates that are typically suggested by Pauline scholars regarding Paul’s life:
Events in the Life of Apostle Paul Earliest Latest
Date Date
-Conversion to Christ 32 36
 - Initial time in Arabia and Damascus 32-35 36-39
- First visit to Jerusalem 35 39
- Interim years in Cilicia and Syria 35-45 40-45
- Private meeting with church leaders 45 46
- First missionary journey 46-48 46-49
- Apostolic council 48 49
- Second missionary journey (includes one and a half years in Corinth) 49-51 50-52
- Third missionary journey (includes two and a half years in Ephesus) 52-57 54-58
- Arrested in Jerusalem 57 58
- Prisoner in Caesarea 57-59 58-60
- Voyage to Rome 59-60 60-61
-Prisoner in Rome 60-62 61-63
-“Second career” (not recognized by most scholars) 62-64 63-67
-Death 62 67

3. Chronology of Paul’s Letters

There are varying degrees of proposals regarding the dating of Pauline epistles:
Earliest Date Chronological Account of Pauline Writing Latest Date
46-48 First Missionary Journey 46-49
Galatians – If addressed to South Galatia
49-51 Second Missionary Journey 50-52
1 Thessalonians; 2 Thessalonians – If authentic
52-57 Third Missionary Journey 54-58
Galatians—if addressed to “North Galatia”
Philemon—if from Ephesus
and Colossians and/or Ephesians—if authentic
Philippians—if from Ephesus
1 Corinthians; 2 Corinthians; Romans
57-59 Prisoner in Caesarea 58-60
Philemon—if from Caesarea
and Colossians and/or Ephesians—if authentic
Philippians—if from Caesarea
59-60 Prisoner in Rome 61-63
Philemon—if from Rome
and Colossians and/or Ephesians—if authentic
Philippians—if from Rome
62-64 “Second Career” 63-67
1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and/or Titus—if authentic
62 Death of Paul 67
62+ The Post-Pauline Era 67+
2 Thessalonians—if pseudepigraphical
Colossians and/or Ephesians—if pseudepigraphical
1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and/or Titus—if pseudepigraphical

4. Theology of Paul
The seven undisputed letters of Paul are sufficient to provide a complete picture of Pauline theology. The
major Pauline theological themes in these themes can be summarized as follows.

a) Gospel
Paul speaks often of the “gospel” (euangelion, literally “good news”) that has been revealed to him by God.
In some sense this gospel is a message that can be conveyed through proclamation (Rom. 10:14–17), but it is
also more than that. It is a dynamic force that Paul identifies as the “power of God for salvation to everyone
who believes” (Rom. 1:16; cf. 1 Cor. 1:18). We will learn more about this gospel as we examine each of
Paul’s letters one by one, but we can note here that it is very much a gospel of Jesus Christ (Rom. 1:3–4).

b) Jesus Christ
Paul believes that Jesus Christ has died for our sins (Rom. 4:25; 5:6–8; 1 Cor. 15:3; Gal. 1:4; 1 Thess. 5:10).
Moreover, God raised Jesus from the dead (Rom. 4:24–25; 1 Cor. 15:4; Gal. 1:1; 1 Thess. 4:14). Jesus is
now at the right hand of God in heaven, where he intercedes for believers (Rom. 8:34), and he will come
again (1 Thess. 4:13–18). Those who confess that Jesus is Lord and place their trust in him will be saved
(Rom. 10:9). After death, they will live forever in a glorious realm that renders the troubles of this present
life insignificant by comparison (Rom. 8:18). Furthermore, Paul believes that, in some sense, this wonderful
new age of God has already begun. Through Jesus Christ, believers are reconciled with God (Rom. 5:8–11;
cf. 2 Cor. 5:18–21). They are justified (made right with God) by faith (Rom. 3:24–26; Gal. 2:16). They
become children of God (Rom. 8:14–17; Gal. 4:4–7) and receive the Holy Spirit (Rom. 5:5; 8:9; 1 Cor. 3:16;
2 Cor. 1:21–22; 5:5; Gal. 3:2–5; 4:6). Their lives are transformed in a way that can only be described as “a
new creation” (2 Cor. 5:17).

Paul’s interest in Jesus seems to have focused especially on the last week of his life—his institution of the
Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 11:23–26) and especially his death, burial, and resurrection (1 Cor. 15:3–7 Paul’s
focus, rather, is on “Christ crucified” (1 Cor. 1:23) and on the risen Christ who is Lord of all (Phil. 2:9–11).
Theologically, Paul understands Jesus Christ to be the image of God (2 Cor. 4:4; Phil. 2:6; Col. 1:15; cf. 1
Cor. 15:49), the one who makes God visible and accessible to human beings. Jesus is the Son of God (Rom.
1:3–4; 8:3) and thus remains in some sense subordinate to God and distinct from God (1 Cor. 15:27–28).
Thus, Paul wants to respect Jewish monotheism: he does not mean to make Jesus into a second God, though
at times he perhaps comes close to doing this (1 Cor. 8:6). He often quotes scripture passages in which the
word Lord originally referred to the God of Israel and interprets them in such a way that the word Lord now
refers to Jesus Christ (see, e.g., the treatment of Joel 2:32 in Rom. 10:13; cf. Rom. 10:9). He also speaks of
Christ as having been “in the form of God” and as having chosen not to regard “equality with God as
something to be exploited” (Phil. 2:6). Paul clearly has an exalted view of Christ as one who is more than
just a prophet, or even a messiah, or any other human servant of God.

