JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOLUME 35, NUMBER MAY, 1945

The Optics of Euclid'

Translated by HARRY EDWIN BURTON
Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire

DEFINITIONS Let B represent the eye and let GD and KL represent the
1. Let it be assumed that lines drawn directly from the objects seen; and we must understand that they are equal
eye pass through a space of great extent; and parallel, and let GD be nearer to the eye; and let the
2. and that the form of the space included within our rays of vision fall, BG, BD, BK, and BL. For we could not
vision is a cone, with its apex in the eye and its base at the say that the rays falling from the eye upon KL will pass
limits of our vision; through the points G and D. For in the triangle BDLKGB
3. and that those things upon which the vision falls are the line KL would be longer than the line GD; but they are
seen, and that those things upon which the vision does not supposed to be of equal length. So GD is seen by more rays
fall are not seen; of the eye than KL. So GD will appear more clear than KL;
4. and that those things seen within a larger angle for objects seen within more angles appear more clear.
appear larger, and those seen within a smaller angle appear
Every object seen has a certain limit of distance, and when
smaller, and those seen within equal angles appear to be of
this is reached it is seen no longer. (Fig. 3.)
the same size;
For let the eye be B, and let the object seen be GD.
5. and that things seen within the higher visual range
I say that GD, placed at a certain distance, will be seen no
appear higher, while those within the lower range appear
longer. For let GD lie midway in the divergence of the rays,
lower;
at the limit of which is K. So, none of the rays from B will
6. and, similarly, that those seen within the visual range
fall upon K. And the thing upon which rays do not fall is
on the right appear on the right, while those within that on
not seen. Therefore, every object seen has a certain limit
the left appear on the left;
of distance, and, when this is reached, the object is seen no
7. but that things seen within several angles appear to
longer.
be more clear.
Of equal spaces located upon the same straight line, those
Nothing that is seen is seen at once in its entirety. (Fig. 1).
seen from a greater distance appear shorter. (Fig. 4.)
For let the thing seen be AD, and let the eye be B, from
Let AB, BG, and GD represent equal spaces upon one
which let the rays of vision fall, BA, BG, BK, and BD.
straight line, and let the perpendicular AE be drawn, upon
So, since the rays of vision, as they fall, diverge from one
which let E represent the eye. I say that AB will appear
another, they could not fall in continuous line upon AD;
longer than BG and BG longer than GD. For let the rays
so that there would be spaces also in AD upon which the
fall, EB, EG, and ED, and through the point B let BZ be
rays of vision would not fall. So AD will not be seen in its
drawn parallel to the straight line GE. Now AZ is equal to
entirety at the same time. But it seems to be seen all at
EZ. For, since parallel to GE, one side of the triangle AEG,
once because the rays of vision shift rapidly.
the straight line BZ has been drawn, it follows also that EZ
Objects located nearby are seen more clearly than objects of is related to ZA as GB to BA. So, as has been said, AZ is
equal size located at a distance. (Fig. 2.) equal to ZE. But the side BZ is longer than ZA; and so,

K
A G K D ,D

G D z

B B B E
FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5.

I Professor Charles N. Haskins, Professor of Mathematics at Dart- of the third century before Christ. Almost nothing is known of his life.
mouth College, is largely responsible for this translation of the Optics He was a voluminous writer on mathematics and kindred subjects, his
of Euclid. A year ago, when he was doing research for the Dartmouth principal work being the Elements of Geometry in thirteen books. The
Eye Institute, he had occasion to use Euclid's essay and asked me if Optics is an essay on the mathematics of optics. It is extant in two forms,
I would translate it. Strangely enough, it had never been translated one written by Euclid himself, the other a recension by Theon, written
into English. I agreed to undertake the task. Before the work was in the fourth century after Christ. In its original form, which is here
finished Professor Haskins died. The Dartmouth Eye Institute decided translated, it is the earliest extant work on mathematical optics.
that the translation should be completed and published, and I wish to [Professor Burton died on March 20, 1945, before his translation of
express my own gratitude to the Optical Society of America for its the Optics was set up in galley proof. His colleagues, in seeing the trans-
cooperation. lation through the press, have endeavored only to secure in printed form
Euclid was a teacher of mathematics at Alexandria in the early part the exact reproduction of Professor Burton's typewritten manuscript.]
357
358 HARRY EDWIN BURTON

A G T

K -
A
T K
I
I\ / L
\ \ / L
I

D
I
E
FIG. 6. FIG. 6a. FIG. 7.

it is longer than ZE. Therefore the angle ZEB is greater greater than the angle PAN. Therefore, RX will appear
than the angle ZBE; and the angle ZBE is equal to the longer than PN. Similarly, RL appears longer than PK.
angle BEG; and the angle ZEB is greater than the angle So, the whole line LX will appear longer than the whole
GEB. So, AB will seem longer than BG. Again in the same line KN. And thus the lines DG and ZE will seem to be a
way, if through the point G a line parallel to DE is drawn, varying distance apart.
BG will seem longer than GD.
Objects of equal size upon the same straight line, if not
Objects of equal size unequally distant appearunequal and placed next to each other and if unequally distant from the
the one lying nearer to the eye always appearslarger. (Fig. 5.) eye, appear unequal. (Fig. 7.)
Let there be two objects of equal size, AB and GD, and Let there be two objects of equal size, AB and GD, upon
let the eye be indicated by E, from which let the objects the same straight line, but not next to each other, and
be unequally distant, and let AB be nearer. I say that AB unequally distant from the eye, E, and let the rays EA
will appear larger. Let the rays fall, EA, EB, EG, and ED. and ED fall upon them and let EA be longer than ED.
Now, since things seen within greater angles appear larger, I say that GD will appear larger than AB. Let the rays EB
and the angle AEB is greater than the angle GED, AB will and EG fall upon them, and let the circle, AED, be circum-
appear to be larger than GD. scribed about the triangle, AED. And let the straight lines
BZ and GL be added as a continuation of the straight lines
Parallel lines, when seen from a distance, appear not to be EB and EG, and from the points B and G let the equal
equally distant from each other. (Fig. 6.) straight lines BT and GK be drawn at right angles. And
Let there be two parallel lines, AB and GD, and let the AB is equal to GD, but also the angle ABT is equal to the
eye be indicated by E. I say that AB and GD appear not angle DGK. And so the arc AT is equal to the arc DK.
to be parallel, and that the nearer space always appears Thus, the arc KD is greater than the arc ZA. So the arc LD
greater than that farther away. Let the rays fall, EB, EZ, is much greater than the arc ZA. But upon the arc ZA
ET, ED, EL, and EK, and let these points be joined by rests the angle AEZ, and upon the arc LD rests the angle
the straight lines, BD, ZL, and TIC. Now, since the angle LED. So the angle LED is greater than the angle AEZ.
BED is greater than the angle ZEL, BD appears longer But within the angle AEZ, AB is seen, and within the
than ZL. Again, since the angle ZEL is greater than the angle LED, GD is seen. Therefore, GD appears larger
angle TEK, ZL appears longer than TK. So the space BD than AB.
appears greater than the space ZL and the space ZL
greater than the space TIC. Therefore, lines equally distant Lines of equal length and parallel, if placed at unequal
from each other will no longer seem to be parallel, but will distances from the eye, are not seen in proportion to the
seem to be of varying distance apart. distances. (Fig. 8.)
Let there be two lines, AB and GD, unequally distant
It spaces lying at a higher level let the perpendicularAB from the eye E. I say that, as it appears, BE is not in the
be let down from the point A to the plane lying below, and let same relation to ED as GD is to AB. For let the rays fall,
there be the parallels LX, KN, and TM. I say that so also AE and EG, and with E as the central point and at the
the lines GD and EZ appear to be not parallel. (Fig. 6a.) distance EZ let an arc be drawn, LZT. Now, since the
Let a perpendicular BR be drawn from B to LX, and triangle EZG is greater than the section EZL, and since
let BR be continued to 0, and let the rays fall, AL, AK,
AT, AX, AN, and AiMl, and let AR, AP, and AO be con-
A GL
nected. Now, since a straight line, AR, from a higher point
has been connected with RX, then AR is a perpendicular
upon RX, and AO upon QiV, and AP upon PN. So, ARX, FIG. 8.

