Gmath Module

MODULE IN
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Department of Mathematics
SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTANCY, MANAGEMENT, COMPUTING and INFORMATION STUDIES
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GMATH
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COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should
be able to:
1. Discuss and argue about the
nature of mathematics, what is,
how is expressed, represented,
and used.
2. Use different types of reasoning
to justify statements and
arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical
concepts.
3. Discuss the language and
symbols of mathematics.
4. Use a variety of statistical tools to
process and manage numerical
data.
5. Use mathematics in other areas
MATHEMATICS IN such as finance, voting, health

and medicine, business,
THE MODERN
environment, arts and design,
and recreation.
6. Appreciate the nature and uses
WORLD of mathematics in everyday life.
7. Affirm honesty and integrity in the
application of mathematics to
various human endeavors.
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 2
COURSE INTRODUCTION
This course deals with the nature of mathematics, appreciation of its practical, intellectual
and aesthetic dimensions, and application of Mathematical tools in daily life. The course
begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an exploration of patterns (in
nature and the environment) and as an application of inductive and deductive reasoning.
By exploring these topics, students are encouraged to go beyond the typical understanding
of mathematics as merely a set of formulas but as a source of aesthetics in patterns of nature,
for example, and a rich language in itself (and of science) governed by logic and
reasoning. The course then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics provides a tool
for understanding and dealing with various aspects of present-day living, such as managing
personal finances, making social choices, appreciating geometric designs, understanding
codes used in data transmission and security, and dividing limited resources fairly. These
aspects will provide opportunities for actually doing mathematics in a broad range of
exercises that bring out the various dimensions of mathematics as a way of knowing, and
test the students’ understanding and capacity. Further, it instils appreciation towards God’s
creation and encourages stewardship and preservation of natural resources.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Module and Unit Topics 5
Course Study Guide and House Rules 6
Study Schedule 8
Evaluation 13
Technological Tools 14
Assignment Guide 14
Grading System 15
Contact Information of the Facilitator 15
Module 1 – The Nature of Mathematics 17

Module 2 – Mathematics in Nature 18
Module 3 – Mathematics as a study of Pattern 23
Module 4 - Mathematics as a Language 32
Module 5 - Reasoning and Problem Solving 63
Module 6 – Mathematics of Finance 94
Module 7 – Data Management 109

Module 8 – Mathematics of Graphs 141
Module 9 – Linear Programming 149
References 160
Module and Unit Topics
For you to be able to meet the above cited course learning outcomes at the end of
the module, the topics of MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD are divided into the
following:
Module 1 The Nature of Mathematics

Relevance and meaning of mathematics.
Module 2 Mathematics in Nature

Mathematics is a useful way to think about nature and our world.
Module 3 Mathematics as a Study of Patterns

Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.
Module 4 The Language of Mathematics

Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules
Module 5 Reasoning and Problem Solving

Mathematics is not just about numbers; much of it is problem solving and
reasoning.
Module 6 Mathematics of Finance

Simple and Compound Interest
Ordinary Annuity and Annuity Due
Module 7 Data Management

Statistical tools derived from mathematics are useful in processing and
managing numerical data in order to describe a phenomenon and predict
values
Module 8 Mathematics of Graphs

Basic Definitions
Euler Graphs and Euler circuits
Hamiltonian graphs
Module 9 Linear Programming

Linear Inequalities
Linear Programming
Graphical Solution of an LP Model
Course Study Guide and House Rules
Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs, and
mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and feedback
for this course, will instill in you important qualities you will need in the future as you practice
your profession. The following course guides and house rules are designed for you to practice
decorum consistent with standards expected within a formal academic environment. The
following guides and house rules will help you further to be on track and to say at the end of
the module, "I did well!" These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence,
cooperation, and clear communication among learners and instructors throughout the
conduct of this course:
1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep requirement
deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing visual cues posted in
your place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically, online, or on paper).
Remember that there are other daily activities that take up your time, not to
mention other courses you may be concurrently taking. Choose a time of day when
you are most likely to maximize learning. Communicate your schedule to other
members of your household so they could help you keep it. It would also help to
prepare a dedicated space in your residence conducive for learning.
2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an academic
space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the distance
learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a face – to – face
classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already been answered in the
lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or provided. Acts like these will
reflect your poor focus and uninspired preparation for this course. Practice
Electronic Conversation Etiquette in group chats, open forums, and similar
electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling, and
complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid text-speak,
slang, all caps, and other informal expressions in your posts. Do not use
abbreviations and acronyms unless these are introduced in the readings.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of the
discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and provide a
meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of other participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the main
speaker.
3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making use of
the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would be
worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the applications
you will need to access your course materials, interact with me and your classmates,
and submit course requirements. Applications of note are Google Classroom,
Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also available alternatives to Microsoft
Office tools you might want to explore. Certain requirements will require you to take
a video on your smart phone, save it, and submit it electronically. Work on this skill
as well. If you are offline, identify the most convenient means for express mail
correspondence and inform me as early as possible so we can make the necessary
arrangements ahead of time.
4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning
outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you are to
acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing beyond it.
Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of thought and care
you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very tangible measure of how
much of the competencies you have developed and fully obtained throughout this
course.
5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline modes to
ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the needed learning
materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from me or from your
classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and updated. My contact
details can be found at the latter part of this document and will be made available
and widely disseminated to enrollees of this course.
6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in electronic
form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital footprint that
can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly for referenced
statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute statements by persons
other than you by using terms like according to, he said/she said, and the like.
7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your
competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your disposal,
and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to be your
independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this course. The
only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to learn as much from
it as an individual. Make it count.
8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we follow in the
conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally accepted norms of
courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal and family time. Unless of
utmost importance, please refrain from any form of communication between 8:30
PM and 7:30 AM everyday and the whole day on Sundays and official holidays. You
shall expect me to adhere to this guideline myself. This will allow us all to dedicate
personal time and space to other aspects of our life and maintain a healthy work-
life/study-life balance.
9. Lastly, you are the learner; hence, you do the module on your own. Your family
members and friends at home will support you but the activities must be done by
you. As Louisan, we always need to demonstrate our core values of competence,
creativity, social involvement and Christian spirit.
Additional Guidelines for correspondence-based learning:

 If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL) mode, you
will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at given stages of the
course through express mail correspondence to me, on or before the scheduled
date. I will provide you with the feedback on your submissions at the soonest possible
time through any of the available means of communication.
 While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue doing
the tasks in the succeeding units of the module.
 If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available means.
Remember, if there is a will, there is a way.
Study Schedule
Topic Learning Outcomes Activities

November 19 – 24,
2020
MODULE 1 The Nature of Mathematics
a) Articulate the importance of Engage: Understanding the nature
mathematics in one’s life; of Mathematics
b) Express appreciation for Explore: Analyzing the definition of
mathematics as a human Mathematics and its
endeavor. Characteristics.
Explain: Introducing the different
definitions of Mathematics and the
origin of the word. Discussing the
five characteristics of
Mathematics. Differentiating
calculation with computation.
Elaborate: Reading Ian Stewart’s
Nature’s Numbers and looking at
Mathematics and its role in my
chosen field.
Evaluate: Assessing my
understanding of Mathematics in a
new perspective.
MODULE 2 Mathematics in Nature
August 17, 2020 a) Identify patterns in nature and Engage: Looking at the different
regularities in the world; aspects of nature as related to
b) Articulate the importance of Mathematics.
mathematics in one’s life; Explore: With the videos presented
c) Express appreciation for understand Mathematics in Nature
mathematics as a human not simply on the aspects of
endeavor shapes but in different
perspectives.
Explain: Understanding shapes,
symmetries, patterns in nature.
Elaborate: Investigate the
presence of these aspects in
nature and also the environment
where I belong.
Evaluate: Assess my understanding
of Mathematics in Nature.
Mathematics as a Study of
MODULE 3
Patterns
a) Solve problems involving Engage: Revisiting your entrance
patterns; examinations and other aptitude
b) Express appreciation for tests there were a lot of abstract
mathematics as a human reasoning problems, how did you
endeavor go about it?
c) Articulate the importance of Explore: Discovering different
mathematics in one’s life; approaches in solving patterns in
Mathematics.
Explain: Applying different
methods and generalizations
about number, logic and
geometric patterns.
Elaborate: Doing problems about
patterns.
Evaluate: Working on different
types of Mathematical patterns.
MODULE 4 The Language of Mathematics
a) Discuss the language, symbols Engage: Recalling the five
and conventions of characteristics of Mathematics.
mathematics; Explore: Scaffolding the elements
b) Explain the nature of of Mathematical language.
mathematics as a language; Explain: Applying the different
c) Perform operations on processes and procedures in
mathematical expressions evaluating and operating on the
correctly; different elements of the
d) Cite examples that highlight Mathematical language.
the importance of Elaborate: Improving my basic
mathematics as a language Mathematical skills in performing
the different operations.
Evaluate: Enhancing my skills in the
performance of the assigned
Mathematical exercises.
November 20 – Submit through google classroom the following:
24, 2020  Self – assessment 1: Ian Stewart’s Natures numbers (Reading
assignment)
 Assignment: Pictures that exhibit Golden Ratio and Fibonacci
sequence
 Practice Exercise 1: Patterns
 Seatwork 1: Patterns
 Practice Exercise 2: Sets
 Submission of Quiz 1 Modules 1 – 4
November 25 – Topic Learning Outcomes Activities
December 2, 2020
MODULE 5 Reasoning and Problem Solving
a) Solve problems involving Engage: Revisiting the analysis
patterns and recreational done in solving Mathematical
puzzles using inductive and patterns.
deductive reasoning; b) Use Explore: Integrating reasoning in
different types of reasoning to every Mathematical approach
justify statements and being utilized.
arguments made about Explain: Applying the different
mathematics and types of reasoning and the truth
mathematical concepts; values in logical situations.
b) Solve problems involving Applying Polya’s four step method
patterns and recreational and the different strategies in
problems following Polya’s solving Mathematical problems.
four steps; Elaborate: Improving my analytical
c) Organize one’s methods and skills in doing Mathematical
approaches for proving and problems.
solving problems. Evaluate: Working with
Mathematical problems through
different strategies.
MODULE 6 Mathematics of Finance
a) Use mathematical concepts Engage: Recalling my
and tools in other areas such understanding of consumer
as finance and business; mathematics.
b) Differentiate compound Explore: Exploring a strategy in
interest from simple interest; solving Mathematical problems
c) Apply the interest and annuity specifically through the formulation
formulas to cases of loans, of formula.
credits, stocks bonds, property Explain: Accomplishing
purchases, and investment Mathematical problems with
problems regards to finances.
Elaborate: Learning how to
construct basic financial tables like
amortization tables.
Evaluate: Applying concepts of
simple, compound interest, and
annuities.
November 25 – Submit through google classroom the following:
December 2, 2020  Practice Exercise 3: Logic Puzzle and KenKen
 Self – assessment 2: Logic
 Practice Exercise 4: Logic
 Seatwork 2: Logic
 Practice Exercise 5: Polya’s 4 Step Problem Solving
 Problem Set: Polya’s 4 Step Problem Solving (refer to
assignment Guide)
 Practice Exercise 6: Simple Interest
 Practice Exercise 7: compound Interest
 Practice Exercise 8: Annuity
 Submission of Quiz 2 (Modules 5 and 6)
December 3 – 4, 2020 Midterm Examination Modules 1 to 6
December 5 – 10, 2020 Topic Learning Outcomes Activities
MODULE 7 Data Management
a) Use a variety of statistical tools Engage: Revisit the elementary
to process and manage Statistics learned during my Senior
numerical data; High school days.
b) Use the methods of linear Explore: Discovering methods of
regression and correlations to gathering and presenting data.
predict the value of a variable Explain: Introduce the different
given certain conditions; measures utilized in Statistics.
c) Advocate the use of statistical Elaborate: Doing basic statistical
data in making important computations thru the use of
decisions calculators and excel.
Evaluate: Applying analytical skills
in doing basic inferential Statistics.
December 9 – 10, Submit through google classroom the following:
2020  Practice Exercise 9
 Submission of Quiz 3 (Module 7)
December 11 – 14,
2020
MODULE 8 Mathematics of Graphs

a) Characterize and construct Engage: Reflecting on different
different kinds of graphs; situations in school or in the
b) Differentiate Eulerian graphs business environment where
and Hamiltonian graphs; queueing is applied.
c) Use mathematical concepts Explore: Integrating graphs in the
and tools in other areas such presentation of such situations.
as networks, circuits and Explain: Learning how to look at
systems. the shortest paths.
Differentiating circuits and cycles.
Elaborate: Doing problems such as
the shortest path algorithm.
Evaluate: Applying the different
methods of determining shortest
paths in problems.
2020  Practice problem
 Practice problems
 Practice Exercise 10
 Final term Seatwork 1 (Mathematics of Graph)
December 15 – 17,
2020
MODULE 9 Linear Programming
a) Identify problems that linear Engage: Revisiting the concepts of
programming can handle; linear inequalities, graphs and
b) b) Write linear programming intersections.
models and solve using the Explore: Integrating the concepts
graphical method of greater than and less than in
graphing linear equations.
Explain: Introduce the basic
concept of linear programming.
Elaborate: Learning how to solve
systems of linear inequalities.
Evaluate: Assessing optimization
problems.
2020  Practice Exercise 11
 Final Term Seatwork 2 (Linear Programming)
 Submission of Quiz 4 (Modules 8 & 9)
 Quiz 4 Modules 8 & 9
December 19 and 21,
Final Examination Modules 7 to 9
2020
Saint Louis University Calendar for the First Semester AY 2019-2020
Registration: August 3 – 7, 2020

Start of Classes: November 19, 2020 (Batch 3)
University Foundation Week: November 26 – December 1
CICM Day: November 26
Bonifacio Day: November 30, 2020 (No Classes)
Handog ng SLU sa Baguio: December 1
Midterm Examination: December 3 – 4, 2020
Immaculate Conception of Mary: December 8 (No Classes)
Final Examination: December 19 and 21, 2020
Evaluation
The course modules rely on formative and summative assessments to determine the progress
of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this course, you must:
1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions.
2. Submit assignments/problem sets and graded quizzes.
3. Take the Midterm Examination.
4. Take Final Examination.
 If you are a student under the Correspondence-Based Learning (CBL) approach,
accomplish all print-based and electronically saved discussion activities and
requirements, and submit them on time via express mail correspondence.
Formative Assessment
Formative assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activities that are used to
monitor your learning experience and provide feedback to improve both your learning
approach as well as my instructional approach. You are required to answer the practice
exercises and reflection questions. You are also required to submit the result of these
formative assessments but your scores will not be counted towards your final grade.
1. The reflection questions are designed to help you to critically analyze the course
readings for better understanding while the practice exercises are designed as a
review management tool to prepare you for the graded assignments, problem sets,
quizzes and the periodical examinations.
2. Answering these will serve as prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you
may already move forward to the next unit of the module.
3. The completeness of your answers to the practice exercises and reflection questions
will still be checked and will still be part of your grade completion. Hence, no
practice exercises and reflection questions must be left unanswered.
4. In doing your formative assessment activities. You can always ask the help of your
family.
5. The practice exercises and reflection questions are required so you can take it
anytime within the scheduled days assigned for each unit.
Summative Assessment Activities

The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to evaluate your learning,
skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined
instructional period. The following must be answered:
 Examinations: Midterm Examination and Final Examination
 Assignment: Mathematics in nature
 Problem Set: Polya’s problem solving strategies
 Seatwork 1: Patterns
 Seatwork 2: Logic
 Seatwork 3: Mathematics of Graphs
 Seatwork 4: Linear Programming
 Quiz 1: Modules 1 – 4
 Quiz 2: Modules 5 and 6
 Quiz 3: Module 7
 Quiz 4: Modules 8 and 9
Technological Tools
To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will need a computer or a
laptop with the following software applications: Word Processing, PowerPoint Presentation,
and Publication for requirements that do not require online access. A smart phone with video
recording and editing features will also be used for activities that will require you to record
videos for saving and submission.
If you are a student online, access to the institutional Google Classroom will be
provided through your institutional account. An invitation to join the Google Classroom will
be sent to you through the SLU Student Portal and your institutional email account, so make
sure to activate your institutional email account. It is equally important that you check your
SLU Student Portal account at least twice a week and turn your Gmail Notifications on in your
mobile phone and computer.
If you are a student offline, the delivery of instructions and requirements will be
primarily through express mail correspondence of printed modules and saved digital content
on a USB flash drive. Feedback and clarifications will be facilitated through text messaging
and voice calls; hence, you need to have regular access to a cell phone. If you need to
call, or you want to talk to me, send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do not
give my CP number to anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are
not registered in my phone. Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to me.
Assignment Guide
I. Output.
You are expected to submit a complete solution to each problem covering the topics
in the Module. Being able to solve confidently without the supervision of your professor is
proof that you have well-understood the topic presented and are ready for the next
topic.
II. Rationale.
This set of exercises is intended to check if you have fully understood the method of
applying different techniques in solving some common types of functions, and/or their
applications. Also, this is a test if you can apply your prior knowledge about problem
solving.
III. Materials.
The assignment is available online in the Google Classwork and offline in the saved
electronic files in the USB flash drive and the printed learning materials. You may consult
all your reference materials and notes while solving the problem set. You will also need a
clean sheet of short bond paper or white pad paper, a black ballpoint pen and a straight
edge rule to write your solutions in your own handwriting.
SPECIFIC GUIDELINES
 Click on the file/link to the particular activity in our Google Classroom.
 Read all the instructions carefully before starting any of your solutions.
 Show needed solutions on clean sheets of bond paper in your own handwriting.
 Organize your solutions in a logical order.
 Avoid erasures.
 For the online submission of activities not in google forms take a scanned clear photo
of your solutions and organize it in chronological order in a pdf document saved
under the file name SURNAME, First Name_Class code_Activity No.
 Submit the pdf file of required solutions/answers by uploading it then click “Turn In”
in the google classroom.
Grading System
MIDTERM TENTATIVE FINAL