c) Relationship With Christ

Paul’s religious feeling for Christ and the manner in which he speaks of Christ is in relational terms. He is
consumed with Jesus Christ and the gospel; he does not want to think or talk or write about anything else
(see 1 Cor. 2:2; 2 Cor. 10:3–5; Phil. 3:7–8). He feels compelled to proclaim the gospel (1 Cor. 9:16), and he
accepts his call to do so as a great honour: the gospel is a prized treasure with which he has been entrusted
(Gal. 2:7; 1 Thess. 2:4). When he shares the gospel with others, he is fulfilling the purpose for which he was
born (Rom. 1:1; Gal. 1:15). Thus, Paul is committed not simply to a cause or an ideology but rather to a
person: he knows Jesus Christ (Phil. 3:7–10) and can say, “It is no longer I who live, but it is Christ who
lives in me” (Gal. 2:20). And he is not claiming to be exceptional in this regard; rather, union with Christ is
a reality to be experienced by all believers (Rom. 6:5; 8:10; 1 Cor. 6:17; 2 Cor. 13:5; cf. Col. 3:3). Paul
speaks of Christians as “those who are in Christ Jesus” (Rom. 8:1; 16:7; 2 Cor. 5:17) and describes the
church as “the body of Christ” (Rom. 12:4–5; 1 Cor. 12:27). Accordingly, Paul’s gospel is very much a
message for a community; it is good news for the church, the new people of God formed in Christ and
empowered by the Holy Spirit.

d) Paul’s Ethics
Paul’s theology is eminently practical in that everything he believes about God and Christ has direct
implications for how people live in the present world. Simply put, those who experience God’s salvation
through Christ are to live not for themselves but rather for Christ, who died and was raised for them (2 Cor.
5:14–15), and “the only thing that counts is faith working through love” (Gal. 5:6). Paul devotes generous
portions of his letters to instruction on moral and behavioural matters. He addresses controversial issues
(e.g., Rom. 14:5–6; 1 Cor. 8:1–13; 12:1–14:40) and lists both virtues to be pursued and vices to be avoided
(Rom. 1:29–31; 13:13; 1 Cor. 5:10–11; 6:9–10; 2 Cor. 6:6–7; Gal. 5:19–23).

How does Paul determine what sort of behaviour is appropriate for those who are now in Christ? There is
no question that his ethical positions are informed by the Hebrew scriptures—the moral commandments
of Torah—but Paul also claims that Christians are no longer “under the law” (Rom. 6:14–15; 1 Cor. 9:20;
Gal. 3:23–25), and interpreters struggle to determine exactly what he means by that (see pp. 264–65, 313–
18). In a few instances, Paul makes reference to a human “conscience” that may serve as a moral guide
(Rom. 2:15; 2 Cor. 1:12; 4:2), but this cannot be absolute, since conscience can be weak and is easily defiled
(1 Cor. 8:7–12; 10:25–29).

Ultimately, Paul’s ethics are shaped by the expectation that believers will imitate Christ with regard to
sacrificial humility: they will seek the good of others rather than what is pleasing or beneficial to themselves
(Rom. 15:1–3; Phil. 2:4–8). Thus, for Paul, the cross becomes the emblem not only of Christian salvation
but also of Christian conduct. Furthermore, for Paul, all ethics are community ethics, for the individual
believer is united spiritually with others in such a way that all individual actions have consequences for
others (1 Cor. 12:11–26). Paul’s ethics are also shaped by an expectation that Christ is coming soon and that
the time remaining to do what must be accomplished in this world is short (Rom. 13:11–14; 1 Cor. 7:29–31;
1 Thess. 4:13–5:11). And, finally, Paul is certain that believers have divine assistance in living as God
would have them live; they are transformed from within, by a renewing of their minds (Rom. 12:1), and they
are imbued with the Holy Spirit, who produces in them the fruit that is pleasing to God (Gal. 5:22–23).

Conclusion
Perhaps the best word to describe Paul is multifaceted. There appear to have been many sides to this man,
and those who think that they have him figured out may be surprised to discover there is more to Paul than
they have taken into account.