APN, and AM'! are right-angled triangles. Since, then,

they are right-angled triangles, and since PN is equal to D :s

RX, and since PA is longer than AR, the angle XAR is B T E

 THE OPTICS OF EUCLID 359

'B D G

D G A
FIG. 9. FIG. 10. FIG. 11.

the triangle EZD is less than the section EZT, the triangle Let the eye be indicated by A in a position lower than
EZG, compared with the section EZL, has a greater ratio the plane BG, and let the rays fall, AB, AD, AE, and AG,
than the triangle EZD, when compared with the section and of these let AB be a perpendicular to the assumed
EZT. And, alternately, the triangle EZG, compared with plane. I say that GE appears lower than ED. Now, accord-
the triangle EZD, has a greater ratio than the section EZL ing to the theorem before stated, the ray AG is lower than
has, when compared with the section EZT, and, when put AE, AE lower than AD, and AD lower than AB. But
together, the triangle EGD, compared with the triangle between the lines GA and AE, GE is seen, and between EA
EZD, has a greater ratio than the section ELT, compared and AD, ED is seen, and between DA and BA, DB is seen.
with the section EZT. But as the triangle EDG is to the So GE appears lower than ED, and ED lower than DB.
triangle EZD, so is GD to DZ. But GD is equal to AB,
and, as AB is to DZ, so is BE to ED. Now, BE in com- In the case of lines extending forward, those on the right
parison with ED has a greater ratio than the section ELT seem to be inclined toward the left, and those on the left seem
in comparison with the section EZT. And as one section is to be inclined toward the right. (Fig. 12.)
to the other section, so the angle LET'is to the angle ZET. Let two lines be seen, AB and GD, and let the eye be
So the straight line BE, compared with the straight line indicated by E, from which let the rays fall, ET, EK, EA,
ED, has a greater ratio than the angle LET compared with EZ, EL, and EG. I say that EZ, EL, and EG seem to be
the angle ZET. And from the angle LET, GD is seen, and inclined toward the left, and ET, EK, and EA toward the
from the angle ZET, AB is seen. So lines of equal length right. For since EZ is more to the right than EL, and EL
are not seen in proportion to the distances. more than EG, hence EG seems to be inclined to the left
of EL, and EL to the left of EZ. Similarly, also EA, EK,
Rectangular objects, when seen from a distance, appear and ET seem to be inclined to the right.
round. (Fig. 9.)
In the case of lines of equal length, lying below the level
For let the rectangle BG, standing upright, be seen from
of the eye, those lying farther away appear to be higher.
a distance. Now, since each thing that is seen has a certain
limit of distance beyond which it is no longer seen, the (Fig. 13.)
Let there be lines of equal length, AB, GD, and EZ, and
angle G is not seen, but only the points D and Z are visible.
let the eye be indicated by L, located above these lines,
In the same way also in the case of the other angles this
and let the rays fall, LA, LG, and LE. I say that AB
will happen. So that the whole thing will appear round.
appears higher than GD, and GD higher than EZ. For,
In the case of flat surfaces lying below the level of the eye, since LA is higher than LG, and LG higher than LE, and
the more remote parts appear higher. (Fig. 10.) since the points A, G, and E are on the lines LA, LG, and
Let the eye be A, at a level higher than BEDG, and let LE, and since the lines AB, GD, and EZ extend from the
the rays fall, AB, AE, AD, and AG, of which rays let AB points A, G, and E, then AB seems higher than GD, and
be perpendicular upon the plane below. I say that GD GD higher than EZ.
appears higher than DE, and DE higher than BE. For In the case of lines of equal length lying above the level
somewhere upon the line BE let the point Z be taken, and
of the eye, those farther away appear lower. (Fig. 14.)
let the perpendicular ZL be drawn. Since the lines of Let there be lines of equal length, AB, GD, and EZ,
vision fall upon ZL before they reach ZG, let the line AG
lying above the level of the eye, L. I say that AB appears
meet ZL at the point L, the line AD at the point T and
lower than GD, and GD lower than EZ. Let the rays fall,
the line AE at the point K. Now, since L is higher than T
LB, LD, and LZ. So, since the ray LB is lower than LD,
and T higher than K, but G on the same line as L, and D on
and LD lower than LZ, but the points B, D, and Z are on
the same line as T, and E on the same line as K, and, since
the lines LB, LD, and LZ, and since the lines AB, GD, and
between the lines AG and AD, DG is seen, and between the
EZ extend from B, D, and Z then AB appears lower than
lines AD and AE, DE is seen, GD appears higher than DE.
GD, and GD lower than EZ.
And, similarly, DE will appear higher than BE; for things
seen by higher rays appear to be higher. In the case of objects below the level of the eye which rise
And it is clear that things seen on a higher plane will one above another, as the eye approaches the objects, the taller
appear to be concave. one appears to gain height, but as the eye recedes, the shorter
one appears to gain. (Fig. 15.)
In the case of flat surfaces located above the level of the eye, Let there be two unequal lines, AB and GD, and let AB
the partsfarther away appear lower. (Fig. 11.) be the taller, and let E be the eye, and from this let a ray,
360 HARRY EDWIN BURTON

L E
A
A G E

G
B D Z
T

B D Z L B D
FIG. 12. FIG. 13. FIG. 14. FIG. 15.

EZ, fall through G. Now, since below the level of the eye by an equal amount. For, let the ray ZE fall through G.
and below the ray EZ, ZB, and GD are seen, AB appears Thus, AB appears taller than GD by the length of AE.
above GD by the length of AZ. Let the eye be moved Now let the eye be moved, and let it be farther away, and
nearer and let it be L, and from this let the ray LT fall let it be L on the horizontal line. So, the ray, falling from
through G. Then, since below the level of the eye and below the eye L, will pass through the point G and will be con-
the ray LT, GD, and TB are seen, AB will appear taller tinued as tar as the point E, and AB will rise above GD
than GD by the length of AT. And from the point E, AB by the same amount.
was seen to be taller by the length of AZ, and AT is longer To know how great is a given elevation when the su is
than AZ. So, as the eye approaches the objects, the taller shining. (Fig. 18.)
one appears to gain height, but, as the eye recedes, the Let the given elevation be AB, and we have to know how
shorter one appears to gain. great it is. Let the eye be D, and let GA be a ray of the sun
In the case of objects of unequal size above the level of the falling upon the end of the line AB, and let it be prolonged
eye which rise one above another, as the eye approaches the as far as the eye D. And let DB be the shadow of AB. And
objects, the shorter one appears to gain height, but, as the eye let there be a second line, EZ, meeting the ray, but not at
recedes, the taller one appears to gain. (Fig. 16.) all illuminated by it below the end of the line at Z. So, into
Let there be the lines AB and GD, of unequal length, the triangle ABD has been fitted a second triangle, EZD.
and of these let AB be the taller. Let E represent the eye, Thus, as DE is to ZE, so is DB to BA. But the ratio of
and from this let the ray EZ fall through G. Now, since DE to EZ is known; and, therefore, the ratio of DB to
the lines ZB and GD are included under the ray EZ, BZ BA is known. Moreover, DB is known; so, AB also is
and GD appear equal to each other. So, AB appears taller known.
than GD by the length of AZ. Now let the eye be moved To know how great is a given elevation when the sun is
nearer, and let it be L, from which let the ray LT fall not shining. (Fig. 19.)
through G. Now, since BT and GD are included under the Let there be a certain elevation, AB, and let the eye be G,
ray LT, and since ZB and GD are included under the ray and let it be necessary to know how high is AB when the
EZ, and since ZA is longer than A T, as the eye approaches sun is not shining. Let a mirror be placed, DZ, and let DB
the objects the shorter one appears to gain height, but, as be prolonged in a straight line continuous with ED, to the
the eye recedes, the taller one appears to gain. point where it touches B, the end of AB, and let a ray fall,
In the case of objects that rise one above another, if the eye GL, from the eye G, and let it be reflected to the point
approaches the lesser one or recedes front it at a right angle, where it touches A, the end of AB, and let ET be a pro-
the taller one will always appear to rise above the shorter one longation of DE, and from G let the perpendicular GT be
by an equal amount. (Fig. 17.) drawn upon ET. Now, since the ray GL has fallen and the
Let there be two lines of unequal length, AB and GD, ray LA has been reflected, they have been reflected at
and let AB be the longer, and let the eye be Z, located on a equal angles, as is said in the Catoptrica; thus, the angle
line at right angles to the end of GD, that is, at G. I say GLT is equal to the angle ALB. But also the angle ABL is
that whether the eye Z approaches or recedes, if it is on the equal to the angle GTL; and the remaining angle LGT is
same horizontal line, AB will seem to be taller than GD equal to the remaining angle LAB. So, the triangle ALB is