Assessment Methods FINAL GRADE
GRADE GRADE
Class Standing
Assignments/
Problem Sets 70% 70% Final Grade =
Quizzes + (0.50 * Midterm Grade)
+ (0.50 * Tentative Final
End-of-Term 30% 30%
Grade)
Examination
Total 100% 100%
Contact Information of the Facilitator
DR. DANIEL M. ABRATIQUE

Head Department of Mathematics
Cellphone (Smart): +639217643423

(Globe): +639562544944
Institutional email address : [email protected]
(Name of Faculty)
GMATH Course Facilitator
Cellphone :
Institutional email address :
Facebook Messenger :
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
When one would be asked how do they feel about studying mathematics, most
would actually comment regarding their anxieties and fear about the subject. We were
trained differently. Those notions of ours should change.
Let us now look at the pandemic we are facing. We are tasked to stay home, keep
social or in a strict sense physical distancing. These are recommendations because of the
nature of transmission of the virus from one who is infected, there is a great possibility that
they will infect ten others. These ten would also infect 10 each. Thus it is exponential in nature.
There is a need to flatten the curve.
The terminologies that are being used are that of mathematics. The calculations that
are made becomes the basis of decision making. That is why there is a great need to
understand mathematics. It is not plainly numbers. When we have the essence regarding
the number then it becomes more meaningful to us. Mathematics is a foreign language to
us, that is why at times we do not simply understand it.
Kdramas are better, though it is in foreign language we have translations in forms of
subtitles being seen. But as a comparison the mathematics language is simpler for us to
understand.
We have been using this language unknowingly. It is a matter of appreciation and
realization that mathematics is important. Its utility is far more than the utilities of the other
courses you have been learning.
Mathematics is the language in which God has created the Universe. It is the
language of God.
I hope that with this in mind, a respect to our neglected and feared course would
again be given proper credence. That is why we are encouraging you to learn with us.
Mathematics has its Greek root on the word mathemata which means fond of learning.
When we strive to learn and have fun in it then we become mathematicians.
The major objective of our course is to understand the nature and language of
Mathematics and the wonderful utilities in it.
Mathematics: just do it. It is not a watch and learn. It is where we learn. Once again,
MATHEMATICS: JUST DO IT!
MODULE 1: THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
This module is an introductory part. I would be presenting the definition and nature
of Mathematics. A video presentation “Math from a Biblical Worldview” @
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcKi2t54djk helps us out in looking at its aesthetic
value. You are also tasked to read Ian’s Stewart’s “Nature's numbers : the unreal reality of
mathematics” @ https://www.pdfdrive.com/natures-numbers-the-unreal-reality-of-
mathematics-e157882838.html.
The target Learning outcomes of our Module 1, particularly for topics 1 and 2, are: a)
Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life; b) Express appreciation for
mathematics as a human endeavor.
Self – assessment: After reading Ian Stewart’s Natures Numbers: List down events that
are related to your field of specialization.
1. What concepts of Mathematics are of importance to your field?
2. What is the role of Mathematics in your field?
The Meaning of Mathematics and Its Characteristics

PowerPoint 01: Definitions of Mathematics and Its characteristics.
Mathematics may be viewed in different perspectives. In its wildest significance, it is

the development of all types of formal deductive reasoning. Generally, it is said to be the
science of calculation. Others view it as a science of numbers and space and others say
that it is a science of measurement, quantity and magnitude. Locke said “Mathematics is a
way to settle in the mind of children a habit of reasoning.” It is a discipline investigating
“formal structures” (Bernays), it is the “science of orders” (Russell), it is the “science of order
in progression” (Hamilton). Mathematics has been seen also as a logical construct that is
based on a lot of axioms of either set theory or number theory.
Traditionally, mathematics is presented deductively at school. And is often perceived
as well structured and problems are algorithmically approached. Merriam dictionary defines
mathematics as the science of numbers and their operations, interrelations, combinations,
generalizations, and abstractions and of space configurations of their structure,
measurement, transformations and generalizations.
Mathematics is derived from the ancient word manthanein meaning "to learn". The
Greek root mathesis means "knowledge" or its other form máthema meaning science,
knowledge, or learning, and mathematikós or mathemata means "fond of learning". These
might have been the notion of the early mathematicians and philosophers that is why they
continue to seek for knowledge and the truth. Mathematics could then be defined as
a desire for a particular kind of knowing. Knowing that is self-contained on the individual or
may be seen as an autonomous thinking (Schaaf, 1963).
Mathematics is described in so many ways that fits within the area of human
knowledge. Basically it is seen as a study of patterns and relations. It is also a way of thinking.
Mathematics is seen as an art which is characterized by order and internal consistency. It is
a language that uses carefully defined terms and symbols. Thus, mathematics is a tool (Reys,
Lindquist, Lambdin, Smith and Suydam, 2004).
Mathematics has five basic characteristics’ namely: precision, definition, reasoning,
coherence, and purposefulness. They are not independent of each other. It is precise in the
sense that mathematical statements are clear and unambiguous. It is clear what is known
and what is not known. Definitions abound in mathematics. It is the bedrock of mathematical
structure and the platform that supports reasoning. Reasoning is the lifeblood of
mathematics. It is the engine that drives proving and problem solving. Its absence is the root
cause of the learning by rote approach. Concepts and skills are interwoven in mathematics.
And lastly, mathematics is goal-oriented, and for every concept or skill there is a purpose for
it.
Hardy (1941) states that the beauty of mathematics resides in the fact that
mathematics is all about, not just patterns, but patterns of ideas. Devlin defines mathematics
as the “science of patterns” and then more fully as: “the science of order, patterns, structure,
and logical relationships” (Devlin, 2001, p. 73). Mathematics has also often been described
as the language of science. Since the mixture of symbols and words is so powerfully
descriptive and communicative perhaps the definition: “mathematics is the language of the
science of order, patterns, structure and logical relationships” may be considered. Whatever
form or way one defines mathematics so long as it becomes meaningful to the user then it
would be a definition for that user.
MODULE 2: MATHEMATICS IN NATURE

This module would give you a perspective that mathematics is not plainly numbers
and operations. It is more than that. We have been emphasizing that God created the
universe mathematically. Everything you see around you is Mathematics.
The target learning outcomes of module 2 are: a) Identify patterns in nature and
regularities in the world; b) Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life; c)
Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor
To start with, lets watch this video entitled Nature’s Mathematics 1 and 2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VE_RU0fNjt0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2WHNMfRmHE&t=643s
Mathematics in Nature
PowerPoint 02: Mathematics in Nature, Shapes
Euclid said that "The laws of nature are but the mathematical thoughts of God."
Galileo affirmed by stating that “Mathematics is the language in which God has written the
Universe.”
Mathematics is everywhere, it is seen anywhere in the universe. With the development
of a formal system of thought for recognizing, classifying, and exploiting patterns; one could
systematize and organize these ideas of patterns. It would be here that we could discover
great secrets of nature’s patterns. They are not just there to be admired; they are vital clues
to the rules that govern the natural process.
Analyzing thoroughly, having the essentials of mathematics as our basis, we could
further discover mathematics in our world and unravel the mystery of the universe. The
majority of our knowledge of mathematics and modern science is strictly based and
supported by our observations of our environment. What was once seen as the randomness
of nature is now distinguished as the intricate applications of mathematics and illustrates the
complexities of our natural world. Here are a very few properties of mathematics that are
depicted in nature.
A. SHAPES
Geometry is the branch of mathematics that basically describes shapes and

establishes the relationships between them. Figures with regular shapes are categorized as
polygons. Polygons are fascinating, especially when they are approximated in nature. When
looking carefully, one can see them all around us.
Spatial patterns can be represented by a fairly small collection of fundamental
geometrical shapes and relationships that have corresponding symbolic representation. To
make sense of the world, the human mind relies heavily on its perception of shapes and
patterns. The artifacts around us (such as buildings, vehicles, toys, utensils and basic things
we use in life) and the familiar forms we see in nature (such as animals, leaves, stones, flowers,
and the moon and sun) can often be characterized in terms of geometric form. Some of the
ideas and terms of geometry have become part of everyday language. Although real
objects never perfectly match a geometric figure, they more or less approximate them. The
properties and characteristics about geometric figures and
relationships can be associated with objects. For many purposes, it is sufficient to be familiar
with points, lines, planes; triangles, rectangles, squares, circles, and ellipses; rectangular solids
and spheres; relationships of similarity and congruence; relationships of convex, concave,
intersecting, and tangent; angles between lines or planes; parallel and perpendicular
relationships between lines and planes; forms of symmetry such as displacement, reflection,
and rotation; and the Pythagorean theorem.
Both shape and measurement (magnitude) or scale can have important
consequences for the performance of systems. For example, triangular connections
maximize rigidity, smooth surfaces minimize turbulence, and a spherical container minimizes
surface area for any given mass or volume. Changing the size of objects while keeping the
same shape can have profound effects owing to the geometry of scaling: Area varies as
the square of linear dimensions, and volume varies as the cube. On the other hand, some
particularly interesting kinds of patterns known as fractals look very similar to one another
when observed at any scale whatever—and some natural phenomena (such as the shapes
of clouds, mountains, and coastlines) seem to be like that.
Some Common Shapes Visible in Nature
Sphere. A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical

object in three-dimensional space, such as the shape of a
round ball. The shape of the Earth is very close to that of an
oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened along the axis from pole
to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator.
Hexagons. A hexagon is a Two-dimensional six-sided
closed polygon. For a beehive, close packing is important
to maximize the use of space. Hexagons fit most closely
together without any gaps; so hexagonal wax cells are
what bees create to store their eggs and larvae.
Cones. A cone is a three-dimensional

geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat,
usually circular base to a point called the apex or
vertex. Volcanoes 2.5 form cones, the steepness and
height of which depends on the runniness (viscosity) of
the lava. Fast, runny lava forms flatter cones; thick,
viscous lava forms steep-sided cones.
Parallel lines. In mathematics, parallel lines stretch to

infinity, neither converging or diverging. The parallel dunes
in the Australian desert aren't perfect - the physical world
rarely is.
Interesting Figures in Nature
Fractals. Like other figures, fractals are also geometric figures. Fractals involve dilation.
They are objects with fractional dimension and most have self-similarity. Self-similarity is when
small parts of objects when magnified resemble the same figure. The boundaries are of
infinite length and are not differentiable anywhere (never smooth enough to have a tangent
at a point). Thus, fractals have basic components that are similar to the whole. This means
that you can find similar shapes even if you zoom the figure. However, fractals involve a
complex process because it goes through an infinite number of iterations.
Fractals can also be observed in nature such as the trees, the flowers, clouds, ocean
waves, etc. Even the human body also has fractal structure.
Fractals possess the following characteristics: self-similarity, fractional dimension and
formation by iteration.
Natural objects exhibit scaling symmetry, but only over a limited range of scales. They
also tend to be approximately self-similar, appearing more or less the same at different scales
of measurement. Sometimes this means that they are statistically self-similar; that is to say,
they have a distribution of elements that are similar under magnification.
Below are some manifestations of fractals in nature.
Ferns Clouds Bacterial Colony
Lightning Waterfalls Mountains
The world around us seems to make up several distinct patterns, evolving various
complex steps of formation. However, looking more deeply we see many similarities and
resemblances. The numerous models explained above have no experimental proof and
may not be correct, but they definitely show linkages between patterns formed under highly
contrasting natural conditions e.g. (a zebra coat and sand dunes) and also show that the
mechanisms between the formations of these patterns need not necessarily be complex.
B. SYMMETRY
PowerPoint 03: Symmetry
Symmetry is a type of invariance: a property that something does not change under
a set of transformations. It is a mapping of the object onto itself which preserves the structure.
Symmetry in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion
and balance. Although these two meanings of "symmetry" can sometimes be told apart,
they are related. Plainly, symmetry is when a figure has two sides that are mirror images of
one another. It would then be possible to draw a line through a picture of the object and
along either side the image would look exactly the same. This line would be called a line of
symmetry.
There are Two Kinds of Symmetry
One is bilateral symmetry in which an object has two sides that

are mirror images of each other. The human body would be an
excellent example of a living being that has bilateral symmetry.
The other kind of symmetry is radial symmetry. This is where

there is a center point and numerous lines of symmetry could be
drawn. The most obvious geometric example would be a circle.
C. PATTERNS
PowerPoint 04: Patterns in Nature
Though every living and non-living thing of the world may seem to follow a pattern of
its own, looking deeply into the geometry and mechanism of the pattern formation can lead
you to broadly classify them into merely two categories:
1. Self-organized patterns/ Inherent organization
2. Invoked organization
Self-Organized patterns
A self-organizing pattern, follows a simple set of rules, and they use only local
information to determine how a particular subunit evolves. They are represented by
successive patterns. This pattern can be represented as successive horizontal rows; the
'successor' pattern is just under its predecessor. When the basic rule just defined is applied to
that row (the active row) and then to subsequent rows, a complex pattern develops. Thus,
self-organization is a process in which patterns at the global level of a system emerge solely
from numerous interactions among the lower level components of the system. Moreover, the
rules specifying interactions among the system’s components are executed using only local
information, without reference to the global pattern. In other words, the pattern is an
emergent property of the system, rather than a property imposed on the system by an
external influence.
Therefore, if rules are to be useful for understanding the patterns in life, such as the
stripes on a zebra's coat, there must be a specific rule. The zebra's coat alternates in
contrasting areas of light and dark pigmentation. Hence the patterns of the zebra's coat
reflect the early interaction of chemicals as they diffused through the embryonic skin.
Invoked Organization
Not all patterns that occur in nature arise through self-organization. A weaver bird
uses its own body as a template as it builds the hemispherical egg chamber of the nest. A
spider when creating a web follows a genetically determined recipe in relation to its sticky
orb and the various radii and spirals it creates. A similar invoked organization is that of the
honeycomb made by bees. In these cases, the structures are built by an architect that
oversees and imposes order and pattern. There are no subunits that interact with one
another to generate a pattern. Each of the animals acts like a stonemason or laborer,
measuring, fitting, and moving pieces into place.
This is an example of a social insect architecture. The wasp
nests, an example of invoked organization in nature.
More than this biological system existing on the patterns
created in nature, there is a great mathematics embedded in it
aside from the plain geometric figure. The geometry of the
patterns could also be linked to mathematical numbers directly
or indirectly. The series of numbers seem to have been forced on
them. The Fibonacci numbers or sequence and the Golden ratio
are but the basic example of them.
Assignment 1: (20 points) Search or take pictures of revelations of Mathematics in

nature. 5 pictures that exhibit Golden Ratio and 5 pictures that exhibit Fibonacci
Sequence. Explain in not more than 5 sentences how does each picture exhibit
said pattern. Cite your references. Output must be placed in a short bond paper.
MODULE 3: MATHEMATICS AS A STUDY OF PATTERNS

It is everywhere. We predict, we forecast using the previous patterns that we have
observed. Patterns are the basis of our decisions. Pattern recognition is always an integral
part of board examination or psychological tests. This module will help you develop critical
thinking and abstract reasoning.
Our target learning outcomes are the following: a) Solve problems involving
patterns; b) Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor c) Articulate the
importance of mathematics in one’s life;
Video viewing: God’s Fingerprint – The Fibonacci Sequence – Golden Ratio

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4VrcO6JaMrM
: The Fractal Nature of Reality.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K_1KK5O85n0
: Why is 1.618034 So Important
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keLN89CWZ-A
Mathematics as a study of patterns
PowerPoint 05: The study of Patterns
Mathematics is the science of patterns and relationships. Patterns provide a sense of

order. It allows one to make an educated guess. A lot of disciplines are based on making
hypotheses and hypotheses are often based on patterns. Assumptions are also based on
patterns, recurring patterns. Thus, the understanding of patterns aids in the development of
mental skills needed in the transformation of ideas to information then to knowledge.
As a theoretical discipline, mathematics explores the possible relationships among
abstractions without concern for whether those abstractions have counterparts in the real
world. Investigating the patterns that one finds in numbers, shapes, and expressions would
lead to making mathematical discoveries. Patterns, relationships, and functions constitute a
unifying theme of mathematics. Patterns are an effective way to demonstrate the
relationship between variables. It provides opportunities to model and to analyze situations.
The opportunities to analyze, extend, and create a variety of patterns and to use pattern-
based thinking to understand and represent mathematical and other real-world
phenomena are of a great essence in developing mathematical skills. It gives opportunities
for problem solving, making and verifying generalizations, and building mathematical
understanding and confidence.
The abstractions can be anything from strings of numbers or letters to geometric
figures to measurements to sets of equations. Inquiries such as "Does the interval between
prime numbers form a pattern?" “Is there an expression for the change in the surface area
of any regular solid as its volume approaches zero?”; needs investigatory approaches of
patterns.
In order to recognize patterns one needs to have an understanding of critical thinking
and logical reasoning, important skills needed by everyone. These are major components in
problem solving and are involved in data analysis.
A central line of investigation of patterns is identifying in each sequence a small set of
basic ideas and rules evident in them. One usually looks at differences between succeeding
items. The difference may be arithmetical in nature but not always. At times one investigates
the movement of shapes, or the relation of the sequences of letters. Logical and abstract
reasoning are great tools in investigating these mathematical patterns.
Patterns essentially provide a means of recognizing broader aspects that can be
shoved down in order to arrive at a specific answer to a particular problem. The benefit of
understanding patterns opens many doors where there is knowledge that can be applied.
The study of patterns gives an opportunity for one to develop the sense of observation,
hypothesizing, experimenting, discovering and creating. Predicting and estimating and
thought provoking activities of recognizing patterns emphasizes the role and purpose of
mathematics itself.
COMMON PATTERNS
A. Logic Patterns
Logic patterns are related to geometric patterns and number patterns. It helps us
classify objects or figures. One kind of logic patterns deal with characteristics of various
objects. Another kind deals with orders: there is a sequence of objects and a pattern in the
attributes the objects possess. They are commonly part of aptitude tests. The development
of numeracy literacy and geometric literacy follows after one develops a sense of patterns
involving logic or reasoning through association or through relation.
Watch the video to learn more tips in dealing with logic patterns.
 IQ and Aptitude Test Questions, Answers and Explanations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yo_6xhG-Bcc
 Non Verbal Reasoning Test Tips and Tricks for Job Tests & Interviews
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzMbznbN3xk
Example 1. In a polygon, a diagonal connects two vertices that are not already
connected by an edge.
How many diagonals can be drawn in a hexagon?

