| NUMBER SYSTEM CHAPTER BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM In computers, @ binary number refers to a term in which a number is expressed using two 11 (one), This system is used by all modern computers as well different symbols i.e. 0 (zero) and abs srSmputer based devices. Each digit in binary system is known as pit, A binary digit is the smallest unit of data in computing. ‘A binary number consists of only 0 and 1 and no other digit is added in it. Example - 100101 A Binary Number is made up of only Qs and 1s. This number contains 6 digits ie. 6 bits. The base of binary number is 2. Example: 10101 = Base is 2 So, it will be calculated as 10101, where b is 2 1x2! + Ox2? + 12+ 0x2! + 1x2? 16+0+4+041= 21 100011 = Base is 2 So, it will be calculated as 100011, where b is 2 1x25 + 0x2! + 0x2? + 0x2? + 1x2! + 1x2? 3240+0+0+2+1= 35 Binary Numbers are written as d Scanned with CamSca0 0 1 1 2 10 3 W 4 100 s 101 6 10 i M1 8 1000 9 1001 10 1010 u 1011 . 12 1100) 13 101 14 1110 15 i WHY DO COMPUTERS USE BINARY SYSTEM? Processor of each computer is made up of billions of transistors which include a switch that is activated by electronic signals. Digits used in binary system i.e. 0 and | reflect ON and OFF states of a transistor, Therefore, all types of software, music, videos, programs, documents etc are stored in binary language that can be easily understood and processed by the computers. The Importance of Binary Numbers in Computing Compiters Only understand base ?, thatis a0 (off) LENG) Tas cattery anne any PHM Auen octet Using base 2 Cineta Scanned with CamScaDi i ie 7 ee : Data Representation ™ Computers use digital representation ™ Based on a binary system (uses on/off states to represent 2 digits) ™ Many different types of data. — Examples? ™ ALL data (no matter how complex) must be represented in memory as binary igits (bits). NUMBER SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH DECIMAL In order to denote that a given number is a binary number, it is written with base 2 as 1012 Hence, we can say that binary number system is the fundamental unit of all computer programs. It can be summarized as mentioned below - Binary Number Systems > The binary system is a base-2 system. > There are 2 distinct digits (0 and 1) to represent any quantity. 2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary digits or “bits” 0 = represents no value 1 represents a unit value 'n-digit number, the value of a digit in each column depends on its Position. * The weights are based on powers of 2. Weight = (Base) *“*" 1011, = 1°29 + OF22+ 1921+ 4 oCdMnega WIL UdINsCdDECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM Decimal Number System requires 10 as a base and 10 digits namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. It also requires a dot (.) i.e. decimal to denote fractions. In this system, position of a digit is very important as first position shows Units place, second on the left being Tens place and next as Hundreds and so on. Decimal Numbering System (base 10) Characters = 0,1, 5,6,7,8,9 7 = 4xt000 + 8x100 + 7x10 + 2x1 g i written 4872, or 4872,, 4 7 eussemon OO Every digit positioned to the left of decimal point is 10 times bigger and every digit positioned to the right of decimal point is 10 times smaller. Decimal Point Unis 10 (Tenths) Tens N S100 (Hundredths) q ™~ 3 | iz 3 3 T— 000 (Thousandths) 10x Bi ) 10x Sinaller | In decimal systenr 2538:0is written as 2 x 10° +5 x 10?+3x 10' +8 x 10° | Decimal Number Systems + Example 9876, = 9x 10° + 8x 102+ 7x10!+6x10° =9000 +800 +70 +6 = 9876, Scanned with CamScaIn short, we can summarize decimal number system as mentioned below. Decimal Number System * Consists of 10 digits - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9 * All numbers represented as combination of digits 0-9. E.g. 34, 5965, 867321 OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM Octal Number System requires 8 as a base and 8 digits namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Example — 27y=2x8'+7x8" 16+7=23 4307, = 4x89 4+3x87+0x8'+7x8° = 2048 + 192+0+7 = 2247 Octal Numbering System (base 8) Characters = 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 QA 3 7 = 4xbae 3x8 + 7x1 GA's place 8's place 1's place written 437, or 437, Scanned with CamScaA 20) KI) Octal Number System | ¥ Since