A G
A

T E Z L Z
Z
LAG

E B D D
FIG. 16. FIG. 17. FIG. 18.
 THE OPTICS OF EUCLID 361

IZ T D A B
FIG. 19. FIG. 20. FIG. 21.

equiangular with the triangle GLT. But the sides of equi- tween the eye A and the diameter is shortest, and that the
angular triangles are proportionate. Thus, as GT is to TL, ray nearer to it is always shorter than the one farther
so is AB to BL. But the ratio of GT to TL is known; and away. And the same things happen when AZ is a per-
the ratio of BA to BL is known. But LB is known. And so, pendicular upon the diameter. On this account the arc
AB is known. gives an impression of a straight line, and especially if it
should be seen from a greater distance, so that we do not
To know how great is a given depth. (Fig. 20.)
perceive the curve. On this account ropes not stretched
Let the given depth be AD, and let the eye be E, and
tightly, when seen from the side, appear to sag, but seen
let it be necessary to know how great is the depth. Let a
from below, seem to be straight, and also the shadows of
ray of the sun fall before the eye, meeting the plane at the
rings lying on the same plane with the source of light
point B, and the depth at the point D. And let BZ be con-
become straight.
tinued from B in a straight line, and let the perpendicular
EZ be drawn from E to the horizontal line BZ. Now, since An addition. If an arc of a circle is placedon the same plane
the angle EZB is equal to the angle BAD and the angle as the eye, the arc appears to be a straight line. (Fig. 22a.)
ABD is equal to the angle EBZ, the third angle also, BEZ, Let BG be an arc, and let D be the eye, on the same plane
is equal to the angle ADB. So, the triangle ADB is equi- as the arc BG, from which let the rays fall, DB, DZ, and
angular with the triangle BEZ. And thus the sides will be DG. So, since nothing that is seen is seen at once in its
proportionate. Then, as EZ is to ZB, so is DA to AB. But entirety, BZ is a straight line. Similarly, also ZG. Thus,
the ratio of EZ to ZB is known; and the ratio of DA to AB the whole arc, BG, will seem straight.
is known. And also AB is known. And thus AD is known.
Of a sphere seen in whatever way by one eye, less than a
To know how great is a given length. (Fig. 21.) hemisphere is always seen, and the part of the sphere that is
Let the given length be AB, and let the eye be G, and seen itself appears as an arc. (Fig. 23.)
let it be necessary to know how great is the length of AB. Let there be a sphere, of which A is the center, and let B
Let the rays fall, GA and GB, and near the eye, G, let the be the eye. And let A and B be joined, and let the plane be
point D be taken somewhere upon the ray (GA), and continued along the line BA. So it will make a circular
through the point D let the horizontal line DE be drawn, section. Let it make the circle GDTL, and around the
parallel to AB. Now, since DE has been drawn parallel to diameter AB let the circle GBD be inscribed, and let the
BA, one of the sides of the triangle ABG, as GD is to DE, straight lines be drawn, GB, BD, AD, and AG. Now, since
so is GA to AB. But the ratio of GD to DE is known; and AGB is a semicircle, the angle AGB is a right angle;
the ratio of AG to AB is known. And AG is known. So, AB similarly, also the angle BDA. So, the lines GB and BD
also is known.
B
If an arc of a circle is placed on the same plane as the eye,
the arc appears to be a straight line. (Fig. 22.)
Let BG be an arc lying on the same plane as the eye A,
from which let the rays fall, AB, AD, AE, AZ, AL, AT,
and AG. I say that the arc BG appears to be a straight line.
Let K be the center of the arc, and let the straight lines FIG. 22.
KB, KD, KE, KZ, KL, KT, and KG be drawn. Now,
since KB is seen within the angle KAB, and KD within
the angle KAD, KB will appear longer than KD, and KD
longer than KE, and KE longer than KZ, and, on the other
side, KG will appear longer than KT, and KT longer than
G
KL, and KL longer than KZ. On this account, KA re-
maining a straight line, BG is always a perpendicular. B
And the same things will happen also in the case of a
concave arc. z ~~~D FIG. 22a
An addition. It is possible to say these things also with
reference to the visual rays themselves, that the ray be- G
362 HARRY EDWIN BURTON

G E

FIG. 25.
z

FIG. 23. B
B D

FIG. 26.

z FIG. 27.

FIG. 24. B

touch the sphere. Now, let G and D be joined, and let LT AL, and LT be drawn. Now, similarly, by the eye at T is
be drawn through the point A parallel to GD. So, the seen the part of the sphere, KL, and by the eye at B the
angles at K are right angles. Now, with AB remaining in part GD was seen. And KL is less than GD. So, as the eye
its place, if the triangle BGK is revolved about the right approaches, the part seen is less. But it seems to be more;
angle K, and is restored to the same position from which for the angle KTL is greater than the angle GBD.
it started, the line BG will touch the sphere at one point
When a sphere is seen by both eyes, if the diameter of the
and the line KG will make a circular section. So, an arc will
sphere is equal to the straight line marking the distance of
be seen in the sphere. And I say that it is less than a
the eyes fromn each other, the whole hemisphere will be seen.
hemisphere. For, since LT is a semicircle, GD is less than a
(Fig. 25.)
semicircle. And the same part of the sphere is seen by the
Let there be a sphere, of which A is the center, and on
rays BG and BD. So, GD is less than a hemisphere; and it is
the sphere let the circle BG be inscribed about the center A,
seen by the rays BG and BD.
and let BG be drawn as its diameter, and at right angles
When the eye approaches the sphere, the part seen will be from B and G let lines be drawn, BD and GE, and let DE
less, but will seem to be more. (Fig. 24.) be parallel to BG, and upon this (DE), let D and E repre-
Let there be a sphere, of which the center is A, and let sent the eyes. I say that the complete hemisphere will be
the eye be B, from which let the straight line AB be drawn. seen. Through A let AZ be drawn parallel to each of the
And around AB let the circle GBD be inscribed, and from lines, BD and GE; then ABZD is a parallelogram. Now, if
the point A let the straight line EZ be drawn, perpendicular the inscribed figure is revolved and then restored to the
to the straight line AB in either direction, and let the plane same position whence it started, AZ remaining in its place,
be produced along EZ and AB. So it will make a circular it will start from B and B will come over G, and the figure
section. Let it be GEZD, and let GA, AD, DB, BG, and GD formed under AB will be a circle through the center of the
be drawn. So, according to the theorem given before, the sphere. So a hemisphere will be seen by the eyes D and E.
angles at the points G and D are right angles. Thus, BG
and BD, whatever rays there are, touch the sphere. And If the distance between the eyes is greater than the diameter
the part of the sphere, GD, is seen by the eye, B. Now let of the sphere, more than the hemisphere will be seen. (Fig. 26.)
the eye be moved nearer to the sphere, antI let it he at T, Let there be a sphere, of which A is the center, and about
from which let the straight line TA be drawn, and let the the center A let the circle ETDL be inscribed, and let the
circle ALK be inscribed, and let the straight lines TK, KA, eyes be B and G, and let the distance between the eyes
 THE OPTICS OF EUCLID 363

B and G be greater than the diameter of the sphere, and let

B and G be joined. I say that more than the hemisphere will
be seen. Let the rays fall, BE and GD, and let them be
produced beyond the points E and D; they approach each
other because the diameter is less than BG. So let them
meet at the point Z. Now, since from some point outside
the circle the straight lines ZE and ZD have touched the
circumference, DTE is less than a semicircle. So, ELD is Z
more than a semicircle. But ELD is seen by the eyes at
B and G. So, more than half of the circle will be seen by
the eyes at B and G. The same part of the sphere too will
be seen.