Example 2. Look at the following pattern.
How many circles will be in the next figure in the pattern?

A. 40 B. 39 C. 36 D. 27
B. Number Patterns
It is a list or set of numbers that follow a certain sequence or pattern. As an

arrangement of numbers, it illustrates a way that it follows a particular property or pattern.
When numbers are arranged in either ascending or descending order, and have with it basic
operations of mathematics or a certain series of arithmetical operations like addition or
multiplication repeatedly done. An arithmetic sequence is made by adding the same value
each time. The value added is called the common difference.
Patterns can be in the form of counting up or down and the missing number is of the
form of completing count up or down. Like 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, ....... whose first term is 1 and jumps
4 every time to get the other terms.
Some other types are created in which every successive term is multiplied (dividing)
by the same value each time. For example, 4, 16, 64, ...... is a number pattern in which 4 is
the first number and we can multiply 4 by 4 to get 16 and multiply 16 by 4 to get 64 and so
on. This number pattern is called a geometric number pattern. 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, .... is again a
geometric number pattern in which the fixed number is ½ which is the multiplier.
There are other number patterns. There are patterns in which the numbers are in the
increasing form. In this pattern, the amount that is added in the terms, changes every time
in a predictable manner. For example, consider 4, 5, 7, 10, 14, 19, .... In the above pattern,
the pattern starts with 4, add 1 and the amount which we can add increases by 1 every
time. Other types are of the nature of the well-known Fibonacci sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
13, 21,... The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a number is found by adding
up the two numbers before it. Starting with 0 and 1, the sequence goes 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, 34, and so forth.
One of the most interesting Number Patterns in Pascal's Triangle (named after
Blaise Pascal, a famous French Mathematician and Philosopher). To build the triangle, start
with "1" at the top, then continue placing numbers below it in a triangular pattern. Each
number is the numbers directly above it added together.
To recognize any sequence, we have to know how the terms of a sequence are
related. It may be that they are in arithmetic form or growing pattern or geometric
pattern. At times one needs to recognize a property or characteristic the number has.
Let us consider 1, 8, 27, 64,… Here, we can find the next number as follows: 8 is 23 , 27 is 33
and 64 is 43 . Thus, we write the sequence as 13 , 23 , 33 , 43 ,... So, the next terms are 53 = 125
and 63 = 216.
Illustrative examples:
Example 3. Find the next number in the pattern 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, ___
Solution:
Given pattern is 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, ___
Here, the pattern is a repeated addition of 3, we get: 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, 60
In the problem, the sixth term is 60 in this pattern which is the missing term.
Example 4. Find out the missing number in the pattern 67, 74, 81, 88, __, 102
Solution:
Given pattern is 67, 74, 81, 88, __, 102
Here, the pattern is repeated addition of 7, we get 67, 74, 81, 88, __, 102
In the problem, the fifth term is 95.
Therefore, the missing term in the above pattern is 95 for the repeated addition of 7.
Example 5. What is the next number in the pattern 108, 102, 96, ___
Solution:
Given pattern is 108, 102, 96, ___
Here, the pattern is the subtraction of 6, we get 108, 102, 96, 90
In the problem, the fourth term is missing and the next term of the given pattern is 90.
Therefore, the next number in the above pattern is 90 for the subtraction of 6.
Example 6. What is the next number in the pattern 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
Solution:
Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 _____
First difference 9 13 17 21
Second difference 4 4 4
In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is often
helpful to compute the successive differences of the first differences. These are shown in row
(2). These differences of the first differences are called the second differences. The
differences of the second differences are called the third differences.
To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of differences.
For instance, in the following table, the second differences shown in blue are all the same
constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues, then a 4 would also be the next second
difference, and we can extend the table to the right as shown.
5 14 27 44 65 _____
9 13 17 21
4 4 4 4
Now we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to produce the next
first difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90 is the
next term in the sequence. This process can be repeated to predict additional terms of the
sequence.
5 14 27 44 65 _____
90
9 13 21 25
17
4 4 4 4
C. Geometric Pattern
It is a kind of pattern formed of sequences of lines and curves to form

geometric shapes and figures. A motif, pattern, or design depicting abstract,
nonrepresentational shapes such as lines, circles, ellipses, triangles, rectangles, and
polygons. We generally associate geometric patterns with wall paper designs and tiling. They
could also be associated with number patterns and predict the next geometric shape that
would follow the sequence.
Example 6. Determine what shape, figure, or series of figure would follow the sequence.
Practice Exercise 1:
Score:
Direction: Write the next term in the given sequences:
Answer
1. 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ... __________
2. 1, 14, 51, 124, 245, 426, ... __________
3. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ... __________
4. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25… __________
5. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125… __________
6. 0, 6, 24, 60, 120, … __________
7. 2, 10, 30, 68,… __________
8. 3, 14, 29, 48, 71, … __________
9. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, … __________
10. 2, 7, 22, 67, 202, … __________
11. 6, 5, 2, −3, −10 … __________
12. 2, 2, 0, -4, -10, … __________
13. −4, −3, 0, 5, 12, … __________
14. 2, 4, 4, 8, 6, 12, 8, 16, 10, … __________
15. 4, 16, 36, 64, 100, 144, … __________
16. BAZ, DBY, FCX __________
17. 800, 400, 200, 100, 50, … __________
18. WXCD, UVEF, STGH, QRIJ, … __________
19. 2, 13, 35, 68, 112, … __________
20. 100, 50, 52, 26, 28, __________
B. Direction: Write the CAPITAL letter corresponding to the correct answer on the space
provided before each number.
For numbers 1 – 6: Which figure completes the series?
_____21.
A B C D
Source: https://filipiknow.net/nmat-inductive-reasoning-practice-test/
_____22.
A B C D
Source:https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ba0ed034611a036e7513ee4/t/5e79da
6176cf4140aa18e4da/1585044066106/Psychometric+Success+Abstract+Reasoning+-
+Practice+Test+1.pdf
_____23.
A B C D
Source: https://filipiknow.net/nmat-inductive-reasoning-practice-test/
_____24.
A B C D
Source:https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ba0ed034611a036e7513ee4/t/5e79da6
_____25.
A B C D
Source:https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ba0ed034611a036e7513ee4/t/5e79da6176cf4
140aa18e4da/1585044066106/Psychometric+Success+Abstract+Reasoning+-
_____26.
? A B C D
Source:https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ba0ed034611a036e7513ee4/t/5e79da6176cf4
140aa18e4da/1585044066106/Psychometric+Success+Abstract+Reasoning+-
_____27.
A B C D
Source:https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ba0ed034611a036e7513ee4/t/5e79da617
For numbers 25 – 35:Identify the missing shape in the series.

_____28.
?
A B C D
Source: https://www.practiceaptitudetests.com/inductive-reasoning-test.pdf
_____29.
?
A B C D
_____30.
?
A B C D
_____31. Which of the suggested images would belong with the given sequence?
A B C D
For nuber2 32 – 35: Identify the missing shape in the series.

_____32.
?
A B C D
source:https://www.practiceaptitudetests.com/logical-reasoning-test.pdf
_____33.
A.
B.
C.
?
D.
I
_____34.
?
A B C D
_____35.
A B C D
Congratulations Louisan! You did it!

It’s time to answer Seatwork 1.
MODULE 4: THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS
Our target learning outcomes are a) Discuss the language, symbols and conventions
of mathematics; b) Explain the nature of mathematics as a language; c) Perform operations
on mathematical expressions correctly; d) Cite examples that highlight the importance of
mathematics as a language
A. Introduction
PowerPoint 06: The Language of Mathematics
Mathematics is known as the language of Science. Different notations and
terminologies are commonly used in learning and studying Mathematics. Having a
systematic notation using different symbols and graphical presentations makes learning
Mathematics compact and focused.
A common reason why people have trouble in understanding mathematics is not due
to the ideas being difficult, but because they cannot understand a language that is foreign
to them.
The Language of Mathematics, particularly the symbols being used in Mathematics,
has 3 characteristics:
1. Precise - must be able to distinguish different thoughts or make very fine distinctions.
2. Concise - must be able to say things briefly.
3. Powerful - must be able to express complex thoughts with ease.
Numbers are the most commonly known symbol that represents Mathematics. It
specifies a certain value or quantity. We currently use the Hindu-Arabic number system
represented by ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
In this module, our goals are as follows:

1. Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of mathematics;
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly;
4. Cite examples that highlight the importance of mathematics as a language.
B. Sets and Basic Operations on Sets

PowerPoint 07: Sets and Numbers
In all sorts of situations, we classify objects into sets of similar objects and count them.
This procedure is the most basic motivation for learning the whole numbers and learning how
to add and subtract them.
In our ordinary language, we try to make sense of the world we live in by classifying
collections of things. English has many words for such collections. For example, we speak of
‘a flock of birds’, ‘a herd of cattle’, ‘a swarm of bees’ and ‘a colony of ants’.
We do a similar thing in mathematics, and classify numbers, geometrical figures, and
other things into collections that we call sets.
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. Objects that belong in a set are
called its elements or members of the set. Consider the following examples:
1. The set of denominations of Philippine currency.

2. The set of even numbers.
3. The set of prime numbers.
4. The set of consonants in the English alphabet.
5. 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0}
A set must be well defined. This means that our description of the elements of a set is
clear and unambiguous. For example, a group of beautiful people is not a set, because
people tend to disagree about what ‘beautiful’ means.
Notation
A set is usually denoted by a capital letter, such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍, …, whereas
lower-case letters, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, … are used to denote the elements of sets.
Consider 𝑆 = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. We say that 𝑤 belongs to 𝑆, or equivalently 𝑤 is an
element of 𝑆. In symbols, this is written as: 𝑤 ∈ 𝑆. But 𝑝 is not an element of 𝑆, so
we write 𝑝 ∉ 𝑆.
Take note that in listing the elements of a set, repetition of an element is
ignored. A set remains the same even if its elements are repeated or arranged.
Say for instance, the set 𝑊 = {𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏} has only the two elements 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. The
second mention of 𝑎 is an unnecessary repetition and can be ignored.
Describing a Set
We describe a set in two ways, namely:
1. A set can be described by listing all of its elements. This is called the tabular
form of the set or the roster method.
Example : 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖 , 𝑜, 𝑢}
2. A set can also be described by writing a description of its elements between

braces. This is called the set-builder notation or the rule method
Example : 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 > 0} which reads: B is a set of 𝑥
such that x is an even integer greater than zero.
Take a look at the hierarchy of numbers.
1. The set of numbers whose elements are the natural numbers and zero is called
the set of whole numbers, denoted by 𝑾. We write, 𝑾 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }
2. The set of integers, denoted by 𝒁, is composed of the set of whole numbers
and the negative integers. Examples are fractions, repeating decimals, and
terminating decimals.
We write, 𝑍 = {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … }
3. The set of rational numbers, denoted by 𝑸, are those numbers that can be
expressed as a quotient of two integers 𝑝and 𝑞, where 𝑞 ≠ 0.
𝑝
We write, 𝑸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑞
, 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑞 ≠ 0}
4. The set of irrational numbers, denoted by 𝑸′, consists of numbers whose

decimal representations are non-terminating and non-repeating that cannot
be expressed as the quotient of two integers. Example : 𝜋, 𝑒, √2
5. The set or real numbers, denoted by 𝑹, is the union of 𝑸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑸′
6. The set of complex numbers, denote by 𝑪, are numbers of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖,
where a and b are real numbers and 𝑖 2 = −1. In symbols,
𝐶 = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖: 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 2 = −1}
Solved Problems:
1: Write A = {a, e, i, o, u} using the set-builder notation.

Answer: 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙}
Here, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐴 but 𝑞 ∉ 𝐴.
2: Write B = {x: x is an even integer, x > 0} using the roster method.

Answer: 𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … }
3: Write 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} using the roster method.

Solution:
Here, 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} is read as: 𝐸 consists of those numbers which are
solutions of the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0.
To get the solution set, we solve the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0.
Factoring the left side of the equation, we have: (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0.
Then, equating each factor to zero, we obtain
𝑥 − 2 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 2,
𝑥 − 1 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 1.
Hence, 𝐸 = {1, 2}.
Equal sets
Two sets are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements.
Example 4: Given 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} and 𝐹 = {2, 1}, we say that 𝐸 and 𝐹 are
equal sets. We write 𝐸 = 𝐹 since each consists precisely of the elements 1 and 2.
On the other hand, the sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5} and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}are not equal, because
they have different elements. We write, 𝐶 ≠ 𝐷.
Finite and infinite sets

A finite set is a set which has a finite (definite) number of elements, meaning that we
can list all their elements.
Example 5: 𝑆 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 2000 < 𝑥 < 2005}. Here, the elements are
2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004.
Example 6: 𝑀 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 2000 < 𝑥 < 3000}. The elements of this set are
the numbers 2001, 2002, 2003, …, 2999.
An infinite set is a set which has an infinite number of elements. We have here infinitely
many elements that we could not possibly list; all that matters here is that it is well defined.
Here are some examples of infinite sets:
1. The set of even whole numbers.
2. The set of integers greater than 2000.
The Numbers of Elements of a Set

The cardinality of a set A, denoted by |A|, is the number of elements in set A.
Consider the following finite sets:
1. If 𝑆 = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }, then the cardinality of set S is 5, written as |𝑆| = 5 .
2. If 𝐴 = { 1001, 1002, 1003, … , 3000 }, then cardinality of set A is 2000, written as |𝐴| = 2000.
A set has cardinality ℵ0 if and only if it is countably infinite, that is, there is a one-to-
one correspondence between it and the natural numbers. The symbol ℵ0 (aleph-naught,
aleph-zero, or the German term Aleph-null) is the cardinality of all natural numbers, and is
an infinite cardinality. Also, the cardinality of the set of real numbers (cardinality of the
continuum c) is 2ℵ0 .
A unit set is a set which has a single element.

Example 7: 𝑆 = {5} and |𝑆| = 1. It is important to distinguish between the number 5
and the set S = { 5 }. Here, 5 ∈ 𝑆 but 5 ≠ 𝑆.
Two sets are said to be equivalent if they both have the same cardinality. Say for
instance, sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3} are equivalent sets since |𝐶| = |𝐷| = 3 but 𝐶 ≠ 𝐷.
Equal sets 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} and 𝐹 = {2, 1} are also equivalent sets since |𝐸| = |𝐷| = 2.
Note that all equal sets are equivalent, but not all equivalent sets are equal sets.
Universal and Empty Sets
The universal set, denoted by 𝑈 is the set which contains all the elements being
considered. Examples are the following:
1. In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the points in the plane
2. In human population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the world
The symbol 𝜙 𝑜𝑟 { } represents the empty set more commonly known as the null set,
which is the set that has no elements at all. Thus, |𝜙| = 0.There is only one empty set: If L and
M are both empty, then 𝐿 = 𝑀 since they have exactly the same elements, namely, none.
Joint and Disjoint Sets
Two sets are said to be joint if they have at least one common element. Otherwise,
they are disjoint.
Consider sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}. We say that sets C and D are joint sets since
1 and 3 are elements common to them.
If we consider sets 𝐺 = {6, 7, 9}and 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}, then we say that sets C and G are
disjoint sets because they have no common elements.
Subsets
Sets of things are often further subdivided. For instance, owls are a particular type of
bird, so every owl is also a bird. We express this in the language of sets by saying that the set
of owls is a subset of the set of birds.
A set, say A, is called a subset of another set, say B, if every element of A can be found
in B. This is denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 (read this as “A is a subset of B”).
Example 8:
1. If 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6} and 𝐵 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 because every element of A
is an element of B.
2. Consider sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}. We say that C is not a subset of D,
denoted by 𝐶 ⊈ 𝐷, because 5 is an element of C that is not found in D. Also,
we say that 𝐷 ⊈ 𝐶.
If A is a subset of B, and there is an element of B that is not in A, then A is called a

proper subset of B. This is denoted by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
If A is any set, then A is the improper subset of A. Any other subset of A is a proper
subset of A.
The following properties should be noted:
1. Every set A is a subset of the universal set 𝑈 because by definition, all the elements of
A are elements of B. The empty set is a subset of A. In symbols, ∅ ⊆ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑈.
2. Every set is a subset of itself because the elements of A belong to A. In symbols, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴.
3. If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶.
4. 𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.
Solved Problems
Example 9: Suppose that 𝑈 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}. Consider the following sets as examples:
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 }
𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥 ≤ 0 } 𝐸 = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7} 𝐹 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
Before we answer the following questions, let us list first the elements of the
sets above. We have:
𝐴 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 𝐷 = {2}
𝐵 = {… , −2, −1, 0} 𝐸 = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} 𝐹 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
a. Which sets are finite? Which are infinite?