its base 8 = 2 every 3 bit group of binary can be represented by an octal digit. ¥ An octal number is thus 1/3" the length of the corresponding binary number Octal Symbol Binary equivalent 0 000. iis: 001 010 011 _100 101 110 111 N | ajapp}elofe HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM Hexadecimal Number System requires digits from 0 to 9 and alphabets from A to F Table showing position of all numbers and alphabets in Hexadecimal system Number/Alphabet | Position 0 0 1 | 1 2 2 {3 3 4 4 a a s 6 __ 6 1 _ 7 8 8 9 9 Scanned with CamSca10 i A B Cc 12 D E FE 13 14 15 2x 16'+8x 16° 32+8 =40 2816= BCI2¢= 11x 16+ 12x 16°+1x 16'+2x 16" ‘= 45056 + 3072+ 16 +2 = 48146 Hexadecimal Numbering System (base 16) Characters = 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F E 4A C =1ss6+4x6 +1201 2seeplae espace Hsphee | AC, oF EACas © Itconsists of 16 digits from 0 to 9 and Ato F. ® The alphabets A to F represent decimal numbers 10 to 15. It's base is 16. Examples: 1, 29716 2. BASI6 3, BACAts —— oCdNNea WILT UdINocd= a (Koc CONVERSION DECIMAL TO BINARY In order to convert decimal number into binary number, we have to divide each decimal number by 2 that will give remainder as | or 0. If the decimal number is even, then the result will be whole and remainder will be 0 but if it is odd number then remainder will be 1. The remainder at the top is known as Least Significant Bit (LSB) and at the bottom is known as Most Significant Bit (MSB). The result is obtained by placing all the remainders in order. MSB will never be zero. Example: Convert 294, into Binary Number Divide the number by 2 ie. 147 and remainder 0 (LSB) Again divide by 2 ie. 73 and remainder 1 Divide by 2 i.e. 36 and remainder 1 Divide by 2 i.e. 18 and remainder 0 Divide by 2 ive. 9 and remainder 0 Divide by 2 ive. 4 and remainder 1 Divide by 2 ie. 2 and remainder 0 Divide by 2 i.e. 0 and remainder 1 (MSB) The answer will start from MSB i.e. 100100110; Convert 357,» to binary number 357 divide by 2 = 178 with remainder 1 178 divide by 2 = 89 with remainder 0 89 divide by 2 = 44 with remainder 1 44 divide by 2 = 22 with remainder 0 22 divide by 2 = 11 with remainder 0 II divide by 2 = 5 with remainder | 5 divide by 2 = 2 with remainder | 2 divide by 2 = 0 with remainder 1 Answer is 1011001012 SCdNnea WIL CdlloCd: 128+0 +0 +16+8+ = 155 Number System ey i Decimal (base 10) to Binary (base 2) Example: Start with 46,9 5 2 ue =ORI 2 2 Concatenate the remainders and the result is 101110 Therefore 46,,= 101110, CONVERSION BINARY TO DECIMAL In order to convert binary number into decimal, start with the number and under each bit right the power of 2 in increasing order starting from right. Calculate the powers of 2, multiply down and then add them across. Binary (base 2) to Decimal (base 10) Example: Start with 1010110, 101 1 1.0 __ Start with the binary 6 55 54 53 1 50 number. Below each bit, 2° 2° 28 2? BF 2" 2° eiite the powers of two in increasing order from right 0 __ toleft. Calculate the 1 powers of two and multiply raoaoada 64 32 aucune down then add across. 64+ 0+ 16+0+ 4+2+0=86 135 64 92 16 #4 2 1 100171011 O+2*4 Scanned with CamScaa 2 ESE »& ee CONVERSION OCTAL TO BINARY In order to convert octal number into binary number first convert each octal digit into 3-digit binary number and then combine all the binary groups of 3 digits into single binary number. Octal to Binary Conversion Convert the octal 76314 to its binary equivalent. 1. Separate the digits of the given octal number, if it contains more than 1 digit. 7 6 3 1 2. Find the equivalent binary number for each digit of octal number. Add O's to the lefe if any of the binary equivalent iz shorter than 3 bits. 7 6 3 1 iii 110 O11 oo1 3. Write the all group's binary numbers together, maintaining the same group order provides the equivalent binary for the given octal number. 111110011001 tesult 7631,= 111110011001, Octal (base 8) to Binary (base 2) and reverse Example: Start with 3742, 3 7 4 2 011 111 100 010 011111100010, Example: Start with 10010011111101, (0)10 010 011 111 101 2 2 3 7 5 22375, Scanned with CamScaiii i a 2 CONVERSION BINARY TO OCTAL In'order to convert binary number into octal number first separate digits of binary number into groups of 4 bits and then find equivalent octal number of each group (4 bits). Then, write all the group's octal number together maintaining the group order. Binary to Octal Conversion Convert the binary number 1111100110012 to its octal equivalent. 