If the distance between the eyes is less than the diameter

of the sphere, less than a hemisphere will be seen. (Fig. 27.)
FIG. 28a.
Let there be a sphere, the center of which is the mark A,
and let the circle BG be inscribed around the mark A,
A to Z let AZ be drawn. And from the point A let GD be
and let the distance between the eyes, DE, be less than the
drawn at right angles to AZ in both directions; so GD is
diameter of the sphere, and from the eyes let the same rays
the diameter of the circle. And around AZ let the circle
be drawn, DB and EG, touching the sphere. I say that less
ABZE be inscribed, and let AB, BZ, ZE, and EA be drawn.
than a hemisphere will be seen. For let BD and GE be
So, ZB and ZE touch the circle, since the angles at the
produced; they will fall upon the section GLB, since DE is
points B and E are right angles. Now, since from a certain
less than the diameter of the sphere. Let them meet at the
point Z the rays ZB and ZE have fallen upon the circum-
point Z. Now, since from a certain mark, Z, the straight
ference of the circle, the part of the circle, BE, will be seen.
lines have fallen, ZG and ZB, BLG is less than a semicircle.
But GBED is a semicircle. Hence, BE is less than a semi-
But the section of the sphere corresponds to the section
circle.
BLG. So, the rays include less than a hemisphere.
But this theorem was concerned with cones and cyl-
If a cylinder in whatever way is seen by one eye, less than inders. For, if from the points B and E the sides of the
half a cylinder will be seen. (Fig. 28.) cylinders rise at right angles, the rays will touch them at
Let there be a cylinder, and let the mark A be the center the points where they fall, and the part of the vision indi-
of its base, and let the circle BG be inscribed around A, cated by BGDE will be cut off, while the part of the semi-
and let the eye D be on the same plane as BG, the base of circle indicated by BE will be seen. So, the same lesser
the cylinder, and from D to A let the line DA be drawn, part of cones also will be seen.
and from D let the rays DB and DG be drawn, and let
When the eye is moved nearer the cylinder, the part of the
them touch the cylinder, and from the marks B and G let
cylinder reached by the rays is less, but a greater part will
the sides of the cylinder rise at right angles, and let the
appear to be visible. (Fig. 29.)
plane through DB and BE and the one through DG and
Let there by a cylinder, the base of which is the circle
GZ be produced. So, neither of them cuts the cylinder;
BG, and let A be the center, and let E be the eye, from
for DB, DG and BE, GZ touch the cylinder. Therefore, BG
which let EA be drawn to the center, and let the rays fall,
is seen by the rays BD and DG, and BG is less than a semi-
EB and EG, and from the points B and G let the sides of
circle. In the same way less than half a cylinder will be
the cylinder, GZ and BD, rise at right angles. Now, accord-
seen.
ing to what has been said before, DBGZ is less than half a
If a cylinder should be seen by two eyes, it is clear that
cylinder; and it is seen by the eye, E. Now let the eye, T,
what has been said regarding the sphere will be true also
be moved nearer. I say that the part reached by the eye,
in this case.
T. seems to be greater than ZBGD, but is actually less.
An addition. (Fig. 28a.) Let there be a circle, and let A
Let the rays fall, TK and TL and from the points K and L
be its center, and outside let there be the point Z, and from
Z
E M

D~~~~~~
T A

G B
FIG. 28. FIG. 29.
364 HARRY EDWIN BURTON

B let the sides of the cone be drawn, AG and GB. So, under
the eye, D, and the lines of vision, DA and DB, the part
of the cone indicated by ABG is included, and it is less
than half a cone. Now let the eye come nearer, and let it
D FIG. 30. be E, and let the rays fall, EZ and EL, and let the sides
be drawn, ZG and GL. So again, under the eye E and the
lines of vision, EZ and EL, the part of the cone ZGL is
included. And ZGL is less than ABG; but it seems to be
more, since the angle ZEL is greater than the angle ADB.
And it is clear that in the case of a cone, when seen by
both eyes, the same things will occur as in the case of the
sphere and the cylinder, when seen in the same way.

FIG. 31. If rays fall from the eye upon the base of the cone, and
D if from the rays thatfall and touch the cone straight lines are
drawn from te points of contact over the surface of the cone
to the apex of it, and if planes are produced through the lines
that have been drawn and that fall from the eye upon the
B base of the cone, and if the eye is placed upon their point of
contact, that is, upon the common section of the planes, the
part of the cone that is seen will be quite the same, if the eye
remains upon a plane parallelto the original plane. (Fig. 32.)
Let there be a cone, the base of which is the circle BG
T and the apex the point A, and let the eye be D, from which
let the rays fall, DZ and DG, and from the points of con-
tact, Z and G, let the sides of the cone, ZA and GA, be
FIG. 32. drawn to the apex of the cone, and let the plane through
DZ and ZA, and the one through GD and GA be produced.
Thus it will make a straight line the common section. Let
it be AED. I say that, if the eye is moved upon the line
AED, the same part of the cone will be seen, as much as
was seen by the rays DG and DZ. For upon the line AED
let the eye rest at E, from which let rays fall upon the cone.
D G They will reach AZ and AG, since the eye rests upon a
let the sides of the cylinder rise at right angles, KiM and parallel plane, and the rays travel along straight lines.
LN. Now the part of the cylinder, AKLN, will be seen by For, if they fall outside of AG and AZ, the rays will be
the rays TK and TL. But ZGBD was seen by thi e rays EB broken; which is impossible. So, let ET and EL stand.
and EG. And ZGBD is greater than iVIKLN; bu t it seems Now, since the rays move upon a parallel plane in straight
to be less, since the angle at T is greater than the angle at E. lines, and since things seen at equal angles appear equal,
and since all the parallel rays upon the straight line AED
If a cone having a circle as its base and the ax is at right contain equal angles, an equal part of the cone will be seen.
angles to the base is seen by one eye, less than ha,If the cone
will be seen. (Fig. 30.) Again, if the eye is shifted from a low position, when it is
Let there be a cone, the base of which is the circle BG, raised, the part of the cone that is seen will be greater, but will
and the apex the point A, and let D be the eye, fr om which seem to be less, but, on the other hand, if the eye is lowered,
let the rays fall, DB and DG. And since the rayIs DG and the part seen will be less, but will seem to be greater. (Fig. 33.)
DB have fallen, touching BG, BG is less than a.,semicircle, Let there be a cone, the base of which is the circle BG,
according to what has been proved before. Frorrn the apex and the apex the point A, and let BA and AG be the sides
of the cone, A, let the sides of the cone, AB ar id AG, be A
drawn to the points B and G. So the part incluI led by the
straight lines, AB and AG, and the arc BG is less than
half a cone, since BG is less than a semicircle. Less than
half a cone will be seen.
If the eye is brought nearer on the same plane on which is
the base of the cone, the part included within tie vision will
be less, but a larger part will seem to be visible. (Fiig. 31.)
Let there be a cone, the base of which is the circle AB,
antI the apex the point G, and let the eve be D, and let G
be taken also as the center of the circle, and let tIhe straight
line, DG, be drawn, and let the rays fall, DA an d DB, and FIG. 33.
 THE OPTICS OF EUCLID 365

FIG. 34. FIG. 34a. FIG. 34b.