Answer:
 The finite sets are A, C, D, E and F.
 B is an infinite set.
b. What is the cardinality of the sets A, B, C, D, E, F?

Answer:
|A| = 7 |C| = 7 |E| = 5
|B| = ℵ0 |D| = 1 |F| = 7
c. Which pair of sets is Equal?

Answer: A and F are equal sets.
d. Which pair of sets is Equivalent?

Answer: A, C and F are equivalent sets.
e. Identify pairs of Joint and Disjoint sets.
Answer:
❏ Joint sets: A&B, A&C, A&D, A&E, A&F, B&E, B&F, C&D, C&E, C&F, D&E,
D&F, E&F
❏ Disjoint sets: B&C, B&D
f. Which set is a proper subset of A?
Answer:
❏ 𝐷 ⊂ 𝐴 because 2 belongs to A.
❏ 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 because -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3 are all in A.
g. Which set is an improper subset of A?
Answer:
Since A = F, we say that F is an improper subset of A.
Set Operations
1. For two sets A and B, the union of A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is defined as the set
which contains all distinct elements found on either A or B.
In symbols, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
Example 10: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3,4, 6, 7}.

Then, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
2. For two sets A and B, the intersection of A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is defined as the
set which contains all elements which can be found on both A and B.
In symbols, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
Example 11: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3,4, 6, 7}.

Then by getting the common elements of A and B gives, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {3, 4}.
3. The complement of a given set, say A, is the set containing elements of the universal
set 𝑈 which are not in A.
In symbols, 𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈}.
Example 12: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

Then removing the elements of A from the elements of the universal set we obtain,
𝐴𝐶 = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
4. The difference of the sets A and B, denoted by 𝐴\𝐵, is the set of elements which
belong to A but not in B. In symbols, 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.
Gwendolyn
Example 13: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3, 4, 6, 7}.

Then, by removing the elements of B from the elements of A, we obtain
𝐴\𝐵 = {1, 2, 5}.
5. Let A and B be two sets. The product set or Cartesian product of A and B, denoted
by𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of ordered pairs (a, b) such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.
In symbols, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.
Example 14: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3,4}. Then,

❏ 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4), (4,3), (4,4), (5,3), (5,4)}
❏ 𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5)}
Note here that 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴 and the cardinality of the product set of A and B,
denoted by|𝐴 × 𝐵|, is |𝐴 × 𝐵| = |𝐴| ∙ |𝐵|.
In the given example, |𝐴 × 𝐵| = 5 × 2 = 10.
Solved Problems
Example 16. Consider the following sets:

𝐴 = {𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑡, ℎ} 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 3𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}
𝐵 = {𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑒, 𝑚} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 6, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}
a. What is 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵?
Answer: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, ℎ, 𝑚, 𝑡, 𝑠}
b. What is 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷?
Answer: Note that 𝐶 = {3, 6, 9, 12} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}.
Then, 𝐶⋂𝐷 = {6, 12}.
Example 17: Consider the following sets:

𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
𝐵 = {1, 3, 6, 9} 𝐶 = {4, 7, 9, 10}
List the elements of the following sets:

a. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ∪ 𝐶
Solution:
1. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
2. Then, getting (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {5, 7}.
Hence, (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ∪ 𝐶 = {4, 5, 7, 9, 10}.
b. 𝐵 ∩ (𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 )
Solution:
1. 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
2. Then,(𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 ) = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10}.
Hence, 𝐵 ∩ (𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 ) = {1, 3, 9}.
c. 𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐
Solution:
From (a), we obtain (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {5, 7}. Removing the elements of
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 from 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, we obtain 𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {1, 3, 9}.
d. 𝐴𝐶 × [𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ]
Solution:
We know that 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and 𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {1, 3, 9}.
Then, 𝐴𝐶 × [𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ]
= {(1,1), (1,3), (1,9), (3,1), (3, 3), (3, 9), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 9),
(7, 1), (7, 3), (7, 9), (9,1), (9, 3), (9,9)}
Laws on Sets
1. Commutative Law
The order in which the sets appear in a union or intersection operation does
not affect the result.
 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴
 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴
2. Associative Law
The grouping of operations involving union or intersection operations does not
affect the result.
 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶
 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶
3. Identity Laws
 𝐴∪∅=𝐴
 𝐴∩𝑈 =𝐴
4. Distributive (De Morgan’s Law)

The combinations of union and intersections, where the first operation is
distributed over the second.
 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
Venn Diagrams
Diagrams make mathematics easier because they help us

to see the whole situation at a glance. The English mathematician
John Venn (1834–1923) began using diagrams to represent sets.
His diagrams are now called Venn diagrams.
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets where
sets are represented by enclosed areas in the plane.
In a Venn diagram, the universal set is generally drawn as
a large rectangle, and then subsets of the universal set are
represented by circles within this rectangle.
Suppose S is a subset of T, we place the circle representing S inside the circle

representing T. Say for instance, let 𝑆 = { 0, 1, 2 } and 𝑇 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }. Using the Venn
diagram, we illustrate 𝑆 ⊂ 𝑇 as follows:
𝑻
3
4 𝐒
0
2 1
We can also illustrate the hierarchy of numbers using a Venn diagram.
Number Set Diagram

ℂ
Imaginary
Numbers
ℕ W ℤ ℚ ℚ′
If A and B are arbitrary sets, it is possible that some elements are in A but not in B, some
elements are in B but not in A, some in both A and B, and some are in neither A nor B. We
illustrate these possibilities using a Venn diagram.
A. Illustration of disjoint sets B. Union of A and B
C. Intersection of A and B D. Complement of set A
E. Difference of A and B
Note that the shaded region represents the elements of the set.
Problem Solving with Venn Diagram
Let us have a look at a few examples which demonstrate how Venn diagrams can
make problem solving much easier.
Solved Problems
Example 18: A travel agent surveyed 100 people to find out how many of them had
visited the cities of Melbourne and Brisbane. Thirty-one people had visited Melbourne,
26 people had been to Brisbane, and 12 people had visited both cities. Draw a Venn
diagram to find the number of people who had visited
a. Melbourne or Brisbane
b. Brisbane but not Melbourne
c. only one of the two cities
d. Neither city
Solution:
Let: M be the set of people who had visited Melbourne,
B be the set of people who had visited Brisbane
U be the universal set that represents the set of people surveyed
First, let us construct the Venn diagram:

 Consider the intersection; there were 12 people who had visited both
Melbourne and Brisbane, this means that |𝑀 ∩ 𝐵| = 12.
 There were 31 people who visited Melbourne. Hence, there were
|𝑀\𝐵| = 31 − 12 = 19 people who had visited Melbourne only.
 There were 26 people who had visited Brisbane. Hence, there were
|𝐵\𝑀| = 26 − 12 = 14 people who had visited Brisbane only
 Since the travel agent surveyed 100 people, there were
100 − 12 − 19 − 14 = 55 people who had visited neither Melbourne nor
Brisbane.
The Venn diagram below illustrates the information that we obtained:
We are now ready to answer the given questions:
a. The number of people who had visited Melbourne or Brisbane: (This includes
those who had visited both cities, Melbourne and Brisbane only.)
Answer: 12 + 19 + 14 = 45
b. The number of people who had visited Brisbane but not Melbourne: (This
means that we consider those who had visited Brisbane only, not including the
intersection.)
Answer: 14
c. The number of people who had visited only one of the two cities: (This includes
only those who had visited Melbourne only plus Brisbane only; the intersection
is not included.)
Answer: 19 + 14 = 33
d. The number of people who had visited neither city: (We consider here the
number outside the two circles.)
Answer: 55
Example 19: Consider the following data for 120 mathematics students:
65 study French, 20 study French and German
45 study German, 25 study French and Russian
42 study Russian, 15 study German and Russian
8 study all three languages
Answer the following:

a. Find the number of students studying at least one of the three languages.
b. Find the number of students studying: exactly one language and exactly two
languages.
Solution:
Let:
F be the set of students studying French
G be the set of students studying German
R be the set of students studying Russian
U be the universal set representing all mathematics students
First, let us construct the Venn diagram:

 Consider the intersection of the 3: 8 of them are studying the three
languages
 Those who are studying German and Russian only: 15 – 8 = 7
 Those who are studying French and Russian only = 25 – 8 = 17
 Those who are studying French and German only = 20 – 8 = 12
 Those who are studying French only = 65 – 17 – 12 – 8 = 28
 Those who are studying German only = 45 – 7 – 12 – 8 = 18
 Those who are studying Russian only = 42 – 17 – 7 – 8 = 10
 Those who are not studying the 3 languages
120 – 10 – 18 – 28 – 12 – 17 – 7 – 8 = 20
The Venn diagram below illustrates the information that we obtained:
F 12 G
18
28
8
17 7
10
R 20
We are now ready to answer the given questions:
a. The number of students studying at least one of the three languages. (at least
one means greater than or equal to 1)
Answer:
1 language = 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
2 languages = 12 + 17 + 7 = 36
3 languages = 8__
Total = 100
b. The number of students studying:

❏ Exactly one language
Answer: 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
❏ Exactly two languages.
Answer: 12 + 17 + 7 = 36
Elementary Properties of the Real Numbers
We investigate here properties of real numbers. Here are some rules concerning the
addition and multiplication of the real numbers𝑅:
a. Associative law for addition and multiplication:
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐), (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)
b. Commutative law for addition and multiplication:
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
c. Distributive law for addition and multiplication:
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
d. Additive and multiplicative identities: There exists (∃)a zero element 0 and a
unity element 1 such that (∋), for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅,
𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎, 𝑎 · 1 = 1 · 𝑎 = 𝑎
The Real Line: Order and Inequalities
One important property of real numbers is that they can be represented graphically
by points on a straight line.
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers. We say that a is less than b, written as 𝑎 < 𝑏, if the
difference 𝑏 − 𝑎 is positive, meaning that 𝑎 lies to the left of the point 𝑏 on the number line.
The following additional notation and terminologies are used:

𝑎 > 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is greater than 𝑏
𝑎 ≤ 𝑏, 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑎 < 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is less than or equal to 𝑏
𝑎 ≥ 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is greater than or equal to 𝑏
Example:
1. 2 < 5, −6 < −1, 6 ≥ 3
2. The statement 2 < 𝑥 < 7 means 2 < 𝑥 and 𝑥 < 7, hence 𝑥 lies between 2 and 7 on
the real line R
Basic Properties of Inequality Relations:
1. Let a, b, c be real numbers. Then

 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎
 If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎, then 𝑎 = 𝑏.
 If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐.
2. Law of Trichotomy:
For any real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following holds:
𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑎 < 𝑏
3. Let a, b, c be real numbers such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏. Then

● 𝑎+𝑐 ≤ 𝑏+𝑐
● 𝑎𝑐 ≤ 𝑏𝑐 when 𝑐 > 0; but 𝑎𝑐 ≥ 𝑏𝑐 when 𝑐 < 0.
B. Relations and Functions
PowerPoint 08: Relations and Functions
Definition of Relation
A relation is defined as a set of ordered pairs.

Any of the following are relations because they consist of a set of ordered pairs.
{(−2,5), (−1, 0), (2, −3)}
{(−1,0), (0, −3), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)}
{(3,0), (4,5)}
{(−2,5), (−1, 0), (0, −3), (1, −4), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)}
Some relations are very special and are used at almost all levels of mathematics.
Consider the Cartesian product 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} of two sets A and B. A
relation R from A to B is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. For each pair 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, exactly one of the
following is true:
I. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅; we say “𝑎 is 𝑅 −related to 𝑏” written 𝑎𝑅𝑏.
II. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∉ 𝑅; we say “𝑎 is not 𝑅 −related to 𝑏”.
Example 20: Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3}. Then

𝑅1 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑎, 3)}
𝑅2 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3)}
𝑅3 = {(𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2)}
are relations from 𝐴 to 𝐵. We could say that 𝑎𝑅1 1, 𝑎𝑅2 3, and 𝑏𝑅3 2.
The domain of a relation 𝑅 from a set A to a set B is the set of all first elements of the
ordered pairs which belong to 𝑅, and since these first elements come from set A then the
domain of R is a subset of A. The range of a relation R is the set of all second elements, and
so it is a subset of B.
Example. Set inclusion ⊆,”less than”, “parallel to” are some relations used in
mathematics.
Definition of a Function
A function is a relation for which each value from the set of the first components of
the ordered pairs is associated with exactly one value from the set of second components
of the ordered pair.
Example 21. The following relation is a function.

{(−1, 0), (0, −3), (1, −4), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)}
From these ordered pairs we have the following sets of first components (i.e.
the first number from each ordered pair) and second components (i.e. the second
number from each ordered pair).
1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {0, −4, −3, 0,5}
For the set of second components notice that the “−3” occurred in two
ordered pairs but we only listed it once.
To see why this relation is a function simply pick any value from the set of first
components. Now, go back up to the relation and find every ordered pair in which
this number is the first component and list all the second components from those
ordered pairs. The list of second components will consist of exactly one value.
Therefore, this relation is a function.
Example 22: The following relation is not a function.

{(6, 10) (−7, 3) (0, 4) (6, −4)}
Solution:
Don’t worry about where this relation came from. It is just one that we
made up for this example.
Here is the list of first and second components
1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {6, −7, 0} 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {10, 3, 4, −4}
The list of second components associated with 6 has two values and so this
relation is not a function.
“Working Definition” of Function
A function is an equation for which any 𝑥 that can be plugged into the equation will
yield exactly one 𝑦 out of the equation.
The phrase “𝑥 that can be plugged into” implies that not all 𝑥’s can be plugged into
an equation and this is in fact correct. Further, when dealing with functions we are always
going to assume that both 𝑥and 𝑦 will be real numbers.
Function Notation.
Let’s start off with the following quadratic equation. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3. You can use any
process to verify that this is a function. Since this is a function we will denote it as follows,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
So, we replaced the 𝑦 with the notation 𝑓(𝑥). This is read as “𝑓 of 𝑥”. Note that there
is nothing special about the 𝑓 we used here. We could just have easily used any of the
following,
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
Evaluating functions
Evaluating a function is asking what is the 𝑦 value for a given value of 𝑥. Let’s take
the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 and ask what its value for 𝑥 = 4.
Now, when we say the value of the function we are really asking what the value of
the equation is for that particular value of 𝑥. Here is 𝑓(4).
𝑓(4) = (4)2 − 5(4) + 3 = 16 − 20 + 3 𝑓(4) = −1
Example 23: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 6 evaluate each of the following.
a. 𝑓(3) and 𝑔(3)
b. 𝑓(−10) and 𝑔(−10)
c. 𝑓(0)
d. 𝑓(𝑡)
e. 𝑓(𝑡 + 1) and 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
f. 𝑓(𝑥 3 )
g. 𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5)
Solutions:
(a) 𝑓(3) and 𝑔(3)
𝑓(3) = (3)2 − 2(3) + 8 = 9 − 6 + 8
𝑓(3 = 11
𝑔(3) = √3 + 6 = √9
𝑔(3) = 3
(b) 𝑓(−10) and 𝑔(−10)

𝑓(−10) = (−10)2 − 2(−10) + 8 = 100 + 20 + 8
𝑓(−10) = 128
𝑔(−10) = √−10 + 6
𝑔(−10) = √−4
(c) 𝑓(0)
𝑓(0) = (0)2 − 2(0) + 8
𝑓(0) = 8
Note that in this case this is pretty
(d) 𝑓(𝑡) much the same thing as our
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 8 original function, except this time
we’re using 𝑡 as a variable.
(e) 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 2(𝑥 + 1) + 8
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑥 − 2 + 8
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 2 + 7
(f) 𝑓(𝑥 3 )
𝑓(𝑥 3 ) = (𝑥 3 )2 − 2(𝑥 3 ) + 8
𝑓(𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 3 + 8
(g) 𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5)
𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5) = √𝑥 2 − 5 + 6
𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5) = √𝑥 2 + 1
Piecewise functions
We’ve actually seen an example of a piecewise function even if we didn’t call it a
function (or a piecewise function) at the time. Recall the mathematical definition of
absolute value.
x if x  0
x 
 x if x  0
This is a function and if we use function notation we can write it as follows,
This is also an example of a piecewise function. A piecewise function is nothing more

than a function that is broken into pieces and which piece you use depends upon value
of 𝑥.
Example 24: Given,
evaluate each of the following.