1.Separate the digits of a given binary number into groups from right to left side, each containing 4 Bits. 111 110 O11 001 2.Find the equivalent octal number for each group. 111 110 011 001 7 6 3 1 3. Write the all group’s octal numbers together, maintaining the group order provides the equivalent octal number for the given binary. 7631 Result 111110011001, = 7631, CONVERSION HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY To convert hexadecimal numbers to binary, you have to remember equivalent binary numbers for the first 16 hex digits. For example In order to represent hexadecimal number 12 you can use binary 1100 or hex value C. Example: Hexadecimal Number = 9 AF Binary Number = 1001 for 9 1101 for A TAL for F So, number comes out to be 1001101011 112 \ ocdannea wit Carnstaea Hexadecimal (base 16) to Binary (base 2) and reverse Example: Start with CE45 ,, c E 4 5 1100 1110 0100 0101 1100111001000101 , Example: Start with 010111110000101, (0)010 1111 1000 0101 2 FE 8 5 2F85,, CONVERSION BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL In order to convert binary number into hexadecimal, you have to make 4-bit groups and convert them directly into hex values, To convert binary numbers into hexadecimals, you only have to make 4-bit groups and convert directly each group: 201100110101 (binary) SS es55 $aug B 3 5 (hex) Binary 0011 1001 1010 0010 So Hexadecimal 3 9 A a Binary 0010 1011 1000 000 + 1001 1000 Sos Re er Hexadecimal 2 D 3g 1.9 8 Scanned with CamSca(ners 15 To conclude, we can say that cach of these equivalents can be converted into the other. The following table shows various values in different number systems. Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexidecimal Values Decimal Binary Octal Hexidecimal 0 0000 1 0001 2 0010 3 0011 4 0100 5 0101 6 0110 7 oll 8 1000 9 1001 10 1010 MW 1011 12 1100 13 1101 14 1110 15 111 MmMOUOWEOBIBRHARWNHS \.. BINARY ADDITION Binary Addition is similar to normal method of addition except the fact that it carries a value of 2 instead of 10. This is because in binary number system 2 is represented as 10. L IN BINARY SYSTEM, ADDITION HAS FOLLOWING RULES a Scanned with CamScaExample — 1. Suppose we have to add 10010 and 1001 Tt will be calculated as 10010 +1001 Answeris | 11011 2. Suppose we have to add 00111 and 10101 It will be calculated as 0111 (carried forward values) OoOll1 +10101 Answer is 11100 Binary Addition Example carry into the. second column 10 o110 0110 0110 111 o1it 1 01 01 a XN final result result for first column Scanned with CamScaST Pa aR x BINARY SUBTRACTION Binary subtraction is also similar to that of normal subtraction except the fact that when 1 is subtracted from 0, it is borrowed from next higher order bit and that bit is reduced byl. BINARY SUBTRACTION TABLE Example: 1. Suppose we have to subtract 101 from 1001 It will be calculated as 1 (borrowed) 1001 -101 Answer is 100 2. Suppose we have to subract 111 from 1000 It will be calculated as 1 (borrowed) 1000 -Jd1 Answer is 0001 >cannea Witn LamscaBinary Subtraction Example: Subtract binary number 101 from 1011 (vorr) o1 1811 ~ 101 0110 ONE’S COMPLEMENT METHOD ONE'S COMPLEMENT METHOD The ones’ complement of a binary number is defined as the value obtained by inverting all the bits in the binary representation of the number (swapping 0s for Is and vice versa). In this method, we subtract two binary numbers using carried by 1's complement. Example: (i) 110101 - 100101 Solution: 1’s complement of 100101 is 011010, Written as 1 1 1’s complement of 110101 is 011010 Written as 0 1 Camry over = 1 Answer is 010000 (ii) 101011 - 111001 Solution: 1's complement of 111001 is 000110. Scanned with CamSca19 Written as 1 0 1's complement of 101011 is 000110 Written as Answer is 110001 Example of 1’s complement FG — Subtract (1010), from (1111) » 4's complement method Direct Subtraction rady ind 1'scomplement—* 0101 1010 _— Carry —* 10100 o1o01 Add Carry ——* 1 | o1041 TWO’S COMPLEMENT METHOD In order to get two’s complement of a negative notation of an integer, we should write out the ‘number in binary system and then invert its digits. Add one to the end result, Example: (i) 110110 - 10110 Solution: The numbers of bits in the subtrahend is 5 while that of minuend is 6. We make the number of, bits in the subtrahend equal to that of minuend by taking a°0" in the sixth place of the subtrahend. ' ‘ >canned WIL Cdlnocd20 Computer Applications in P| ft Now, 2's complement of 010110 is (101101 + 1) i.e.101010. Adding this with the minuend. 