of the cone. Let B and G be joined, and let BL continue But let AZ be not equal to the line from the center (that is,
the line of BG, and through the point T taken at random the radius), and not at right angles to the plane of the circle,
let TK be drawn parallel to AB. I say that the part of the but let it make equal the angles DAZ and ZAG, and the angles
cone that is seen will be greater, but will seem to be less, EAZ and ZAB. I say that even so the diameters making the
if the eye is placed at the point T than if it is placed at K. equal angles will appear equal. (Fig. 34b.)
Let A and K be joined and A and T, and let AT be pro- For, since GA, AZ are equal to ZA, AD, and since BA,
duced to L and AK to I. So, if the eye is placed at L and AZ are equal to ZA, AE, and since the angles are equal,
then at I, the parts of the cone that are seen will seem then the base DZ is equal to the base ZG; so that also the
unequal, and the part seen from L will be greater, and the angle DZA is equal to the angle AZG. Now similarly we
part seen from I, though less, will seem greater. But the shall show that also the angle EZA is equal to the angle
part seen from L is equal to the part seen from T, and the AZG. So, the whole angle DZB is equal to EZG. So that
part seen from I is equal to the part seen from K, as has also the diameters DB and EG will appear equal.
been shown before. So, if the eye is placed at T, the part
But if the linefallingfrom the eye to the center of the circle
of the cone seen will be greater than if the eye is placed
is not at right angles to the plane of the circle nor equal to
at K, but it will seem to be less.
the radius and does not enclose equal angles, the diameters
If a straight line is erected from the center of a circle, at with which it makes unequal angles will appear unequal.
right angles to the plane of the circle, and the eye is placed (Fig. 35.)
upon this, all the diameters crossing upon the plane of the Let there be a circle ABGD, and let two diameters be
circle will appear equal. (Fig. 34.) drawn, AG and BD, cutting each other at right angles at
Let there be a circle, the center of which is the point A, the point E, and let the line ZE, starting from the point E,
and from it let the line AB be erected at right angles to upon which rests the eye, be neither at right angles to the
the plane of the circle, and upon this let the eye B rest. plane nor equal to the radius nor, with AG and DB, en-
I say that the diameters will appear equal. Let there be closing right angles. I say that the diameters AG and DB
two diameters, GD and EZ, and let the lines be drawn, will appear unequal. For let ZG, ZA, ZD, and ZB be
BG, BE, BD, and BZ. Now, since ZA is equal to AG, and drawn. So the line EZ is either greater than the radius or
AB is common to them, and the angles are right angles, less. On this account either the angle at DZ, ZB is greater
then the base ZB is equal to the base BG, and the angles than the angle at GZ, ZA, or the angle at GZ, ZA is greater
at the bases are equal. So the angle at ZB, BA is equal to than the angle at DZ, ZB, as we shall next prove. Thus
the angle at AB, BG. Similarly, also the angle at EBA is the diameters will appear unequal.
equal to the angle at ABD. Then the angle at GB, BD is
equal to the angle at EB, BZ. And the parts seen at equal Theorem. Let there be a circle, and let the center of it be the
angles appear equal. Then GD is equal to EZ. point A, and let B be the eye, andfrom this let a perpendicular
drawn to the circle not fall upon the center A, but outside, and
And if the line drawn from the center is not at right angles let this be BG, and from A let AG be drawn to G, andfrom A
to the plane, but is equal to the line from the center (that is, let AB be drawn to B. I say that of all the angles formed by
the radius of the circle), all the diameters will appear equal. the straight lines drawn through A and making an angle with
(Fig. 34a.) the line AB, the least is the angle at GA, AB. (Fig. 35a.)
Let there be a circle, ABGD, and in it let two diameters
be drawn, AB and GD, and, leading from the point E, let
there be a line, ZE, upon which is the eye Z, not at right
angles, but equal to each one of the lines from the center,
and let the rays be drawn, ZA, ZG, ZB, and ZD. Now,
since BE is equal to EZ, but also EA is equal to EZ, the
three lines, EZ, EA, and EB, are equal. So the semicircle FIG. 35.
drawn in the plane through AB and EZ about the diameter
AB will go through Z. So the angle at AZ, ZB is a right
VB E /}
angle. Similarly, also the angle at GZ, ZD is a right angle.
The right angles are equal, and things seen at the same
angles appear equal. So AB will appear equal to GD.
366 366H1-lARRY EDWINT BURTON

i
G b - L D
- l

FIG. 35a. V X M
K1

FIG. 35b. B
FIG. 35d.

Let the straight line DAE be drawn through A. i+

I say that the angle GAB is less than the angle EAB. 1
For from G to DE let the perpendicular GZ be drawn A
in the plane, and let B and Z be joined. Then BZ also
is a perpendicular upon DE. Now, since the angle
GZA is a right angle, the angle AGZ is less than a
right angle. And the greater side subtends the greater l N M K M F
angle. So, AG is greater than AZ. But the angle FIG. 35c. FIG. 35e.
AG, GB, and the angle BZ, ZA, are right angles;
so that GB and BZ are unequal. And, therefore, the will appear shorter than the one farther away, and only two
angle ZA, AB is greater than the angle GA, AB. Now, diameters will appear equal, those equally distant on either
similarly, it will be proved that of all the angles formed byv side of the shorter one. (Figs. 35b and 35c.)
the straight lines drawn through A and making an angle For, since GD is at right angles to both AB and EZ, also
with the straight line AB, the least is the angle GA, AB. all the planes produced through GD are at right angles to
And it is clear that, if also some other straight line is the planes through EZ and AB; so that it is true also of the
drawn through A, as AT, which is farther than AZ from plane of the circle lying below, upon which is GD. So, let a
AG, the angle BA T will be greater than the angle BAZ. perpendicular be drawn from the point E to the plane
For again, if the perpendicular GK is drawn to A T B and below. It falls upon the common section of the planes, AB.
K being joined will be similarly perpendicular to A T. Now let EK also fall, and let IM, equal to the diameter of
And, since A is greater than AK (for it subtends the right the circle, be drawn and let it be cut in two at the point N,
angle AKI), AZ is much greater than AK. And the angles and from N, at right angles to IM, let the straight line NX
BZA and BA are right angles. So BZ is less than BK, be erected, and let NX be equal to EZ. Now the arc in-
on account of the fact that the distances from BZ, ZA and scribed around I and passing through X is greater than
the distances from BK, KA, are equal to the distance from a semicircle, since the line NX is longer than either IN
BA, and equal to one another, and again the angle BAK or N4I. Let the arc be IXM, and let XI and XM be
is greater than the angle BAZ. And of all the angles made joined. The angle at X formed by the straight lines IX
with BA by the lines drawn through A, the greatest is and XM is equal to the angle at the point E formed by E
the angle BAL, GA being produced to L, since also the and by GD. On the straight line IN and at the point N let
angle BAG is less than all. And the lines are equal that are the angle IN, NO be formed, equal to the angle LZ, ZE,
equally distant on either side from MA, the line which and let NO be equal to EZ, and let O and OM be joined,
forms the least angle with BA. For, let MN be equal to and let the arc IOM be inscribed around the triangle IOM.
EM, and let EM, MlN, EG, GN, BA, BN, and AN be Now the angle at the point 0 will be equal to the angle at E,
drawn. Now, since MN is equal to ME, and JIG is common,
formed by LET. Again on the straight line IN and at the
and they form equal angles, then EG also is equal to GN.
point N upon it let the angle IN, NP be formed equal to
And GB is a common perpendicular. So, EB is equal to BN.
the angle AZE, and let NP be equal to EZ, and let IP and
But also EA is equal to AN; and AB is common. And the
PilM be joined, and around the triangle IPM let the arc
angle EAB is equal to the angle NAB.
of a circle IPM be inscribed. Now the angle at the point P
Let there be a circle, ABGD, the center of wticht s Z and will be equal to the angle AEB. Now, since the angle at X is
arn tis let straight linzes be drawn fromt A, B G and D, greater than the angle at 0, but the angle at the point
chtting each other at right angles, and let E be te eye, frost X is equal to the angle GED, and the angle at 0 is equal
whicht let there be a ine to te center,joined at right angles to to the angle LET, GD will appear longer than LT. Again,
GD, bt with AB let it forms any angle; and let ttis line, EZ, since the angle at the point 0 is equal to the angle LET,
be longerlthan Ikleadils ofle circle.I say that
thlediam~eters and the angle at P is equal to the angle AEB, and since
AB and GD will appear unteqlal, that GD will appear longer the angle at 0 is greater than the angle at P also the
and AB shorter, and always te one nearer to the shorter oe angle LET is greater than the angle AEB. So LT will
 THE OPTICS OF EUCLID 367

40 formed by ETZ, AB will appear longer than EZ. Again,

since the angle at T formed by ET, TZ is greater than the
G angle at T formed by GTD, EZ will appear longer than GD.