1. 𝑔(−6)
2. 𝑔(−4)
3. 𝑔(1)
4. 𝑔(15)
5. 𝑔(21)
Now, to do each of these evaluations the first thing that we need to do is determine
which inequality the number satisfies, and it will only satisfy a single inequality. When we
determine which inequality the number satisfies we use the equation associated with that
inequality.
(a) 𝑔(−6)
In this case −6 satisfies the top inequality and so we’ll use the top equation for this
evaluation.
𝑔(−6) = 3(−6)2 + 4 = 112
(b) 𝑔(−4)
𝑔(−4) = 3(−4)2 + 4 = 52
(c) 𝑔(1)
𝑔(1) = 10
(d) 𝑔(15)
𝑔(15) = 10
(e) 𝑔(21)
𝑔(21) = 1 − 6(21) = −125
Piecewise functions do not arise all that often in an Algebra class however, they do
arise in several places in later classes and so it is important for you to understand them if
you are going to be moving on to more math classes.
Domain and Range

The domain is the set of all 𝑥’s that we can plug into a function and get back a real
number. At this point, that means that we need to avoid division by zero and taking square
roots of negative numbers.
Example 25. Determine the domain of each of the following functions.

x3
a  g x  
x  3x  10
2
b  f x   5  3x
7x  8
c  hx  
x2  4
d  Rx   102 x  5
x  16
Solutions:
The domains for these functions are all the values of 𝑥 for which we don’t
have division by zero or the square root of a negative number. If we remember
these two ideas finding the domains will be pretty easy.
x3
a  g x  
x  3x  10
2
There is a possibility that we’ll have a division by zero error. We now solve
for the zeros of the denominator.
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 = −5, 𝑥 = 2
So, we will get division by zero if we plug in 𝑥 = −5 or 𝑥 = 2. That means

that we’ll need to avoid those two numbers. However, all the other values of
𝑥will work since they don’t give division by zero. The domain is then,
Domain : All real numbers except 𝑥 = −5 and 𝑥 = 2.
We can also use 𝑅 − {−5,2} or 𝑅\{−5,2}.
b  f x   5  3x
We have a square root in the problem and so we’ll need to worry about
taking the square root of a negative number.
This one is going to work a little differently from the previous part. In
that part we determined the value(s) of 𝑥 to avoid. In this case it will be just as
easy to directly get the domain. To avoid square roots of negative numbers
all that we need to do is require that
5 − 3𝑥 ≥ 0
This is a fairly simple linear inequality that we should be able to solve at
this point.
5
5  3x  x
3
5
The domain of this function is : Domain : x 
3
7x  8
c  hx  
x2  4
In this case we’ve got a fraction, but notice that the denominator will
never be zero for any real number since 𝑥 2 is guaranteed to be positive or zero
and adding 4 onto this will mean that the denominator is always at least 4. In
other words, the denominator won’t ever be zero. So, all we need to do then
is worry about the square root in the numerator.
To do this we’ll require,

8 8
7x  8  0  7 x  8  x Domain : x  
7 7
10 x  5
d  Rx  
x 2  16
In this final part we’ve got both a square root and division by zero to
worry about. Let’s take care of the square root first since this will probably put
the largest restriction on the values of 𝑥 So, to keep the square root happy
(i.e. no square root of negative numbers) we’ll need to require that,
1
10 x  5  0  10 x  5  x
2
1
So, at the least we’ll need to require that x  in order to avoid
2
problems with the square root.
Now, let’s see if we have any division by zero problems. Again, to do
this simply set the denominator equal to zero and solve.
𝑥 2 − 16 = (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −4, 𝑥 = 4
Now, notice that 𝑥 = −4 doesn’t satisfy the inequality we need for the
square root and so that value of 𝑥 has already been excluded by the square
root. On the other hand, 𝑥 = 4 does satisfy the inequality. This means that it is
okay to plug 𝑥 = 4into the square root, however, since it would give division by
zero we will need to avoid it.
1
The domain for this function is, Domain : x  except x  4
2
Operations on Functions
PowerPoint 09: Operations and Expressions
Functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. If f(x) and g(x) are
two functions, then for all x in the domain of both functions the sum, difference, product
and quotient are defined as follows.
1. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
2. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
3. (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
4. (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) , 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
Solved Problems
Consider the functions 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1.
Example 26: Find the following function values:
a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(4)
Solution:
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 then 𝑓(4) = 2(4) + 3 = 11
Also, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 1, then 𝑔(4) = 42 − 1 = 15
Hence,
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(4) = 𝑓(4) + 𝑔(4) = 26
b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(5)
Solution:
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 then 𝑓(5) = 2(5) + 3 = 13
Also, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 1, then 𝑔(5) = 52 − 1 = 24
Hence,
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(5) = 𝑓(5) − 𝑔(5) = −11
Example 27: Find (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥)
a. (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥)
Solution:
(𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥)
= (2𝑥 + 3 )(𝑥 2 − 1)
= 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
b. (𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥)
Solution:
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 2𝑥 + 3
( ) (𝑥) =
𝑔
= 2 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥 −1
𝑓 2𝑥 + 3
Note that the function (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 is defined on all values of 𝑥 except when
𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 1.
Composition of Functions
The term "composition of functions" (or "composite function") refers to the combining
together of two or more functions in a manner where the output from one function
becomes the input for the next function. Formally we define composition of functions as
follows:
Consider functions 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 and𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 → 𝐶, where the target set B of 𝑓 is the domain
of 𝑔. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. Then the image 𝑓 (𝑎) under 𝑓 is in B which is the domain of g. Accordingly,
we can find the image of f (a) under the function g, i.e. 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑎)). We have a rule which
assigns to each element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, an element 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑎)) in C. This give rise to a well-defined
function from A to C, which is called the composition of 𝒇 and 𝒈, denoted by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 . That is,
if 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶, then we have
𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐶 by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 )(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑎)).
We illustrate the composition of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 as follows
Example 28: Consider the following illustration:
Find (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑎), (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑏), (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑐)
Using the illustration above, we have
Solution:
 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)) = 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑡

 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑏)) = 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑟
 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑐) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑐)) = 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑡
Example 29. Let the functions f and g be defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2. Find
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥).
a. (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
Solution:
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))
Substituting the value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, we obtain
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 1) = 2(2𝑥 + 1)2 − 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1
b. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
Solution:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
Substituting the value of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2, we obtain
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 − 2) = 2(𝑥 2 − 2) + 1 = 2𝑥 2 − 3
Inverse of a Function
The inverse of the function f is denoted by 𝑓 −1 and is pronounced "f inverse". The
inverse of a function does not mean the reciprocal of a function.
A function normally tells you what y is if you know what x is. The inverse of a function
will tell you what x had to be to get that value of y.
An inverse of a function is a function that "reverses" another function, that is, if the
function 𝑓 applied to an input 𝑥 gives a result of y, then applying its inverse
function 𝑓 −1 to 𝑥 gives the result 𝑦, and vice versa.
That is, 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒚 𝒊𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒇 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒚) = 𝒙
We say that a function 𝒇−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝒇 if
 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓, (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and

 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 −1 , (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥
The domain of 𝑓 is the range of 𝑓 −1 and the range of 𝑓 is the domain of 𝑓 −1
Given the function 𝑓 (𝑥), we want to find the inverse function, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥):
1. First, replace 𝑓 (𝑥) with 𝑦.

2. Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥.
3. Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
4. Verify your work by checking that (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥
Solved Problems
Example 30: Find the inverse of the following functions:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 Replace 𝑓 (𝑥) with 𝑦
𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 2 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
𝑥+2
3
=𝑦 Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
𝒙+𝟐
Hence, 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝟑
To check, let us recall the composition of functions:
We need to show that(𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥.
3𝑥−2+2
 (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 ( 3𝑥 − 2) =
3
=𝑥
𝑥+2 𝑥+2
 (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 (
3
) = 3( 3 )− 2 = 𝑥
2. 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3
Solution:
𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3
𝑦 = √𝑥 − 3 Replace 𝑔 (𝑥) with 𝑦
𝑥 = √𝑦 − 3 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
2
𝑥 +3 = 𝑦 Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
Hence, 𝒈−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑
You may also check (𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔−1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑥+4
3. ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥−5
Solution:
𝑥+4
ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥−5
𝑥+4
𝑦 = 2𝑥−5 Replace ℎ (𝑥) with 𝑦
𝑦+4
𝑥 = 2𝑦−5 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
𝑦+4
𝑥=
2𝑦−5
2𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑥 = 𝑦 + 4 Multiply both sides by 2𝑦 − 5
−5𝑥 − 4 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 Combine all terms containing 𝑦
−5𝑥 − 4 = 𝑦(−2𝑥 + 1) Factor out 𝑦
−5𝑥−4 5𝑥+4
−2𝑥+1
= 𝑦 or 2𝑥−1 = 𝑦
𝟓𝒙+𝟒
Hence, 𝒉−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙−𝟏
You may also check (ℎ−1 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (ℎ ∘ ℎ−1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥
Practice Exercise 2 Score:
Directions: Show your complete solution.
1. Specify the set A by listing its elements, where

𝐴 = { 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 16 }.
2. Specify the set B by giving a written description of its elements, where

𝐵 = { 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 }.
3. Does the following sentence specify a set? Explain.

𝐶 = { 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 50 }.
4. Consider
𝐴 = {𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑡, ℎ} 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 3𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}
𝐵 = {𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑒, 𝑚} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 6, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}
a. What is A∩B? b. What is C∪D?
5. Solve the following problems using a Venn diagram: Consider the following data
among 110 students in college dormitory: 30 students are on a list A(taking
Accounting); 35 students are on a list B (taking Biology); and 20 students are on both
lists
Find the number of students:

a. on list or B
b. on exactly one of the two lists
c. on neither list
6. In a town 85% of the people speak English, 40% speak Korean and 20% speak Spanish.
Also 32% speak English and Korean, 13% speak English and Spanish, and 10% speak
Korean and Spanish, find the percentage of people who can speak all the three
languages.
B. Encircle the letter corresponding to the correct answer.

5
7. Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−4. Find the domain of 𝑔(𝑥).
a. (−∞, 4) ∪ (4, ∞) c. [4, ∞)
b. (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, ∞) d. (−∞, ∞)
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+7
8. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 −2𝑥
. Find 𝑓(3).
2 16 18
a. 5
b. 39 c. 3 d. 45
9. Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5. Which of the following is a formula for

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)?
a. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 + √2 c. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 2
2
b. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5 + √𝑥 − 3 d. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (√𝑥 − 3) + 5
10. Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2. Which of the following is a formula
2
for (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥)?
a. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 c. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5
b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 d. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5
11. Which set of values is a function?

a. {(9,5), (10,5), (9, −5), (10, −5)} c. {(3,4), (4, −3), (7,4), (3,8)}
b. {(6, −5), (7, −3), (8, −1), (9,1)} d. {(2, −2), (5,9), (5, −7), (1,4)}
12. Using the figure on the right and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ}

being the universal set, find the elements of the set
(𝑋 ∩ 𝑌) ∪ 𝑍.
a. {𝑐, 𝑒 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ} c. {𝑓}
b. {𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔} d. {𝑐, 𝑓, ℎ}
13. Which graph is NOT a function?
a. Graph 1
b. Graph 2
c. Graph 3
d. Graph 4
3
14. Why is the relation {(4,4), (2, −3), (4,0), (1, −10), (4 , −1)} not a function?
a. An element of the domain corresponds to more than one range value.
b. The elements of the range are less than or equal to the elements of the domain.
c. An element of the domain is a fraction.
d. There are only five ordered pairs in the relation.
15. If 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, … , 20} and 𝑆 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑆 =

a. {3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} c. {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
b. {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19} d. {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17}
16. Which pair of sets represents one set being a subset of another but is not equal?
a. 𝑁, the set of natural numbers, and 𝑍, the set of integers
b. 𝑇, the set of all triangles, and 𝐶, the set of all circles
c. 𝑁, the set of all natural numbers, and 𝑃, the set of positive integers
d. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
17. In a survey of university students, 64 had taken mathematics course, 94 had taken
chemistry course, 58 had taken physics course, 28 had taken mathematics and
physics, 26 had taken mathematics and chemistry, 22 had taken chemistry and
physics course, and 14 had taken all the three courses. Find how many had taken
one course only.
a. 76 b. 86 c. 106 d. 120
18. Let 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 , 𝑙 , 𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑜, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 , 𝑠 , 𝑡, 𝑢 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} be the Latin alphabet.

Let 𝐵 be the set of letters in the word “baboon”. Find 𝐵𝐶 .
a. {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 , 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
b. {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘, 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
c. {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, ℎ, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 , 𝑙, 𝑚 , 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 }
d. {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘, 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
19. Which pair of sets represents equal sets?

a. N, the set of natural numbers, and Z, the set of integers
b. T, the set of all triangles, and C, the set of all circles
c. N, the set of all natural numbers, and P, the set of positive integers
d. None of the above
20. In a group of students, 65 play football, 45 play hockey, 42 play cricket, 20 play
football and hockey, 25 play football and cricket, 15 play hockey and cricket and 8
play all the three games. Find the total number of students in the group (Assume
that each student in the group plays at least one game.)
a. 56 b. 76 c. 92 d. 100
21. Write the ordered pairs for the relation. Find the
domain and the range.
a. {(−2,5), (−1,2), (0,1), (1,2), (2,5)};
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {1, 2, 5}
b. {(5, −2), (2, −1), (1,0), (2,1), (5,2)};
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {1, 2, 5}
c. {(−2,5), (−1,2), (0,1), (1,2), (2,5)};
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {1, 2, 5}; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
d. {(5, −2), (2, −1), (1,0), (2,1), (5,2)};
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {1, 2, 5}; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {−2, −1, 0,1, 2 }
𝑥−10
22. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 7
and 𝑔(𝑥) = 7𝑥 + 10. Find (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥).
10
a. 7𝑥 + 60 c. 𝑥 − 7
b. 𝑥 + 20 d. 𝒙
For numbers 23 – 26, consider the following sets,

with 𝑈 = {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3,4,5},
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 = 25},
𝐵 = {−5, 0,1,2,3,4, 5} and 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0}.
23. What is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵?
a. {5} b. {−5, 5} c. {} d. {−5, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
24. Which of the following statements is/are true?

i. 𝐴 and 𝐵 are joint sets.
ii. 𝐴 is a unit set.
iii. |𝐵| = 5
a. i only b. i and ii c. i and iii d. i, ii, and iii
25. Which is equal to 𝐵\𝐶?

a. {−5, 0, 1, 2, 4, 5} b. {−5, 1, 3, 4, 5} c. {1,2,3} d. {−5, 0, 1, 4, 5}
26. Which set is equal to (𝐵\𝐴)𝑐 ?

a. {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1} c. {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 5}
b. {−5, 1, 5} d. B
27. What is the cardinality of a countably infinite set?
a. ∞ b. |𝐴| c. ℵ0 d. ∅
Quiz 1 (40 points)
MODULE 5: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Our target learning outcomes are: a) Solve problems involving patterns and
recreational puzzles using inductive and deductive reasoning; b) Use different types of
reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics and mathematical
concepts; c) Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s
four steps; d) Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.
Solve the VIRAL MATH PROBLEM - 6 ÷ 2(1 + 2) =

What is your answer to this problem? Why, justify your answer?
A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

PowerPoint 10: Inductive and deductive Reasoning
a. Inductive reasoning
The process of forming or reaching a conclusion by examining specific
examples.
Note: The conclusion that is formed by using inductive reasoning is often called
a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Example 1: Inductive reasoning to predict a number. Given the sequence

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, __. What is the next number?
Solution:
The difference between the first two numbers is 2. The second and third
number differ by 3; the third and fourth number differ by 4. It appears that the
difference between any two consecutive numbers is always 1 greater than the
preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next
number in the list will be 6 greater than 15. Hence, the next number is 21.
Example 2: Inductive reasoning to make a conjecture: Consider the following

procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8; add 6 to the product; divide
the sum by 2; and, subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution:
Using any number (an integer, i.e.) and following the outlined
procedure or steps, we conjecture that the given procedure will produce a
resulting number that is four times the original number.
Consider: A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater earthquake.
The velocity of a tsunami as it approaches land depends on the height of a tsunami.
Use the given table below and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following
questions.
Height of tsunami, in ft. 4 9 16 25 36 49 64
Velocity of tsunami, in
6 9 12 15 18 21 24
ft. per second
a. What happens to the height of the tsunami when its velocity is doubled?
b. What should be the height of the tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per second?
Counterexamples – one case found for which a statement is not true. It is used to
verify if a statement is a false statement.
Example 3: Statement: For all x, x2 > x.

Solution:
Consider x = 1. For x = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than
1, a counterexample is found.
Thus, the statement “for all x, x2 > x” is a false statement.
Example 4. Statement: For all x, x/x = 1.

Solution:
Consider x = 0. For x = 0, 0/0 ≠ 1; 0/0 is undefined.
Hence, the statement “for all x, x/x = 1” is a false statement.
b. Deductive reasoning
A process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.
Example 5: Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure
produces a number that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,

divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2:
Subtract 3 from the quotient: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
Starting with n and performing the procedure, we ended with 4n. The
procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.
Try This: Determine the type of reasoning used in each of the following
statements:
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year.
Last year, the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will
produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated my home improvement will cost P1,750,000. Thus, my home
improvement will cost more than P1,750,000.
Answers:
a. The statement is an example of inductive reasoning since the argument
reaches a conclusion based on specific examples.
b. The conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption. Hence, the
argument is an example of deductive reasoning.
Note: Inductive: from specific to general.
Deductive: from general to specific.
B. Logic and KenKen Puzzles

PowerPoint 11: Logic Puzzles and KenKen Puzzles
Video viewing and doing problem solving:
Can you solve Einstein’s Riddle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1rDVz_Fb6HQ
Logic puzzles
Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that is
used to display given information in a visual manner.
Example 6: Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a
different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following
clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
Clues:
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker and the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker leaves next door to Brian.
Solution:
* From clue 1, Maria is not the banker nor the dentist. In the following chart, we
write ×1 under the Banker and Dentist column for Maria.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah
Brian
* From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Also, Sarah is the last to get home from
work and from clue 1, the banker is not the last to get home from work. Hence,
Sarah is also not the banker. We write ×2 under the editor and banker column
for Sarah.

Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2
Brian
* From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist for she and the dentist leave for work at
the same time. We write ×3 under the Dentist column for Sarah in the following
chart and we conclude that Sarah is the Chef. Correspondingly, we get to see
that since Sarah is the Chef, we place an ×3 mark under the Chef column for
Maria and conclude that she is the Editor. Now, we also place an ×3 mark
under the columns Chef and Editor for Sean and Brian.