11 0 1 1 0 Minuend 0 2's complement of _—_subtrahend Camy over 1 10 0 0 0 0 Result of addition After dropping the carry over we get the result of subtraction to be 100000. (ii) 10110 - 11010 Solution: 2’s complement of 11010 is (00101 + 1) i.e. 00110. Hence Minued - 4 0 1 1 0 2's complement of subtrahend oo 1 1 oO Result of addition eee 1 1 0 0 : As there is no carry over, the result of subtraction is negative and is obtained by writing the 2’s complement of 11100 i.e.(00011 + 1) or 00100. Hence the difference is — 100. 2's Complement Subtraction * Two's complement subtraction is the binary addition of the minuend to the 2's complement of the subtrahend (adding a negative number is the same as subtracting a positive one). © For example, Te1L= (8) 0000 0111 = $7 +1111 0100 = 12 ann inn = +5 Scanned with CamScaa BINARY MULTIPLICATION The multiplication of binary numbers is carried out by multiplying multiplicand with one bit of the multiplier at a time and result of the partial product for each bit is placed in such a manner that the LSB is under the corresponding multiplier bit. Finally the partial products are added to get the complete product. ‘The rules of binary multiplication are given below ~ 1010 —» Maltiplicand x 1011 | ——> Multiplier 1010 ——> Partial product 1 1010 —+> Partial product 2 0000 —+ Partial product 3 1010 —> Partial product 4 1101110 ——_— Scanned witn Lamsca2, Ep Ma a cenetiiatits a Example: @ 10111 by 1101 Solution: 10111 ; yoill 140) 1101 ele ae | a\ojil 10111 «First partial product \ 60009 10111 jlo) tw 1110011 First i : hoy! — First intermediate sur ————— 10111 10 0) 0/911 100101011 «Final sum. Hence the required product is 100101011. Binary Multiplication © Multiplication follows the general principal of shift and add. © The rules include: °0*0=0 °0r1=0 *1*0=0 e4tts4 Scanned with CamScaBinary Division Divide the binary number A = 10102 by B = 102 101__ 10) 1010 10 010 ) 10 ° In order to summarize the given number systems, we can say that various number systems are , used to represent different values. These are highlighted as below — Number system + Asset of values used to represent different quantities is known as Number System > Types of number system 1. Binary - Or base 2. There are only two numbers in binary, O-and 1. Because computers use a sequence of switches that wae be on or off (also called a bit), base 3 works very Well Tertheae phase in base 2 is pathetically simple, but incredibly time consuming, | 2 Qectal - Or base 8. Uses the numbers 0 10 7. There are eight bits Ina byic which is used very ofien in ihe-coinmanee Tee reat bar its oo small to Rodd Say uselul aa Cee AS used.) Math in octal is more complicated than decimal imaliar with this system: Computers only display teeter sa decimal, they actually do all their workin bingey. Ntath ke gute Simple With this number system, although somenngee gia | Plexadectmal - Or base 16. Uses the numbers 0-F. Yes, [said F. cause there are 16 values per place holder. five new nuribers had to be created. Those numbers are A. B.C, D, E-and F (Original isn’t it?). "A" has a value of 10, "B) 3. imal - Or base 10. Uses the numbers 0-9. I'm sure youre is 11,and soon ~ Scanned with CamScay))| CONCEPT OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND SOFTWARE _ CHAPTER ‘An information system is a system that provides collection, storage and retrieval of information in an organized manner. — e—————$—— ‘An information system can also be referred to ag a software or system that helps us to organize data and use it in a systematic manner \d_ when, Tequired. It helps to convert raw data into ‘iseful information that can be analyzed at various levels in different organizations. _ NY The information system can be of two types — general and specialized. ee General Information System - These information systems are used widely for basic analysis of data in any organization. These are not specific to any department or industry. For eg. DBMS i.e. database management system (DBMS) is a type of software that is used to store and organize large amount of data for further analysis. ’ Specialized Information System - These systems are specifically designed to suit the requirements of a ‘icular organization or category. For eg. GIS i.e. Geographic Information System is used to access geographical data for various regions. __— ccc INFORMATION GATHERING {CInformation gathering refers to collection of information from various sources and then compiling that data in the required forra In most of the organizations, information gathering refers to collection of large amount of data from various sources. This data is further analyzed to solve a particular problem ot situation. However, in specialized industries like air force, military etc., information gathering is a special skill that requires training and education of people involved. This training is based on methods and sources of gathering information. SOURCES USED IN INFORMATION GATHERING. \2 Existing Sources ~ It refers to those sources of information that can be found on internet or some other social media and thus information can be easily retrieved and used. 1") Natural Sources ~ It refers to those sources of information which exist in the market but one has to do a lot of research to compile this information. Eg. Information regarding Some People who have already tried that product, their experiences, feedback etc Scanned with CamScaGree PURPOSE OF INFO! Researchers are keen to gather information on various topics for the following reasons — © Enhance knowledge related to a particular subject. © Develop various skills for problem solviny REQUIREMENTS GATHERING TECHNIQUES © Brainstorming Technique + Idea generation + Idea reduction and voting © Mind Mapping Technique + Use emphasis + Use association + Beclear = Layout Most popular Collect requirements in step-by-step manner Helps understanding the details © Use Case Workshop Technique + Easy to document and written in natural language TECHNIQUES OF INFORMATION GATHERING - ‘Analysis is done to understand business functions and requirements. Model of the existing system is created and changes are suggested as per requirements. Logical explanations and discussions are carried out to implement suggested changes. Balance is maintained between current system and required new system. Final design is created as per customer's requirement. REQUIREMENT AND FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS refers to process of analyzing various requirements of a particular user duct or a software, The following points are considered for this analysis — irement of a product An: and then design a pro a «Actual usage or requi «Specifications to be met ¢ Expected outcomes scanned with Camscaene measur wr Requirements analysis is important for the success or failure of a particular project. These requirements are well documented and measured before initiating any project and then finally tested before launching that product in the market. This cin be a long and tiring process that involves rhany changes before finalization. This is because, requirements of a particular user keeps on changing while the project is still in process. Feasibility Analysis refers to a detailed analysis which is conducted prior to start of a proposed Project. The major points to be considered in it are — © Whether the project is technically feasible or not? © Whether it can be completed within estimated cost or not? © Whether it will be a profitable project or not? Such analysis is conducted when large amount of investment is involved by major corporations of this world. Such organizations prefer conducting feasibility analysis before the start of any project, in order to make sure that they are going to invest in a profitable business and are availing the right opportunity. Thus, feasibility analysis ensures that upcoming project would be a great success as it was strategically planned and executed. This kind of analysis is used to assess all the strengths and weaknesses of a proposed project and hence, one is able to bring in meaningful changes in order to achieve desired results, Feasibility studies * A feasibility study decides whether or not the proposed system is worthwhile. + Ashort focused study that checks — If the system contributes to organisational