The wheels of the chariots appear sometimes circular, some-

A E By times distorted. (Fig. 36.)
Let there be the wheel ABGD, and let the diameters be
drawn, BA and GD, cutting each other at right angles at
the point E, and let the eye not be on the plane of the
D circle. Now, if the line drawn from the eye to the center
is at right angles to the plane or is equal to the radius, all
FIG. 36. FIG. 37. the diameters will appear equal; so that the wheel appears
circular. But if the line drawn from the eye to the center
appear longer than AB. Now of all the straight lines drawn is not at right angles to the plane or equal to the radius,
through Z and making angles with EZ, GD will seem to be the diameters will appear unequal, one longer and one
the longest and AB the shortest, because, of the angles shorter, and to every other one which is drawn between
formed at E, GED is the greatest and AEB is the least. the longer and shorter diameters only one other will appear
And only one other, FES, will be proved equal to the angle equal, the one drawn to the opposite side; so that the wheel
LET, AF, which is equal to LA, being excluded, and FZ appears distorted.
being joined and produced to S. And this is clear from the
angles at X, 0, and P. For the least of these is P, since the There is a place where, if the eye remains in the same
angle PNI is equal to the least angle, EZA, and the position, while the thing seen is moved, the thing seen always
greatest is X, on account of the fact that NX is a per- appears of the same size. (Fig. 37.)
pendicular, the longest of the straight lines drawn through Let the eye be A, and the size of the thing seen be indi-
N in the arc IXM, and because the arc IXM falls above cated bv BG, and from the eye let rays fall, AB and AG,
the equal line, and because X is the innermost point and and about ABG let a circle, ABG, be inscribed. I say that
P the outermost, since no angle is less than PNI. And the there is a place where, if the eye remains in the same
angle EZF, being equal to the angle EZL, as has been position, while the thing seen is moved, the thing seen
proved, also the adjacent angle, EZS, is equal to the angle always appears of the same size.
EZT, that is, to the angle ONM. So that each of the angles, For let the object be moved and let it be indicated by the
FES and LET, is equal to the angle at 0. So, LT will line DG, and let AD be equal to AB. Now, since BA is
appear equal to FS. equal to AD and BG to GD, also BAG is equal to DAG.
For they are upon equal arcs; so that they are equal. So
Let the line drawn from the eye to the center be less than the the thing seen will appear of the same size.
radius. Now about the diameters the reverse is true; for the And the same thing will happen also if the eye should
one appearinglonger before now will appear shorter, and the remain at the center of the circle, and the thing seen
shorter one will appear longer. (Figs. 35d and 35e.) should move upon the arc.
Let there be a circle, ABGD, and let two diameters be
drawn, AB and GD, cutting each other at right angles, There is a place where, if the position of the eye is changed,
and let another diameter, EZ, be drawn at random, and while the thing seen remains in the same place, the thing seen
let the eye be T from which let the line LT be drawn to always appears of the same size. (Fig. 38.)
the center, and let it be shorter than either of the radii. For let BG be the thing seen and let Z be the eye, from
And let KF be drawn, equal to the diameter of the circle, which let rays fall, ZB and ZG, and about the triangle BZG
and let it be cut in two at M, and from the point AM let let the arc of a circle, BZG, be inscribed, and let the eye, Z,
MN be erected at right angles, and let MN be equal to TL, be shifted to D, and let the rays fall, DB and DG. Now
and let an arc of a circle, NKF, be inscribed about KF and the angle D is equal to the angle Z; for they are on the same
the point N. Now it is less than a semicircle, since MN is arc. And things seen at the same angle appear equal. So BG
less than the radius. Now the angle at N formed by KN will always appear of the same size, when the eye is shifted
and N will be equal to the angle at T formed by GT upon the arc BDG.
and TD. Again, let the angle KMX be equal to the angle
ELT, and let MX be equal to LT, and let an arc, KXF,
be inscribed about KF and the point X. Now the angle at
the point X formed by KXF is equal to the angle at T
formed by ZTE. Again, let the angle KM, MO be equal
to the angle AL, LT, and let MO be equal to LT, and about G
B
KF and 0 let an arc be inscribed. Now the angle at 0
formed by KOF will be equal to the angle at T formed by
ATB. So, since the angle at 0 is greater than the angle
at X, and the angle at 0 is equal to the angle at T formed
by A TB, and the angle at X is equal to the angle at T FIG. 38. FIG. 39.
368 HARRY EDWIN BURTON

If some object is perpendicular to the plane lying below, shortest. For let the straight lines, ED, GZ, GB, EB, and
and if the eye is placed upon some point of the plane, and if the ZE, be drawn. Now, since GE is parallel and equal to AB,
thing seen is shifted upon the circumference of a circle which also EA is equal and parallel to GB. So, AEGB is a
has te eye as a center, the thing seen will always appear of parallelogram. For the same reasons also EDZG is a paral-
the same size when it is moved to a position parallel to its lelogram. And it remains to prove that the same thing
original position. (Fig. 39.) appears smaller and greater. Now it is clear that the angle
Let AB be some object that is seen, located at right GEA is less than the angle GED, since it has been proved
angles to the plane, and let G be the eye. And let G and B that of all the straight lines drawn through the center and
be joined, and with G as the center and GB as the radius making an angle, the angle GEA is the smallest. So it is
let the circle BD be inscribed. I say that if, upon the smaller than the angle GED also. And the angle BEA is
circumference of the circle, the object AB is moved, as seen half the angle GEA; for BE is an equilateral parallelogram;
by the eye G, AB will appear to be of the same size. For AB and the angle ZED is half the angle GED; for ZE also is an
is a perpendicular and makes a right angle with BG, and equilateral parallelogram. And so the angle BEA is less
all the straight lines falling from the center G upon the than the angle ZED. So that also the object AB will appear
circumference of the circle make equal angles. So the less than the object DZ.
object seen will appear to be of the same size. And it is clear from the thesis before proved that it will
And if from the center G a straight line rises at a right appear least at the point A, and greatest when diametrically
angle and the eye is placed upon this, and the object seen opposite to the point A, and equal at an equal distance on
is moved along the circumference of the circle, parallel to either side of the point A.
the straight line upon which is the eye, the thing seen will
always appear to be of the same size. But if the thing seen is at right angles to the plane lying
below, and the eye moves upon the circumference of a circle
But if the thing seen is not at right angles to the plane lying which has as its center the point at which the object meets
below, and, being equal to the radius, is moved upon. the the plane, the thing seen will always appear of the same size.
circumference of the circle, it will appear sometimes equal to (Fig. 41.)
itself, sometimes unequal, if it is shifted to a position parallel Let the object seen be AB, at right angles to the plane
to its original position. (Fig. 40.) lying below, and let the eye be G. And with B as a center
Let AD be a circle and let the mark D be taken on its and the radius BG, let the circle GD be inscribed. I say
circumference, and let the line DZ, which is equal to the that if G moves upon the circumference of the circle, AB
radius, rise not at right angles to the circle, and let E be will always appear the same. And this is clear. For all the
the eye. I say that DZ, if it is moved on the circumference rays from the point G falling upon AB fall at equal angles,
of the circle, will appear sometimes equal, sometimes since the angle at B is a right angle. So the thing seen will
greater, sometimes less. Now through E, which is the appear of the same size.
center, let GE be drawn, parallel to DZ, and let EG be
If the thing seen remains in its original position and the
equal to DZ. And from the point G let the perpendicular GL
eye moves in a straight line that is oblique to the object seen,
be drawn to the plane lying below and let it reach the plane
the object appears sometimes of the same size, sometimes of
at the point L. And let EL be connected and produced,
different size. (Fig. 42.)
and let it reach the circumference at the point A, and Let AB be the thing seen and let E be the eye, and let
through A let AB be drawn parallel to GE, and let AB be GD be a straight oblique line, and let GA be a continuation
equal to DZ. I say that AB, of all the straight lines moved of BA in a straight line, and let it meet DG at G, and let
upon the circumference of the circle, will appear the the eye be moved upon it. I say that AB appears sometimes
of the same size, sometimes of different size. For, let GE be
B taken as a mean proportional of the lines BG and GA, and
let E be the eye and let it be moved, and let it be on the
same straight line at D. I say that the thing seen from E
and D appears to be of different size. Let the straight lines
AE, EB, AD, and BD be drawn, and about the triangle
AEB let the arc AEB be inscribed, and let the angle formed