Sean ×3 ×3
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×3
* From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. We place an ×4 mark under the Banker
column for Brian. Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the Banker column, then Sean
must be the Banker. Sean could not be the Dentist so we place an ×4 mark for
Sean under the Dentist column. Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the Dentist
column, Brian must be the Dentist and we place a check mark in that box.
Sean ×3 ×3 ×4
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×4 ×3
From the given clues (and using deductive reasoning), Sean is the banker,
Maria is the editor, Sarah is the Chef, and Brian is the dentist.
A. Kenken puzzles
Watch the video: KenKen 4x4 Introduction and Strategy@
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uYTrrsxJqb0
KenKen→ is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the

Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun "ken" has
"knowledge" and "awareness" as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge
squared, or awareness squared.
Rules for Solving KenKen→ Puzzles
1. For an n x n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2,
3, ... , n. In a 3x3 puzzle, use the numbers 1 – 3. In a 4x4 puzzle, use the numbers
1 – 4. In a 5x5 puzzle, use the numbers 1 – 5, and so on.
2. Do not repeat a number in any row or column. Our goal is to fill in the whole
grid with numbers, making sure no number is repeated in any row or column.
3. The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must
combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner
of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.
4. Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number. If you
see a single-cell cage with just a number and no operator, it means that the
value in that cell is the target number. Such single-cell cages work like in
Sudoku puzzles. You won’t see these in every puzzle, but when you see one,
you should start there.
5. A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row
or column.
KenKen→ Puzzles: Example 1
Figure a Figure b
First fill in single box cages, called "freebies" Possible numbers for each box considering the
with the target number. cage and operations.
Figure c. Eliminate numbers 2 and 1 Figure d. From Fig. c it shows that the circled
that are with the same column and numbers 4 found their location.
row of the freebies 2 and 1.
Figure e. Eliminate # 4 that are with

the same column and row of the result Figure f:
in Figure c.
Figure g: Eliminate the numbers that are with
the same column and row of the result in Figure e.
The final result then will be:
Practice Exercise 3 My Score:
1. Four friends (including Adam) were at the company picnic. Each friend had a
different drink (one was juice), with a different mix added (one had vanilla). From
the clues provided can you figure out which friend had which drink and what was
added to his/her drink?
CLUES
• Wilma did not drink water mixed with her lemon.
• Only the men drank soda or water.
• Mary was not the one who had water & lime.
• David did not mix his drink with lime.
• The woman who had strawberry did not have tea.
Source: https://www.puzzles-on-line-niche.com/support-files/mixed-drinks-solution.pdf
2.
C. LOGIC
PowerPoint 12: Logic
When someone tells you, “I fail to see your logic,” perhaps the person you are talking
to does not understand your reasoning or sees your arguments as invalid. How exactly do
we determine whether our statements are valid or not? This is the focus of our next section.
Merriam Webster defines logic as a science that deals with the principles and criteria
of validity of inference and demonstration: the science of the formal principles of reasoning.
It allows us to analyze arguments and determine whether it is valid or invalid. Logic is used
by lawyers and judges, computer programmers and more. It is an important tool in
mathematical proofs. In this context, we will see that logic includes a language for
expressing complicated compound statements, a concise notation for writing them, and a
methodology for objectively reasoning about their validity. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-
1716), Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George Boole (1815-1864) are some of the first
mathematicians to study symbolic logic as we know it today, advancing it as a
mathematical discipline instead of merely being a part of philosophy. In particular, Boole
published two works on logic, The Mathematical Analysis of Logic and An Investigation of
the Laws of Thought.
LOGIC STATEMENTS: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND

In logic, a statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both
true and false. Let us take a look at the following sentences, and identify if it is considered as
a statement:
1. Benguet is a province in the Philippines.
2. How are you?
3. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
4. 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 12.
5. Open the door.
6. 7055 is a large number.
7. In the year 2022, the president of the Philippines will be a woman.
8. 𝑥 > 3.
In the examples above, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8 are considered as statements, but

the others are not. Note that although we may not know if sentences 3 and 7 are true or
false, it cannot be both true and false. Statements 4 and 8 are called open statements, and
their truth or falsity depends on a particular value of 𝑥. Examples 2 and 5 are not declarative
sentences, while the word “large” in example 6 is not a precise term so we cannot determine
if indeed the sentence is true or false. The famous paradox “This is a false statement” is not a
statement (think about it!).
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea, while a compound
statement conveys two or more ideas. Compound statements are formed by connecting
simple statements with words or phrases such as “and,” “or,” “if... then...” and “if and only if.”
These, together with “not,” are called logical connectives. George Boole used symbols such
as 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧,∨, ∼, →, and ↔ to represent
connectives. Using these, we can write any logic statement in its symbolic form. The table
below summarizes the different statements, its types, connectives and symbolic form.
Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement

not 𝑝 not ∼𝑝 negation
𝑝 and 𝑞 and 𝑝∧𝑞 conjunction
𝑝 or 𝑞 or 𝑝∨𝑞 disjunction
If 𝑝, then 𝑞 If... then 𝑝→𝑞 conditional
𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 if and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 biconditional
Let us have some illustrations on writing statements in their symbolic form. Consider the
following simple statements and their symbols:
𝑝: Today is Friday.
𝑞: It is raining.
𝑟: I am going to a movie.
𝑠: I am not going to the basketball game.
Here are some compound statements and their corresponding symbolic form:
1. Today is Friday and it is raining.
SYMBOLIC FORM: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
2. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
SYMBOLIC FORM: ∼ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟
3. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
SYMBOLIC FORM: ∼ 𝑠 ∨ 𝑟
4. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
SYMBOLIC FORM: 𝑞 → 𝑠
Let us also show illustrations on doing the reverse procedure, which is translating the
symbolic form in words. Suppose we have the following simple statements and their symbols:
𝑝: The game will be played in Atlanta.
𝑞: The game will be shown on CBS.
𝑟: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
𝑠: The Dodgers are favored to win.
Then the following statements in symbolic form will be translated in this manner:
1. 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
IN WORDS: The game will be shown on CBS and will be played in Atlanta.
2. ∼ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑠
IN WORDS: The game will be shown on ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.
3. 𝑠 ↔∼ 𝑝
IN WORDS: The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played
in Atlanta.
In compound statements containing more than two simple statements, grouping

symbols are used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together. When in
symbols, parenthesis or brackets are used. If it is given in words, a comma is used: all
statements before the comma are grouped together, and all statements after the comma
are also grouped together. The table below gives particular examples of groupings in
symbols and in words.
Symbolic Form English Sentence
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑟) 𝑝, and 𝑞 or not 𝑟
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 𝑝 and 𝑞, or 𝑟
(𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞) → (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) If 𝑝 and not 𝑞, then 𝑟 or 𝑠
Suppose we are given the following simple statements:
𝑝: You get a promotion.

𝑞: You complete the training.
𝑟: You will receive a bonus.
Then the symbolic form (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 in words will be “If you get a promotion and complete the
training, then you will receive a bonus.” On the other hand, the statement “If you do not
complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not receive a bonus”
will be represented by ~𝑞 → (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟).
TRUTH VALUES AND TRUTH TABLES
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). The truth value of a
compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives. A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for
all possible truth values of its simple statements. We take note of the following for the
negation, conjunction and disjunction:
1. The negation of a true statement is false, while the negation of a false statement is
true.
2. Both statements must be true for the conjunction to be true. If at least one statement
is false, then the conjunction will be false.
3. A disjunction is true if either statement is true. If both statements are false, then the
disjunction is false.
These are summarized in the following truth tables:
Truth Table for a Truth Table for a Conjunction Truth Table for a Disjunction
Negation 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
𝑝 ∼𝑝 T T T T T T
T F T F F T F T
F T F T F F T T
F F F F F F
Let us look at some examples on determining the truth value of a compound
statement:
1. 7 ≥ 5.
This statement is actually a disjunction: It can be written as 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Since the
first statement is true, it means that the disjunction 7 ≥ 5 is also true.
2. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
The first simple statement is true and the second is false, so the conjunction is false.
3. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Since both simple statements are true, the conjunction is true.
4. 21 is a rational number and 21 is a natural number.
This conjunction is also true.
5. 4 ≤ 9.
This disjunction is true.
6. −7 ≥ −3.
This disjunction is false since −7 > −3 is false and −7 = −3 is also false.
For combinations of arbitrary simple statements, constructing a truth table allows us

to determine the truth value of the compound statement given any combination of the truth
values of the simple statements. Note that if a compound statement has 𝑛 simple statements,
then the truth table to be constructed will have 2𝑛 rows so that all possibilities are covered.
We will show two ways to construct the truth table.
Let us first consider the compound statement ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞). There are two simple
statements, 𝑝 and 𝑞, so there must be 22 = 4 rows in the truth table. We start off with the
following standard truth table form. Notice that in the column of the simple statement 𝑞, the
truth values T and F alternate, while in the column for 𝑝, there are two rows of T is followed by
two rows of F. This ensures all combinations of truth values are enumerated.
𝑝 𝑞
T T
T F
F T
F F
In the first method of constructing truth tables, we add a column to the truth table for
each particular connective that appears in the symbolic form. In the example above, we
start with a column for ∼ 𝑝 and identify its truth value for each row. This is followed by a
column for 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, and finally a column for ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) whose truth values are based on the
previous two columns. This last column gives the truth values of the compound statement ∼
𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).
𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑝 𝑝∧𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T F T
F F T F T
① ② ③
Based on column 3, we can say that if 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true, then
∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) will be true. Other conclusions can be made by referring to the remaining rows
of the truth table.
In the second method of constructing a truth table, instead of having a separate
column for each connective, we simply place the truth value of the statement under the
symbol of the connective, as shown in the table below. Here we number the columns as we
evaluate the truth values under each connective, and shade the final column to indicate
the truth values of the compound statement given. Notice that compared to the first
method, we have simply rearrange the columns in truth table. In a way, this alternative
procedure results in a more compact solution especially in compound statements that
involve many signs of grouping. Of course, you are free to use either method based on your
preference.
𝑝 𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T F
F F T T F
① ③ ②
Let us consider the compound statement [𝑟 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∧ (𝑟 ∨∼ 𝑞) as our second
example, using the second method of constructing the truth table (you can try the first
method and compare the results). This time, there will be eight rows in the standard truth
table form. In the 𝑟 column, the T and F alternate; in the 𝑞 column, T and F appear two at a
time; and finally in the 𝑝 column, four rows of T are followed by four rows of F. This ensures all
combinations of truth values are covered, and usually helps us remember how to fill up the
rows! The table below gives us the results:
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 [𝑟 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∧ (𝑟 ∨ ∼ 𝑞)
T T T T F T T T F
T T F F F T F F F
T F T F F F F T T
T F F F F F F T T
F T T T T T T T F
F T F F T T F F F
F F T T T T T T T
F F F F T T F T T
③ ① ② ⑥ ⑤ ④
When constructing truth tables, remember to arrange your simple statements
alphabetically and evaluate from the inside going out for nested signs of grouping. Try to
work on the following compound statements: (1) (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝) ∨∼ 𝑞; (2) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞).
Truth tables can be used to show that compound statements are equivalent. Two
statements are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value for all possible truth
values of their simple statements. Equivalent statements are denoted by the symbol ≡. For
example, we can verify that ∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) and ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 are equivalent statements, that is, ∼
(𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 using the following truth table:
𝑝 𝑞 ∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) ∼𝑝∧𝑞
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F F F
The example above is an application of De Morgan’s Laws for statements: For any
statements 𝑝 and 𝑞,
∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞 and ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞.
Another example of equivalent statements is ∼ (∼ 𝑝) ≡ 𝑝 since the negation of a negation is
the original statement. We will encounter more equivalent statements when we discuss
conditional and biconditional statements.
CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
The conditional statement is a statement of the form “If 𝑝, then 𝑞” or in symbols, 𝑝 → 𝑞.

It shows an implication; that is, given that a situation 𝑝 will happen (antecedent of
hypothesis), then another situation 𝑞 will happen (consequent or hypothesis). Most theorems
in mathematics are in the form of a conditional. There are many other ways to express 𝑝 →
𝑞, namely:
If 𝑝, 𝑞. 𝑞 is necessary for 𝑝.
𝑝 implies 𝑞. 𝑞 is a necessary condition for 𝑝.
𝑞, if 𝑝. 𝑝 only if 𝑞.
𝑞 when 𝑝. 𝑞 whenever 𝑝.
𝑝 is sufficient for 𝑞. 𝑞 follows from 𝑝.
𝑝 is a sufficient condition for 𝑞.
A conditional statement can also be expressed in terms of negations, conjunctions
and disjunctions based on the following statements equivalent to 𝑝 → 𝑞:
𝑝 →𝑞 ≡∼𝑝∨𝑞 and 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
Using these equivalent statements, we can see that the negation of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞. Note that
the negation is no longer a conditional statement! To illustrate, consider the statement “If
they pay me money, I will sign the contract.” Its negation will be, “They pay (or paid) me
money and I will not sign the contract.” Note that “but” can also be used for a conjunction,
so the negation can also be written as “They pay (or paid) me money but I will not sign the
contract” to emphasize the contrast in the two simple statements.
The conditional is false if the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
Otherwise, the conditional is true. This is shown in the truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞:
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
To explain this, let us consider a conditional statement that perhaps your parents/guardians
have said to you to convince you to do well in school: “If you pass this test, then I will treat
you to your favorite restaurant.” We analyze the truth value of this conditional statement.
1. If you passed the test and you were treated to your favorite restaurant, then you can
say that your parents/guardians were being truthful when they said the conditional.
Thus 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true in the first row of the truth table.
2. If you passed the test and you were not treated to your favorite restaurant, then you
would say that parents/guardians were not being truthful when they said the
conditional. Thus 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false in the second row of the truth table.
3. If you did not pass the test, then regardless of being treated to the restaurant or not,
you cannot say that the conditional is false. This is because it does not indicate what
might or might not happen if you did not pass the test. Thus, 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true in rows 3 and
4 of the truth table.
Construct the truth table for the following compound statements involving the
conditional for your practice: (1) [𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞)] → 𝑞; (2) [𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝)] → ∼ 𝑝.
If we switch and/or negate the antecedent and consequent of a conditional
statement, we can form other conditionals such as the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive. Given a conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞, we have the following:
converse: 𝑞→𝑝
inverse: ∼𝑝→∼𝑞
contrapositive: ∼𝑞 →∼𝑝
Note that the conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive, while the converse is
equivalent to the inverse:
𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡∼ 𝑞 → ∼ 𝑝 and 𝑞 →𝑝 ≡∼𝑝 →∼𝑞
Let us consider the conditional statement “If I get the job, then I will rent the
apartment.” Its converse is “If I rent the apartment, then I will get the job.” The inverse will be
“If I don’t get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.” The contrapositive will be “If I don’t
rent the apartment, then I will not get the job.” In addition, the negation of the conditional
is “I get the job and I will not rent the apartment.”
For your practice, state the converse, inverse, contrapositive and negation of the
conditional statement “Whenever I do yoga, I feel calm.” Be careful with your choice of
antecedent and consequent! Refer to the different ways to express 𝑝 → 𝑞 previously
discussed.
A biconditional statement is a two-way conditional statement: 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞, or in
symbols, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, is the conjunction of two conditional statements:
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
Using this equivalence, the truth table of the biconditional can be constructed, as shown
below. We can see here that a biconditional statement is true if its simple statements have
the same truth value.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Let us consider some biconditional statements involving the variable 𝑥 and determine
its truth value. Recall that it is necessary to substitute a value for 𝑥 in order to know the truth
value of the open statement. In this case, a biconditional is a true statement no matter what
value of 𝑥 is substituted. A biconditional becomes false if there is at least one value of 𝑥 that
makes it false.
1. 𝑥 + 4 = 7 if and only if 𝑥 = 3.
From the first equation, we know that 𝑥 = 3. Thus to determine the truth value of the
biconditional, we need to check two possibilities: (a) 𝑥 = 3; (b) 𝑥 ≠ 3.
𝑥+4=7 𝑥=3 𝑥+4=7↔𝑥 =3

Case (a): 𝑥 = 3 T T T
Case (b): 𝑥 ≠ 3 F F T
We can see that no matter what value is substituted into 𝑥, both equations have the
same truth value. Thus, the biconditional is true.
2. 𝑥 2 = 36 if and only if 𝑥 = 6.
Here, we only need to note that if we substitute 𝑥 = −6, the first equation holds but
the second does not. Thus, the biconditional statement is false.
3. 𝑥 > 7 if and only if 𝑥 > 6.