objectives; —If the system can be implemented using current technology, within given cost and schedule constraints; — If the system can be integrated with other systems that are already in place. FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS Scanned with CdIlsCd—e. 28 Reo La CTC yi ae DATA FLOW DIAGRAM Data flow diagram refers to graphical representation of flow of data through an information System. It is the first step followed in order to create an overview of any information system. These diagrams are used for visualization-of processing of data in various systems. Data flow diagram shows how the information will be entered into a system, how it will be processed and where it will be stored. Data Flow Diagram DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS SYMBOLS There are two types of symbols used in DFDs, ‘Yourdon & Coad ~ It is mainly used for system analysis and depicted as circles. * Gane & Sarson — It is mainly used for visualizing information systems and is depicted as rounded corners. COMPONENTS OF DED J. Process ~ It is used to describe how data input will be transformed into data output: 2. Flow ~ Its used to describe the movement of data within any information system, 3. Store ~ It refers to the storehouse of data where all the data storage takes place. 4. Terminator — It refers to the final entit 'y with which a system communicates and provides required information. It can be a person, group of persons, organization, department ete. TYPES OF DFDS * Physical DFD — A physical DFD represents how various functions are performed in a system. + Logical DFD - A logical DFD is mainly related to business and its activities, In short, we can say that, logical DFD provides "What" information on a system and physical DED provides “How” information on a system. Scanned with CamScaMieeieeics enema payment. nerd Food Ava Foodtens Utne Fed Ors Deter Crt Foe Data flow diagram of food ordering system in a restaurant PROCESS SPECIFICATIONS Process Specification refers to specifying a particular process which describes how to use input data strategically in order to transform it into required output. It shows what should be done to utilize the available information as input and generate an output. In other, words, we can say that process specification refers to a method of documenting, analyzing and explaining the process used to create an output in an information system. Requirements of Process Specification ¢_, Each process specification should contain detailed requirement of functionality. Each set of process specification must specify all the rules governing transformation of data flow within an information system. * Each set of process specification must specify all the underlying policies governing transformation of data. However, it is not necessary to’ describe the method used to transform that data. Scanned with CamSca| 30 RN (FU) Kemeny Process Specification Format Information a ee eT eT a. Number — as .used on the DFD b. Name — a8 used in the process symbol on the DFD c. Description — Description of what the process accomplishes — Example: Determine if an item is available for sale. Ifitis not available, create a backordered item record. Determine the quantity available. INPUT/OUTPUT DESIGN Input Design is the process of converting data into a computer based system. This design is necessary to get correct interpretation of the data that has been fed into the computer. It is a link between information and the user. It is required to convert entered data into a usable form which can be easily read and interpreted by the computer system. Requirements of Input Design It should be simple and easy to use. It should avoid extra steps involved in analysis of data. It should avoid delay in interpretation of data. It should be error-free. It should keep the process simple and controlled. of Input, Whaat kind of data needs to be entered in the computer system? How much data needs to be entered? How the data should be coded or interpreted? How to make it user friendly and guide the user for its appropriate use? Prepare proper input validations, Follow pre-decided steps in case of an error, Output Design is the process of getting required output from the entered data, what the system must produce to meet business requirements Of its users. Scanned with CamSca