G A B
FIG. 40.i FIG. 41. FIG. 42.
 THE OPTICS OF EUCLID 369

B G
E

G- D L
D K
FIG. 42a. FIG. 43. FIG. 44.

by GA and AZ be equal to the angle formed by GD and DB, smaller from G than from Z, but from G and D it appears
and let BZ be joined. Now B, A, Z, and D are points in a the same.
circle. So, since the angle AEB is greater than the angle
There are places where, if the eye is moved to them, objects
AZB, and the angle AZB is equal to the angle formed
that are of equal size and close to one another appear some-
by AD and DB, since it is on the same arc, also the angle
times of the same size, sometimes of different sizes. (Fig. 44.)
AEB is greater than the angle ADB. But under the angle
Let T be the eye, and let AB and BG be the objects,
ADB, AB is seen when the eye is at D, and under the
and from B let BZ be drawn at right angles, and let it be
angle AEB the same AB is seen when the eye is at E. So
produced to D. Now it is clear that if the eye is placed on
the thing seen appears of different size when the eye
any part whatever of the line ZD, AB and BG will appear
moves along the straight line ED. And it is clear also that
equal. Now let the eye be moved and let it be E. I say that
when the eye moves along the line EG, the thing seen
from E the objects appear of unequal size. Let the rays
appears of different size, and that it appears largest from
fall, EA, EB, and EG, and around the triangle AGE let
the position at E, but always larger in a position nearer to
the circle AEDG be inscribed, and let BL be a continuation
E on either of the straight lines, ED and EG, and of the of EB. Now, since the arc AD is equal to the arc DG, and
same size at Z and D and places taken in like manner to since the arc ADL is greater than the arc LG, AB will
them, on account of the fact that the angles are on the appear greater than BG. And if the eye moves upon the
same arc. line EL, the objects will appear similarly unequal; and if
In addition. (Fig. 42a.) For let KD be the thing seen and it is placed upon the parts of the circle outside the per-
let BG be a straight line falling upon KD produced. Let pendicular, the objects appear unequal, and if it is placed
GZ be taken as a mean proportional of GD and GK, and outside the circle, not in line with DZ, they appear unequal.
let ZK and ZD be drawn, and about KD let an arc be In addition. (Fig. 44a.) For let BG be equal to GD, and
inscribed, which contains the angle KZD. Now it will about BG let the semicircle BZG be inscribed, and about
touch the straight line BG, since as KG is to GZ, so is GD let GZD, more than a semicircle, be inscribed; and it is
GZ to GD. Now let the eye be at the point B, and let DB clear that it will cut the semicircle before mentioned. And
and BK be added. And let S and D be joined. So the angle it is possible to inscribe upon GD an arc greater than a
P is equal to the angle S; for they are on the same arc. semicircle. For if we assume a certain acute angle, it is
And the angle S is greater than the angle B; and so the possible for us to inscribe upon GD an arc of a circle con-
angle P is greater than the angle B. Thus the eye being taining an angle equal to the acute angle below, as (is clear)
at Z, KD appears greater than when the eye is at B. from the 33rd proposition of the third book of the Ele-
ments, and the arc imposed upon it will be greater than a
And the same thing will happen, even if the straightline is
semicircle, as (is clear) from the 31st proposition of the
parallel with the object seen. (Fig. 43.)
third book of the Elements. And let BZ, ZG, and ZD be
Let AB be the object seen and let it be cut in two at
drawn. So the angle in the semicircle is greater than the
the point E, and from E let EZ be erected at right angles
angle in the greater arc. And the things seen at a greater
to AB, upon which line let the eye rest at Z, and let the angle appear larger; so BG appears larger than GD. But it
straight lines ZA and ZB be drawn, and about the triangle was equal. There is, then, a common place, where, if the
AZB let the arc AZB be inscribed, and let ZD be drawn eye is placed there, equal things appear unequal. But they
through Z parallel to AB, and let the eye move to D, will appear equal when . . . . (The remainder of this
and let the rays fall, DA and DB. I say that from the sentence is corrupt in the Greek text, and cannot be
points D and Z things will appear of different size. Let A translated.)
and L be joined. Now, since the angle AZB is equal to the
angle ALB, but the angle ALB is greater than the angle
ADB, the angle AZB also is greater than the angle ADB.
And AB is seen under the angle AZB when the eye is at Z,
and similarly under the angle ADB when the eye is at D. FIG. 44a. -----
So the thing seen appears of different size from the points
D and Z.
And if ZG is drawn equal to DZ, the object appears
370 HARRY EDWIN BURTON

There is a certain place fromi which objects of unequal size

appear equal. (Fig. 45.)
For let BG be greater than GD, and around BG let an
arc greater than a semicircle be inscribed, and around GD
an arc like the one around BG, that is, one containing an F IG. 47.
angle equal to the one in BZG. Now the arcs will cut each
other. Let them cut each other at Z, and let ZB, ZC, and
ZD be drawn. So, since the angles in the similar arcs are
equal to each other, also the angles in the arcs BZG and B G D
GZD are equal to each other. And the things seen under
equal angles appear equal. For if the eye is placed at the
point Z, BG would appear equal to GD. But it really is
greater. So there is a common place, from which objects
of unequal size appear equal.

There are places to which the eye may be moved and objects A B G
of equal size that are perpendicularto the plane below appear
sometimes of equal size, sometimes of unequal size. (Fig. 46.) FIG. 48.

Let AB and GD be objects of equal size perpendicular to

the plane below. I say that there is a place where, if the There are certain places where the eye may be located, and
eye is located there, AB and GD appear equal. Let BD be objects of unequal size placed in contact will together appear
drawn from B to D, and let it be cut in two at the point E, equal to each of the unequal objects. (Fig. 47.)
and from E let EZ be drawn at right angles to DB. I say For let BG be larger than GD, and about BG and GD
that if the eye is placed upon EZ, AB and GD will appear let semicircles be inscribed and another about the whole
equal. For let the eye rest upon EZ, and let Z mark the BD. So the angle in the semicircle BAD is equal to the
position of the eye, and let the rays fall, ZA, ZB, ZE, ZD, angle in BKG; for each of them is a right angle. So BG
and ZG. Now the straight line ZB is equal to ZD. But also appears equal to BD. And in like manner also BD appears
AB is equal to GD. So the two lines, AB and BZ, are equal equal to GD, when the eyes are upon the semicircles BAD
to the two, GD and DZ. And they contain equal angles; and GZD. There are, then, certain places where two objects
for the angle BZA is equal to the angle DZG. So AB and GD of unequal size, when placed in contact, together appear
will appear equal. equal to each of the unequal objects.
I say, however, that they may appear also unequal. To find places from which an object of equal size appears
Now let the eye move, and let it be indicated by L, half or a quarter as large, or in general appears of a size
and let L and E be joined, and let the rays fall, LB, LA, proportionateto the cutting of the angle. (Fig. 48.)
LG, and LD. So, LB is longer than LD. From LB let BT Let AZ be equal to BG, and about AZ let a semicircle be
be taken, equal to LD, and let A and T be joined. Now the inscribed, and in it let the right angle K be drawn; and let
angle BTA is equal to the angle GLD. But the angle BTA BG be equal to AZ, and about BG let an arc be inscribed
is greater than the angle BLA, the exterior angle greater which will contain half of the angle at K. So the angle K is
than the interior. And so the angle GLD is greater than double the angle D. So AZ appears twice the size of BG,
the angle BLA. Therefore, GD will appear greater than AB. when the eyes are upon the arcs AKZ and BDG.
Let AB be the object seen. I say that there are places where
the eye may be located and the same thing appears sometimes
half the size, sometimes the whole size, sometimes quarter
FIG. 45.
size, and in general in the given proportion. (Fig. 49.)
About AB let the circle AEB be inscribed, so that AB is
not the diameter, and let the center of the circle be taken
and let it be G, upon which let the eye rest, and let the
straight lines AG and GB be drawn. So AB is seen under
the angle AGB. Now let the eye rest upon the circumference
of the circle and let it be indicated by E, and let the rays
fall, EA and EB. Now, since the angle AGB is double the
angle AEB, from G, AB seems twice as large as when
seen from E. Similarly also, it will appear a fourth as large
if one angle is a fourth as great as the other angle, and
(it will always be seen) in the given proportion.
If objects move at equal speed, and have their ends on the
L same side of a straight line which is at right angles to their
course, as they advance toward a line drawn through the point
FIG, 46. where the eye is located, which is parallel to the straight line
 THE OPTICS OF EUCLID 371