What do you think?
TAUTOLOGIES AND SELF-CONTRADICTIONS
A tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement that

is always false.
Verify that 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology and 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is a self contradiction by

completing the truth table below.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T
T F
F T
F F
The open statement 𝑥 + 2 = 5 is neither a tautology nor a self-contradiction since it is

true when 𝑥 = 3 and false when 𝑥 ≠ 3.
SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS
An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement

called the conclusion. The conclusion is preceded by the word “therefore.” An argument is
valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are assumed to be true. It is invalid if
it is not a valid argument. The symbolic form of an argument is written as
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2
⋮
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
The symbol ∴ represents the word “therefore.” An argument can also be written as a
conditional statement whose antecedent is the conjunction of all the premises and whose
consequent is the conclusion:
[𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1 ∧ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒] → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Let us consider the following argument: “If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.
Aristotle was human. Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.” If we use the symbol ℎ for the statement
“Aristotle was human,” and 𝑚 for “Aristotle was mortal,” then we obtain the following:
Symbolic form: Conditional:
ℎ→𝑚 [(ℎ → 𝑚) ∧ ℎ] → 𝑚
ℎ
∴𝑚
My Score:
Self – assessment 2:
Can you write these examples in symbolic form and as a conditional?
1. “The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh. Therefore, I will order it.”
2. “If she doesn’t get on the plane, she will regret it. She does not regret it. Therefore, she
got on the plane.”
The validity of an argument can be determined using a truth table. We proceed as

follows:
1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth value of each premise and the truth value
of the conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the simple statements.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are
true, the argument is valid. If the conclusion is false in any row in which all of the
premises are true, the argument is invalid.
Let us take a look at the example involving Aristotle and determine its validity. Its truth
table is shown below:
First Premise Second Premise Conclusion

ℎ 𝑚 ℎ→𝑚 ℎ 𝑚
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
We disregard rows 2, 3 and 4 in our analysis because the premises are not both true.
Since only the first row has both premises true, and the conclusion is also true, then the
argument is valid.
For our second example, consider the following argument: “If it rains, then the game
will not be played. It is not raining. Therefore, the game will be played.” Let 𝑟 represent the
statement “It rains” and 𝑔 the statement “The game will be played.” Then the symbolic form
and the truth table for the argument are given by
𝑟 →∼𝑔
∼𝑟
∴𝑔

𝑔 𝑟 𝑟 →∼𝑔 ∼𝑟 𝑔
T T F F T
T F T T T
F T T F F
F F T T F
For this argument, we disregard rows 1 and 3 since the premises are not both true. Looking
at row 4, we see that the conclusion is false even if both premises are true. This means that
the argument is invalid.
Suppose we are given the following argument: “If I am going to run the marathon,
then I will buy new shoes. If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television. Therefore, if I buy
a television, I will not run the marathon.” Let us use the following symbols: 𝑚 for “I am going
to run the marathon,” 𝑠 for “I will buy new shoes,” and 𝑡 for “I will buy a television.” The
symbolic form and truth table for this argument are below:
𝑚→ 𝑠
𝑠 →∼ 𝑡
∴ 𝑡 →∼ 𝑚

𝑚 𝑠 𝑡 𝑚→ 𝑠 𝑠 →∼ 𝑡 𝑡 →∼ 𝑚
T T T T F F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F T F T T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
In the highlighted rows, it can be seen that the conclusion is true whenever both
premises are true. Thus, the argument is valid.
Can you try it yourself? Determine the validity of the argument “If the stock market
rises, then the bond market will fall. The bond market did not fall. Therefore, the stock market
did not rise.” Use the symbols 𝑠 for “The stock market rises” and 𝑏 for “The bond market will
fall.”
Practice Exercise 4: My Score:
Let’s check your understanding of this section! Identify if the statement is true or false.
1. Propositional logic uses symbols to stand for statements and the relationship between
statements.
2. The sentence “Congratulations for a job well done!” is a statement.
3. In a conjunction, if one of the statements is false, the whole conjunction is still false.
4. The four logical connectives are conjunctions, conditionals, compounds, and
disjunctions.
5. In the conditional statement “𝑝, if 𝑞,” 𝑞 is called the consequent.
6. A conditional is false only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
7. The negation of the statement “Today is Thursday” is “Today is Monday.”
8. It is important to have a true premise in order for an argument to be valid.
9. A tautology is a compound statement that is always true, no matter what the truth
values of the statements that occur in it.
10. The truth table is used to display the relationships between the truth values of
propositions.
11. The disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is false when either 𝑝 or 𝑞 is false.
12. When 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false, the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
13. For the compound statement (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑠), there would be 16 rows in its truth
table.
II. PROBLEM SOLVING
Video viewing: Polya explains the problem solving technique

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0gbw-Ur_do&t=1028s
PowerPoint 13: Polya’s Four Step Method
INTRODUCTION
Every day we encounter problems. For sure, everyone has felt at least once in his or
her life how wonderful it is if we could solve a problem at hand preferably without much
difficulty or even with some difficulties. Unfortunately, problem-solving is an art at this point
for there are no universal approaches one can take to solving problems. Basically one must
explore possible avenues to a solution one by one until one comes across the right path to
a solution. However, in general, as one gains experience in solving problems, one develops
one's own techniques and strategies, though they are often intangible.
In this module, we are going to learn problem-solving and get a glimpse of strategies
that are often used by experts. They are based on the work of Polya. George Polya, known
as the father of modern problem solving, did extensive studies and wrote numerous
mathematical papers and three books about problem-solving. In 1945, he published the
book” How to Solve It a new aspect of mathematical method” which quickly became his
most prized publication. In his book, he identifies four basic steps of problem-solving and
reveals how the mathematical method of demonstrating a proof or finding an unknown can
be of help in attacking any problem that can be “reasoned” out.
A. Polya famous four-step method for problem solving
First Step: Understand the problem
Guide questions:
❏ Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
❏ What are you asked to find or show?
❏ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
❏ Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand
the problem?
❏ Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
If so, then:
1. What is the unknown?
2. What is the data?
3. What is the condition?
4. Is it possible to satisfy the condition?
5. Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown?
6. Or is it insufficient? Or redundant? Or contradictory?
7. Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
8. Separate the various parts of the condition. Write them down.
Second Step: Devise a plan
Find the connection between the data and the unknown and obtain a plan
of the solution. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they
attempt to solve a problem. Polya mentioned that there are many reasonable ways
to solve problems. Here are some strategies used:
a. Working Backwards. This is the strategy that “advertises” itself by stating
the end conditions of the problem and asking to find the starting
conditions.
b. Logical Reasoning. Problems involving logical reasoning often include a
substantial amount of data that, at first glance, appears overwhelming
and confusing. In this strategy you need to draw logical conclusions from
such data.
c. Finding a pattern. A powerful problem-solving strategy for problems is
examining data to see if a pattern exists then use it to solve the problem.
Used if a series of numbers or events are in the problem.
d. Creating a visual representation. If the situation described in the problem
is difficult to visualize, a diagram, using simple symbols or pictures, may
enable us to see the situation more easily.
e. Solve a similar but simpler problem. This is used when it is not possible to
gather, explore, understand, relate, conjecture and to analyze data, in a
meaningful way. In this case, it would be better to formulate an
equivalent problem but simpler form.
f. Organizing Data. This is used if a problem presents an excessive amount
of data.
A table or a list are used to organize the data in a problem.
g. Considering Extreme Cases. In this strategy, the existence of extreme
positions is often the key to understanding existence results. By
considering extremes, we may be changing variables in the problem, but
only those that do not affect the actual problem situation.
h. Adopt a Different Point of View. A problem can be solved in a more
efficient and interesting manner if we approach it from a different point
of view. That is, instead of considering the problem in the most direct and
obvious manner, a different approach may yield the answer quickly and
more efficiently.
i. Accounting all possibilities. Used to solve problems that indicate different
possibilities. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities
j. Write an Equation. One of the first steps in working with problems is to
translate the problem into symbolic terms where all key concepts are
identified and defined to come up with an equation. This is effectively
applicable for algebraic problems.
k. Intelligent Guessing and Testing. This strategy is used when no other
strategy is immediately obvious. Here we make a guess (and it must be
an intelligent guess, not just an uninformed stab at the problem) and then
proceeds to test that guess within the conditions of the problem. We
repeat the process until we succeed.
The skill of choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving

many problems.
Third Step: Carry out the plan
In this step we solve the problem applying the plan we devised. All we need in
this step is care and patience, given that we have the necessary skills. If it continues
not to work, discard it and use another plan.
Fourth Step: Look back
The time to reflect and look back at what we have done, what worked, and
what didn’t. Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
Examples to illustrate the different problem solving strategies.
Example 7. In a room with 10 people, everyone shakes hands with everybody else exactly
once. How many handshakes are there?
Step 1: Understanding the Problem:

Unknown: number of handshakes in a room
Given: 10 people shakes hands with everybody exactly once
Step 2: Devise a plan:

❏ Visual representation
❏ Accounting for all possibilities
❏ Looking for a pattern
❏ Organizing data
Step 3: Carry out the plan:

a. Visual Representation (Draw a Diagram)
Let us use our visual representation strategy, by drawing a diagram. The
10 points (no 3 of each are collinear) represent the 10 people. Begin with the
person represented by point A.
We join A to each of the other 9 points, indicating the first 9 handshakes

that take place.
Now, from B there are 8 additional handshakes (because since A has

already shaken hands with B). Similarly, from C there will be 7 lines drawn to the
other, from D there will be 6 additional lines or handshakes, and so on. When
we reach point I, there is only one remaining handshake to be made, namely,
I with J, since I has already shaken hands with A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. Thus, the
sum of the handshakes equals 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45. In general,
this is same as using the formula for sum of the first n natural numbers, where
𝑛 > 2. (Notice that the final drawing will be a decagon with all of its diagonals
drawn.)
b. Accounting all possibilities

Consider the grid shown below, which indicates persons A, B, C, . . . , H,
I, J, shaking hands with one another. The diagonal with 𝑥’𝑠 indicates that
people cannot shake hands with themselves.
The remaining cells indicate doubly with all other handshakes (i.e., A
shakes hands with B and B shakes hands with A). thus we take the total number
of cells (102 ) minus those on diagonal (10) and divide the result by 2. In this
100−10
case, we have = 45.
2
𝑛2 −𝑛
In a general case for the 𝑛 × 𝑛 grid, the number would be , which
2
𝑛(𝑛−1)
is equivalent to the formula .
2
c. Adopting a different point of view

Let’s now examine the problem by adopting a different point of view.
Consider the room with 10 people, each of whom will shake 9 other people’s
hands. This seems to indicate that there are 10 × 9 or 90 handshakes, but we
must divide by 2 to eliminate the duplication.
d. Finding for a Pattern

Let’s try to solve the problem by looking for a pattern. In the table shown
below, we list the number of handshakes occurring in a room as the number of
people increases.
Number of people in Number of handshakes Total number of total
room for additional person handshakes in room
1 0 0
2 1 1
3 2 3
4 3 6
5 4 10
6 5 15
7 6 21
8 7 28
9 8 36
10 9 45
The third column, which is the total number of handshakes, gives a

sequence of numbers known as the triangular numbers, whose successive
differences increase by 1 each time. It is therefore possible to simply continue
the table until we reach the corresponding sum for the 10 people. Alternatively,
we note that the pattern at each entry is one half the product of the number
of people and the number of handshakes for additional person.
e. Organizing Data
We can approach a problem by a careful use of organizing data
strategy. The chart below shows each of the people in the room and the
number of people they have to shake with each time, given that they already
shaken the hands of their predecessors and don’t shake their own hands. If
there are 10 people in the room one will shake hands with the other 9 people,
making 9 handshakes; and if there are 9 people in the room one will shake
hands with the other 8 people, making 8 handshakes and so on, until we reach
person number 2, who only has one person’s hand to shake, and person
number 1 has no other hands to shake. Again, the sum is 45.
Organizing data
No. of people 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
No. of handshakes 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Step 4. Look Back: After reviewing we can say:

There are 45 handshakes in the room with 10 people.
Example 8: Evelyn, Harley, and Al play a certain game. The player who loses each round
must give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. In round 1,
Evelyn loses and gives Henry and Al as much money as they have. In Round 2, Henry loses,
and gives Evelyn and Al as much money they each then have. Al loses in round 3 and gives
Evelyn and Henry as much money as they each have. They decided to quit at this point and
discover that they each have ₱24. How much money did each start with?
Step 1: Understand the problem

Unknown: Amount of money Evelyn, Henry and Al each had before
they started to play.
Given: Each has 24 pesos at the end of the game. The player who loses each
round must give each of the other players as much money as the player has
at that time
Step 2: Devise a plan

Consider this question from the problem “How much money did they start
with?” This is a sign the problem is best solved by working backwards.
Step 3. Carry out a plan

We apply Working Backwards
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 3 24 24 24
End of round 2
End of round 1
Start
Since Al lost at the end of round 3 and the player who loses each round must
give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. This means
that Al gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Henry’s money. Evelyn’s money at the
end of round 2 was 12 and so with Henry.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1
Start
In round 2, Henry lost, he gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Al’s money.
Evelyn’s money at the end of round 1 was 6 and Al’s money at the end of Round 1
was 24.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1 12 − 6 = 6 12 + 6 + 24 = 42 48 − 24 = 24
Start 6 + 21 + 12 = 39 42 − 21 = 21 24 − 12 = 12
In round 1, Evelyn lost, she gave half of Henry’s money and half of Al’s money.
Henry’s money at the start was 21 and Al’s money at the start was 12.
Step 4. Look Back:

At the end of round 1 Evelyn lost so she gave Henry ₱21 and gave Al ₱12
leaving her ₱6.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2
End of round 3
At the end of round 2 Henry lost so he gave Evelyn ₱6 and gave Al ₱24 leaving
him ₱12.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3
At the end of round 3 Al lost so he gave Evelyn ₱12 and gave Al ₱12 leaving
him ₱24.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3 12 + 12 = 24 12 + 12 = 24 48 − 12 − 12 = 24
At the end of round 3 it shows that they ₱24 each.
This proves our answer that Evelyn began with ₱39, Henry began with ₱21 and Al
began with ₱12.
To further understand Polya’s problem solving strategy find time to watch “Polya explains
the problem solving technique”@ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0gbw-Ur_do&t=1028s
Practice Exercises 5: My Score:

1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Find the sum of the series: 2 + 6 + 12 + 20 + 30 + ⋯ + 2450
2. Joyce invited 17 friends to a dinner party at her house last Friday evening. She gave
each guest a card with a number from 2 through 18, reserving number 1 for herself.
When she had everyone paired off at the dinner table, she noticed that the sum of
each couple’s numbers was perfect square. What number did Joyce’s partner have?
5
3. Frosia delivers prescriptions for the local pharmacy. On Tuesday, she delivered 9 of the
3
prescriptions already in the delivery van and then of the remaining prescriptions.
4
2
After picking up 10 more prescriptions at the store, she delivered 3
of those she had
7
with her. She then picked up an additional 12 prescriptions and delivered 8
of those
she had in the van. Finally, she up 3 more and then delivered the remaining 5
prescriptions. How many prescriptions did she deliver?
It’s time to do the “Problem Set”
MODULE 6: Mathematics of Finance
Our target learning outcomes are a) Use mathematical concepts and tools in other
areas such as finance and business; b) Differentiate compound interest from simple interest;
c) Apply the interest and annuity formulas to cases of loans, credits, stocks bonds, property
purchases, and investment problems
A. Important Terms
Principal. It refers to the original sum of money borrowed in a loan or put into an
investment.
Interest is the charge for the privilege of borrowing money. From the investor’s
viewpoint, interest is the income from an invested amount at a given rate for a given time.
From the debtor’s viewpoint, interest is the money paid for the use of borrowed
money.
Interest Rate. The interest rate is the amount a lender charges for the use of money
expressed as a percentage of the principal. The interest rate is typically noted on an annual
basis known as the annual interest rate.
Time. This is the period from the beginning when the money was borrowed (or
invested) to the period when the money should be returned with the additional amount
(interest). This is also called the term of loan or term of investment.
B. SIMPLE INTEREST
PowerPoint 14: Simple interest
It refers to the interest paid on the original principal. It is also characterized by a fixed
amount earned over time. Usually, simple interest is associated with loans and investments
which are short term in nature.
The formula in computing for the simple interest is given by
I=Prt
where: I – the Interest
P– the Principal
r – the rate of interest
t – the time period
We have to note that the time t should be expressed in years. Unless otherwise stated,
it will be assumed that the interest rate is an annual interest.
Example 1: Find the simple interest earned in an account where ₱4,500 is on deposit for 4
years at 3 1/4% annual interest.
1
Given: 𝑃 = ₱4,500, 𝑡 = 4, 𝑟 = 3 4 % = 0.0325
Unknown: 𝐼
Solution:
𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡 = ₱4,500(0.0325)(4) = ₱585
Answer: 𝐼 = ₱585
Example 2: Find the simple interest for a loan of ₱12,400 due at the end of 8 1/4 years at 4
1/2% annual interest.
1 1
Given: 𝑃 = ₱12,400, 𝑡 = 8 = 8.25 , 𝑟 = 4 % = 0.045
4 2
Unknown: 𝐼
Solution: 𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡 = 12400(0.045)(8.25) = ₱4,603.5
Answer: 𝐼 = ₱4,603.5
Example 3: Find the principal necessary to earn ₱814 in simple interest if the money is to be
left on deposit for 5 years and 3 months and earns 5 1/2% annual interest.
3 1
Given: 𝐼 = ₱814, 𝑡 = 5 12 = 5.25, 𝑟 = 5 2 % = 0.055
Unknown: 𝑃
𝐼
Solution: Using 𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡, we obtain 𝑃 = 𝑟𝑡
814
𝑃 = 0.055(5.25) = ₱2,819.05
Answer: 𝑃 = ₱2,819.05
Example 4: Find the time necessary for a deposit of ₱11,500 to earn ₱3,450 in simple interest
if the money is to earn 3 3/4% annual interest.
3
Given: 𝑃 = ₱11,500, 𝐼 = ₱3,450, 𝑟 = 3 4 % = 0.0375
Unknown: 𝑡
𝐼
Solution: Using 𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡, we obtain 𝑡 = 𝑃𝑟
𝐼 3,450
𝑡= = = 8 Answer: 8 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑃𝑟 11,500(0.0375)
Converting time to years if the period of a loan (or investment) with an annual interest
rate is given in days
1. Exact method: t = number of days /365
2. Ordinary method: t = number of days /360
Note that the ordinary method is used by most businesses. Unless otherwise specified, we use
the ordinary method.
Example 5. Calculate the simple interest due on a 45-day loan of ₱3500 if the annual
interest rate is 8%.
45
Given: 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝑃 = ₱3,500, 𝑟 = 0.08
360
Unknown: 𝐼
45
Solution: 𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡 = 3,500(0.08) (360) = ₱35
Answer: 𝐼 = ₱35
*We have used the ordinary method as we convert the time in days into years as
there is no method specified in the problem.
Example 6. Calculate the simple interest due on a 120-day loan of ₱7,000 using the exact
method if the annual interest rate is 5.25%.
120
Given: 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝑃 = ₱7,000, 𝑟 = 0.0525
365
Unknown: 𝐼
120
Solution: 𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡 = 7,000(0.0525) ( ) = ₱120.82
365
Answer: 𝐼 = ₱120.82
Time in between two dates
When time is given between two dates, the time in days is determined using:
 Actual time uses the exact number of days in each month
 Approximate time assumes 30 days per month for all months
Methods of computing for the simple interest when time is given between two dates
1. Ordinary Interest for exact number of days