Paul spoke in tongues (1 Cor. 14:18). He experienced celestial visions in which he was transported to the
heavenly realm (2 Cor. 12:1–7). He received revelations from the Lord (Gal. 2:2) and sometimes expected
people to regard his rulings on certain matters as bearing the mark of divine authority (1 Cor. 14:37–38; cf.
7:12, 39–40). He was a man who prayed much (Rom. 1:9–10; 1 Thess. 1:2–3; 3:10), sometimes with
troubled longing (Rom. 8:26) but often with joyful praise (Phil. 1:3–4). He was also a man given to
unabashed emotion and sentiment: he recounts without embarrassment the times that he has been moved to
tears (2 Cor. 2:4; Phil. 3:18), and he speaks openly of his affection for those who are dear to him (2 Cor.
7:2–4; Gal. 4:19–20; Phil. 4:1; 1 Thess. 2:17–20; Philem. 4–7). Of course, he can also be roused to anger,
and he is not shy about expressing that emotion (1 Cor. 4:19–21; 2 Cor. 11:12–15; Gal. 1:9; 3:1; 5:12).

Paul often seems to embody a confident faith that many would regard as idealistic: he has learned to be
content in any and all circumstances, and he knows that he can do all things through Christ, who strengthens
him (Phil. 4:11–13). In other ways, however, he seems remarkably down-to-earth. In his letters he deals with
the most mundane matters in ways that are realistic and evocative of common sense. Note, for instance, his
counsel to spouses not to deprive one another of conjugal rights but rather to grant access to each other’s
bodies for fulfilment, as needed, of sexual desires (1 Cor. 7:3–5). Such advice may seem a bit crass to some,
but the point remains: he is able to recognize the need for dealing with practical concerns in a realistic
manner.
At other times, Paul can seem to be a morass of contradictions. He can appear to be a champion of women’s
rights in one instance (Rom. 16:1–2) and a proponent of patriarchal chauvinism in another (1 Cor. 11:1–16).
At one point, he seems to question the validity of all human authority figures (Gal. 2:6), but elsewhere he
urges his readers to show respect for those who are over them in the Lord (1 Thess. 5:12–13) and even to be
subject to pagan political rulers because all authorities have been instituted by God (Rom. 13:1–7). He is
adamant that the gospel that he proclaims was revealed to him directly by Jesus Christ without further
consultation with anyone (Gal. 1:11–12), but he also describes the essentials of that gospel as a tradition
handed on to him by others (1 Cor. 15:3). He can adopt a tolerant “agree to disagree” attitude on some
controversial issues (Rom. 14:5), but he seeks to lay down the law in an absolute sense on other matters (1
Cor. 7:17; 11:16; 14:33–36). He is capable both of commending gentleness (Gal. 5:23; 6:1; Phil. 4:5) and of
threatening people with harsh discipline (1 Cor. 4:21; 5:1–5; 2 Cor. 13:2). He emphasizes grace and
forgiveness, but he insists that people reap what they sow (Gal. 6:6–10) and says that wrongdoers will not
inherit the kingdom of God (1 Cor. 6:9).

The point is not that such inconsistencies cannot be reconciled, but rather that unless they are recognized,
our understanding of Paul may be one-sided or incomplete. There is more to Paul than meets the eye. The
depth and complexity of his life and thought are what make him one of the most fascinating figures in
human history, and, after Jesus himself, the most important figure in the history of Christianity.

APPENDICES
Appearance: What Did Paul Look Like?
Church tradition offers no descriptions of the physical appearance of Jesus, but one second-century work
does provide a description of Paul:
Paul appeared to observers as “a man small of stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good
state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked.” (Acts of Paul and Thecla. 2)
Is this accurate? The description is sufficiently early to be informed by actual memory and, furthermore, does
not present a flattering portrait such as might suggest idealization. It also accords with passages from Paul’s
letters that suggest his outward appearance was unimpressive (2 Cor. 10:10; Gal. 4:13–15).
Abraham Malherbe, “A Physical Description of Paul,” in Paul and the Popular Philosophers (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 1989), 165–70.

Theology: Effects of the Christ Event

One Pauline scholar says that Paul uses ten different images for describing what God accomplished in
Jesus Christ:
--justification—people stand before God acquitted and righteous (Rom. 3:21–26)
--salvation—people are rescued from evil and wrath (Rom. 5:9; Phil. 3:20)
--reconciliation—people are placed in a right relationship with God and each other (Rom. 5:10–11; 2 Cor.
5:18–19)
--expiation—people have their sins blotted out or wiped away (Rom. 3:25)
--redemption—people are bought out of slavery to sin and death (Rom. 8:18–23; 1 Cor. 7:23)
--freedom—people are set free from sin, law, and self to live as God intended (Rom. 8:2; Gal. 5:1)
--sanctification—people are made holy (1 Cor. 1:2, 30; 6:11)
--transformation—people are being changed into the image of God (Rom. 12:2; 2 Cor. 3:18)
--new creation—people are given a new life in a new age (2 Cor. 5:17; Gal. 2:20; 6:15)
--glorification—people share in the glory of God (Rom. 8:18, 21, 30; 1 Thess. 2:12)
See, Joseph Fitzmyer, Paul and His Theology, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989), 59–71.