X rays fall, KB, KG, and KD. So, G, moving with the
eye, will seem to stand still, and B, left behind, will
seem to move in the opposite direction, and D,
which moves more quickly than these, will seem to
T move forward; for it will be more distant from these.
If, when certain objects are moved, one is obviously
not moved, the object that is not moved will seem to move
backward. (Fig. 52.)
For, let B and D move, and let G remain un-
FIG. 49.
moved, and from the eye let the rays fall, ZB, ZG,
M and ZD. So B, as it moves, will be nearer to G, and
FIG. 50. D, receding, will be farther away; therefore, G will
seem to move in the opposite direction.
before mentioned, the one farther away from the eye will seem
to be ahead of the nearer one, but when they have passed (the When the eye moves nearer the object seen, the object will
direct line of vision), the one that was in the lead will seem seem to grow larger. (Fig. 53.)
to follow, and the one thatfollowed will seem to be in the lead. For, the eye being at Z, let BG be seen by the rays ZB
(Fig. 50.) and ZG, and let the eye move nearer to BG, and let it be
For let BG, DZ, and KA move with equal speed, having at D, and let the same thing be seen by the rays DB
their ends, G, Z, and A, on the same side of a straight line, and DG. So the angle D is greater than the angle Z; and
GA, which is at right angles to their course, and from the things seen under a wider angle appear larger. Therefore
eye, M, let ML be drawn parallel to GA, and let MG, MZ, BG will seem to be larger when the eye is at D, than when
and MA be drawn. So BG seems to be in the lead and KA it is at Z.
seems to follow, on account of the fact that, of the rays When objects move at equal speed, those more remote seem
falling from the eye, MG, leading to G, seems to have to move more slowly. (Fig. 54.)
diverged (to the right) more than the other rays. So BG For let B and K move at equal speed, and from the eye,
will seem to be in the lead of the moving objects, as has A, let rays be drawn, AG, AD, and AZ. So, B has longer
been said. But when BG, DZ, and KA have passed (the rays than K extending from the eye. Therefore it will
direct line of vision), and have become NX, PR, and ST,
cover a greater distance, and, later, passing the line of
let the rays fall, MN, MP, and MS. So NX seems to have
vision, AZ, will seem to move more slowly.
moved in the direction of N (that is, toward the left), on An addition. (Fig. 54a.) For let two points, A and B,
account of the fact that the ray MN has been diverted to move on parallel straight lines, and let Z be the eye, from
N more than the other rays; so ST has moved in the
which let the rays fall, ZA, ZB, ZE, and ZD. I say that the
direction of T (that is, toward the right), on account of more remote object, A, seems to move more slowly than B.
the fact that MS has been diverted toward T more than For, since AZ and ZD form a smaller angle than ZB and
the other rays. So when BG, which seemed to be in the lead, ZE, BE appears greater than AD. (The following sentence
has become NX, it will seem to follow, but when KA, is corrupt in the Greek text, and no satisfactory translation
which seemed to follow, has become ST, it will seem to be is possible.) Therefore, if we extend the ray ZE in a straight
in the lead.
line, since in the case of objects moving at the same speed
If, when several objects move at unequal speed, the eye also B reaches the ray ZE later than the things moving at the
moves in the same direction, some objects, moving with the same speed, the more remote objects seem to move more
same speed as the eye, will seem to stand still, others, moving slowly.
more slowly, will seem to move in the opposite direction, and An addition. (Fig. 54b). Let two points, A and B, move
others, moving more quickly, will seem to move ahead. evenly on the parallel straight lines, AD and BE; they will
(Fig. 51.) cover the same distances in the same time. So, let AD and
For, let B, G, and D move at unequal speed, and let B BE be equal distances, and from the eye, Z, let the rays
move most slowly, and G at the same speed as the eye, K, fall, ZA, ZD, ZB, and ZE. Now, since the angle AZD is
and D more quickly than G. And from the eye, K, let the less than the angle BZE, therefore the distance AD will

B G r1%
B aG I
D BA 77DF.
B G G D Z
B \ / E
B
D K

K z
FIG. 51. FIG. 52. FIG. 53. FIG. 54. FIG. 54a.
372 372HARRY ED\WIN BTRTON

A D A IB

G D D
B H E

E
nB -\ G
FIG. 54b. FIG. 55. FIG. 56. FIG. 57.

appear less than the distance BE. So that A will appear Z be moved back, and let it be nearer
to move more slowly. the eye. So DBG will seem to be
convex.
If the eye remains at rest, while the things seen are moved,
the more remote of the things seen will seem to be left behind. If from the meeting-point of the
(Fig. 55.) A D diameters of a square a perpendicu-
Let A and G be the things seen, located on the straight lar is drawn, and the eye rests upon
lines, AB and GD, and let E be the eye, from which let this, the sides of the square will ap-
the rays fall, EG, ED, EA, and EB. I say that the object I \ / \ pear equal and the diameters also will
at A will seem to have been left behind. Let ED be extended appear equal. (Fig. 58.)
to a point where it meets AB, and let it be EB. Now, since
B G Let ABGD be a square and let the
the angle GEB is greater than the angle AEB, the distance
FIG. 58. diagonals DB and GA be drawn, and
GD appears greater than AB. So that if the eye remains from E let the straight line EZ be
at E, the rays, moving in the direction of A and G,will drawn perpendicular to the plane, and upon this line let Z
pass more quickly than G. So AB will seem to be left indicate the position of the eye, and let the rays fall, ZA,
behind. ZB, ZG, and ZD. Now, since DE is equal to EG, and EZ is
Objects increased in size will seem to approach the eye. common to them, and the angles are right angles, the base ZG
(Fig. 56.) is equal to the base DZ, and of the angles at the bases those
Let AB represent the size of the object seen, and let G be are equal upon which equal sides subtend. So the angle
the eye, from which let the rays fall, GA and GB. And let EZG is equal to the angle EZD. Therefore EG will appear
BA be increased, and let it be BD, and let the ray fall, GD. equal to ED. Similarly also the angle AZE is equal to the
Now, since the angle BGD is greater than the angle BGA, angle BZE. Therefore AG will appear equal to BD. Again,
BD appears greater than BA. But things thought to be since GZ is equal to ZB, but also AB to GD, the three are
greater than themselves seem to be increased, and the equal to the three others, and one angle is equal to another
things nearer the eye appear greater. So objects increased angle. So one side will appear equal to the other, as also
in size will seem to approach the eye. the remaining sides will appear equal.
But if a line is drawn from the eye to the meeting-point
When things lie at the same distance and the edges are not of the diameters, and if it is not perpendicular to the plane
in line with the middle, it makes the whole figure sometimes or equal to each one of the lines drawn from the meeting-
concave, sometimes convex. (Fig. 57.) point to the angles of the square, and if it does not make
For let GBD be seen by the eye located at K, and let equal angles with them, the diameters will appear unequal.
the rays fall, KG, KB, and KD. So the whole figure will For similarly we shall prove what happens, just as in the
seem to be concave. Now let the thing seen in the middle case of circles.