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼𝑂 = 𝑃𝑟 ( )
360
This is referred to as the Banker’s Rule.
2. Ordinary Interest for approximate number of days

𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼𝑂 = 𝑃𝑟 ( )
360
3. Exact Interest for exact number of days
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟 ( )
365
4. Exact interest for approximate number of days
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟 ( )
365
Note: Use the Banker’s rule unless otherwise specified. When we count the number of days
in between two dates we do not include the first day but we include the last day. Take note
that February may either have 29 or 28 days depending on if it is a leap year or not.
Example 7. Calculate the simple interest due on a loan of ₱2000, at 6.5% simple interest,
which was availed on July 12, 2019, and to be repaid on December 12, 2019. Use the four
methods of computing for simple interest.
Given: 𝑃 = ₱2,000, 𝑟 = 0.065
𝑡: July 12, 2019 → December 12, 2019
Unknown: 𝐼 using the four different methods
Solution: First we count the number of days between July 12, 2019 and September
12, 2019 using actual time and approximate time.
Actual Time Approximate Time

July 31-12=19 July 30-12=18
August 31 August 30
September 30 September 30
October 31 October 30
November 30 November 30
December 12 December 12
Total 153 Total 150
a) Ordinary Interest for exact number of days (Banker’s Rule)

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 153
𝐼𝑂 = 𝑃𝑟 ( ) = 2,000(0.065) ( ) = ₱55.25
360 360
b) Ordinary Interest for approximate number of days

𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 150
𝐼𝑂 = 𝑃𝑟 ( ) = 2,000(0.065) ( ) = ₱54.17
360 360
c) Exact Interest for exact number of days

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 153
𝐼𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟 ( ) = 2,000(0.065) ( ) = ₱54.49
365 365
d) Exact Interest for approximate number of days

approximate 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 150
𝐼𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟 ( ) = 2,000(0.065) ( ) = ₱53.42
365 365
Note: Among the four methods of computing simple interest, the Banker’s rule will usually
give the highest interest.
Final Amount
The sum of the principal and the interest which is accumulated at a certain time.
Final amount could be the Future Value or the Maturity Value
 Future Value (of an investment)
A term used to refer to the total amount on deposit after the interest earned has
been added to the principal.
 Maturity Value (of the loan)
A term used to refer to the total amount to be repaid to the lender where the
amount is the interest due on the loan plus the principal.
The formula in computing for the Final Amount is given as:
𝐹 =𝑃+𝐼
𝐹 = 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑟𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑡)
where: F - the Final Amount.
P - the Principal.
I – the Interest.
Example 8. Calculate the maturity value of simple interest, eight-month loan of ₱8,000 if the
interest rate is 9.75%.
8 2
Given: 𝑡 = = , 𝑃 = ₱8,000, 𝑟 = 0.0975
12 3
Unknown: 𝐹
2
Solution: 𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑡) = 8,000 [1 + 0.0975 ( )] = ₱8,520
3
Answer: 𝐹 = ₱8,520
Example 9. What principal will accumulate to ₱135,000 in 2 years at 15% simple interest?
Given: 𝐹 = ₱135,000, 𝑡 = 2, 𝑟 = 0.15
Unknown: 𝑃
𝐹
Solution: Using 𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑡) we obtain 𝑃 = 1+𝑟𝑡.
𝐹 135,000
𝑃 = 1+𝑟𝑡 = 1+(2)(0.15) = ₱103,846.15
Answer: 𝑃 = ₱103,846.15
Example 10. How many years are needed for ₱5,700 to accumulate to P6,555 at 3.5% simple
interest?
Given: 𝑃 = ₱5,700, 𝐹 = ₱6,555 𝑟 = 0.035
Unknown: 𝑡
𝐹
( −1)
Solution: Using 𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑡) we obtain 𝑡 = 𝑃
𝑟
.
𝐹 6,555
( −1) ( −1)
𝑃 5,700
𝑡= 𝑟
= 0.035
= 4.29
Answer: 𝑡 = 4.29 years
Practice Exercise 6: My Score:
Simple Interest. Read and analyze the following problems. Solve for the unknown/s in each
problem and provide a complete proof of your calculations
1. On February 19, 2020, Trisha borrowed ₱50,000 from a community cooperative at 9%

simple interest. The loan is payable on September 12, 2020. Compute the simple
interest using the four methods. How much will be the maturity value if the Banker’s
Rule is used?
2. Mike deposited on March 12, 2020 at 10.5% simple interest. On September 8, 2020, the
fund accumulated to ₱12,630. How much was the amount originally invested?
3. Mr. Tan borrowed ₱15,000 from the faculty fund at 13.25% simple interest for 210 days.
How much would he repay at the end of the term if he is charged exact interest?
C. COMPOUND INTEREST
PowerPoint 15: Compound Interest
It is the interest resulting from the periodic addition of simple interest to the principal
to create a new principal every now and then. Interest is charged (or paid) on interest as
well as on principal. The compound interest is the sum by which the original principal has
been increased by the end of the term.
The total accumulated amount at the end of the period which is the original principal
plus the compound interest is called the compound amount or final amount.
The formula in computing for the compound amount is given by

𝑟
𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 where 𝑖 = 𝑚 and 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑡, or
𝑟 𝑚𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑚
and the formulas for the compound interest and the principal are
𝐼 =𝐹−𝑃 𝑃 = 𝐹(1 + 𝑖)−𝑛
where: F – the Final amount or Compound amount

P – the Principal
I – the Compound Interest
i - the interest rate per period or periodic rate
t – time or term of investment, expressed in years
n – number of conversion periods (or compounding periods) for the
whole term.
m – the number of times interest is computed per year;
the number of conversion periods per year;
r – the nominal rate of interest per annum or year.
*Conversion or Compounding periods
Conversion/Compounding Period Value of m

Annually 1
Semi-annually 2
Quarterly 4
Monthly 12
Simple Interest and Compound Interest Compared
To better understand the difference between simple and compound interest, let us
use the following information.
Given: P=₱1,000,
𝑟 = 0.1,
𝑚 = 1,
𝑡=3
Simple Interest
Year Principal (amount Interest for the Total interest for
earning an period covered the period
interest) covered
1 ₱1,000 ₱100 ₱100
2 1,000 100 100
3 1,000 100 100

Final Amount at the end of 3 years where F = P (1 +rt) ₱1,000 + ₱300
F = 1000 [1 +(0.1)(3)] = ₱1,300 = ₱1,300
*The same ₱1,000 earns an interest per period.
Compound Interest
Year Principal (amount earning Interest for the period Total interest for the
an interest) covered period covered
1 ₱1000 ₱100 (a) ₱100
2 1000 100 (b)

100 (a) 10 (c) ₱110
3 ₱1000 ₱100 (d)

100 (a) 10 (e)
100 (b) 10 (f)
100 (c) 1(g) ₱121
Final Amount at the end of 3 years where 𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛

F  10001  0.1  ₱ 1,331 ₱1000+₱331=₱1,331
3
*The same ₱1,000 earns an interest per period but the interests also earn interest.
Comparing simple and compound interest there is a ₱31 discrepancy. Said amount
is the accumulated interest of the interests.
Example 11: Find the compound amount and interest if ₱1,000 is invested at 2%
compounded quarterly for 1 year and 6 months.
Given: 𝑃 = ₱1,000, 𝑟 = 0.02, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑡 = 1.5
Unknown: 𝐹, 𝐼
𝑟 𝑚𝑡 0.02 4(1.5)
Solution: 𝐹 = 𝑃 (1 + 𝑚) = 1,000 (1 + 4 ) = ₱1,030.38
𝐼 = 𝐹 − 𝑃 = 1,030.38 − 1,000 = ₱30.38
Answer: 𝐹 = ₱1,030.38 and 𝐼 = ₱30.38
In some business transactions involving money, especially during the onset of the
purchase of an expensive good or service, a down payment is required and in most cases,
the purchaser makes financing arrangements to cover the remaining amount owed to the
seller. (Investopedia). In the case that we want to compute for the cash value then we use
CASH VALUE = Down payment(DP) + Present value of all future payments
If no down payment is required, then
CASH VALUE = Present value of all future payments
Example 12. An equipment is purchased on installment by your company. Your company

paid an amount of ₱205,000 and owes a balance of ₱500,000 to be paid at the end of seven
years. Find the cash value of the equipment if money is worth 5% compounded quarterly.
Given: 𝐷𝑃 = ₱205,000, 𝐹 = ₱500,000, 𝑟 = 0.05, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑡 = 7
Unknown: 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Solution:
To solve for the cash value, we have to determine the present value 𝑃 of the
future payment of ₱500,000.
𝑟 −𝑚𝑡 0.05 −4(7)

𝑃 = 𝐹 (1 + ) = 500,000 (1 + ) = ₱353,109.26
𝑚 4
Then , 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = ₱205,000 + ₱353,109.26 = ₱558,109.26
Answer: 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = ₱558,109.26
Compound Interest. Read and analyze the following problems. Solve for the unknown/s in
each problem and provide a complete proof of your calculations.
1. Determine the final amount and interest if ₱24,500 is invested in an account that earns
8% compounded quarterly for 5 3/4 years.
2. How much money should be invested in an account that earns 9.5% interest,
compounded monthly, in order to have ₱30,000 in 5 years?
3. How much interest is due at the end of 2 1/2 years on a loan of ₱40,000 today if interest
is computed at 7.2% compounded semiannually?
4. Find the compound amount after 5 years and 9 months if the principal is ₱150,000 and
the interest rate is 7% compounded annually.
5. What present value, compounded quarterly at 8%, will amount to ₱65, 893.71 in 4
years?
6. Accumulate ₱180,000 for 5 years at 13% compounded semi-annually. (Note:

accumulating an amount means finding its maturity value.)
7. How much must Ella deposit in a bank that pays 11% interest compounded quarterly
so that she will have ₱400,000 after 4 years?
8. At what interest rate will a principal of ₱9,500 accumulate to ₱15,000 in 2 years

compounded semi-annually?
D. ANNUITY (or SIMPLE ANNUITY)
PowerPoint 16: Annuities
An annuity refers to a sequence of equal payments made at equal intervals of time.

This identifies the elements of an annuity as follows:
a. Sequences or series of payments
b. Payments are of equal amounts
c. Payments are made at equal intervals of time.
The concept of annuity applies to premiums of life insurance, periodic payments of

rentals, purchase of car or house, interest payment on bonds, or payment of household
appliances purchased on installment.
The term of an annuity refers to the period of time from the beginning of the first
payment interval up to the last payment interval. The size or value of each payment is called
the periodic payment. The time between successive periodic payments is called the
payment interval.
Classification of (Simple) Annuity Certain

1. Ordinary annuity – annuity where the periodic payments are made at the end of
each payment interval.
2. Annuity Due – annuity where the periodic payments are made at the beginning of
each payment interval.
3. Deferred Annuity – annuity where the first periodic payment is not made at the
beginning nor at the end of the first payment interval but at some later date.
PRESENT VALUE AND AMOUNT OF AN ANNUITY
The Present Value of an Annuity, denoted by A, is the value of the annuity at the
beginning of its term.
The Amount of an annuity or Sum of an Annuity, denoted by S, is the value of the
annuity at the end of its term.
Ordinary Annuity
An annuity where the periodic payments are made at the end of payment intervals.
Formulas for Ordinary Annuity
1. Final Amount of Ordinary Annuity
𝑟 𝑚𝑡
(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1 (1+ ) −1
𝑚
𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 𝑅 [ 𝑖
] = 𝑅[ 𝑟 ]
𝑚
2. Present Value of Ordinary Annuity

𝑟 −𝑚𝑡
1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛 1−(1+ )
𝑚
𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 𝑅 [ 𝑖
] = 𝑅[ 𝑟 ]
𝑚
where: 𝑆 – the Sum or Amount of annuity

𝐴 – the Present value of an annuity
𝑅 – Periodic payment
𝑡 – the term of the annuity
𝑖 – the periodic rate
𝑟 – the rate of interest of an annuity
𝑚 – number of conversion periods.
Example 13. A man deposits ₱12,200 every end of 6 months in an account paying 2%
compounded semi-annually. What amount is in the account at the end of 9 years and 6
months?
Given: 𝑅 = ₱12,200, 𝑚 = 2, 𝑟 = 0.02, 𝑡 = 9.5𝑦𝑟𝑠
Unknown: 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑
Solution:
𝑟 𝑚𝑡 0.02 2(9.5)
(1 + ) − 1 (1 + ) −1
𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 𝑅 [ 𝑚 ] = 12,200 [ 2 ] = ₱253,892.92
𝑟 0.02
𝑚 2
Answer: 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 = ₱253,892.92
Example 14. A home video entertainment set is offered for sale for ₱18,000 down payment
and ₱1,800 every three months for the balance, for 18 months. If interest is to be computed
at 10% converted quarterly, what is the cash price equivalent of the set?
18
Given: 𝐷 = ₱18,000, 𝑅 = ₱1,800, 𝑡 = 12 = 1.5, 𝑟 = 0.10, 𝑚 = 4
Unknown: 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Solution: To find the cash value, we need to solve first for the present value of future
payments. As the future payments are in the form of an ordinary annuity, we simply
solve for 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 .
𝑟 −𝑚𝑡 0.10 −4(1.5)
1 − (1 + 𝑚) 1 − (1 + 4 )
𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 𝑅 [ 𝑟 ] = 1,800 [ ] = ₱9,914.63
0.10
𝑚 4
Now for the cash value,
𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝐷 + 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 = ₱18,000 + ₱9,914.63 = ₱27,914.63
Answer: 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = ₱27,914.63
Example 15. How much monthly deposit must be made for 5 years and 5 months in order to
accumulate ₱120,000 at 3% compounded monthly?
5
Given: 𝑡 = 5 12 , 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 = ₱120,000, 𝑟 = 0.03, 𝑚 = 12
Unknown: 𝑅
𝑟 𝑚𝑡
(1+ ) −1
Solution: From 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 𝑅 [ 𝑚
𝑟 ] we can obtain
𝑚
𝑟 𝑚𝑡
−1
𝑟
(1+ ) −1
𝑚 𝑚
𝑅 = 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 [ 𝑟 ] = 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 [ 𝑟 𝑚𝑡
].
𝑚 (1+ ) −1
𝑚
𝑟 0.03
Then , 𝑅 = 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑑 [ 𝑚
𝑟 𝑚𝑡
] = 120,000 [ 12
5 ] = ₱1,702.52
(1+ ) −1 0.03 12(5+12)
𝑚 (1+ ) −1
12
Answer: 𝑅 = ₱1,702.52
Example 16. Bebong wants to buy a car worth ₱740,000. He can pay 40% of the price as
down payment and the balance payable every end of the month for 60 months, how much
must he pay monthly at 9% compounded monthly?
Given: 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = ₱740,000, 𝐷𝑃 = ₱740,000(0.4) = ₱296,000
60
𝑡 = = 5, 𝑟 = 0.09, 𝑚 = 12
12
Unknown: 𝑅
𝑟 −𝑚𝑡 𝑟
1−(1+ )
Solution: From 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 𝑅 [ 𝑚
𝑟 ] we can obtain 𝑅 = 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 [ 𝑚
𝑟 −𝑚𝑡
].
𝑚 1−(1+ )
𝑚
Since 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝐷 + 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 , this implies that
𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 − 𝐷 = ₱740,000 − ₱296,000 = ₱444,000
𝑟 0.09
Finally , 𝑅 = 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑑 [ 𝑚
𝑟 −𝑚𝑡
] = 444,000 [ 12
0.09 −12(5)
] = ₱9,216.71
1−(1+ ) 1−(1+ )
𝑚 12
Answer: 𝑅 = ₱9,216.71
Annuity Due
An annuity where the periodic payments are made at the beginning of each
payment interval.
Formulas for Annuity Due
1. Final Amount of Annuity Due
𝑟 𝑚𝑡+1
(1+𝑖)𝑛+1 −1 (1+ ) −1
𝑚
𝑆𝑑𝑢𝑒 = 𝑅 [ 𝑖
− 1] = 𝑅 [ 𝑟 − 1]
𝑚
2. Present Value of Annuity Due

𝑟 −𝑚𝑡+1
1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛+1 1−(1+ )
𝑚
𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑒 = 𝑅 [ 𝑖
+ 1] = 𝑅 [ 𝑟 + 1]
𝑚
Example 17. Mimay wants to have ₱95,000 for his traveling expenses four years from now.
How much must he save at the beginning of each quarter starting today, if he gets 0.06%
compounded quarterly interest on his savings?
Given: 𝑺𝒅𝒖𝒆 = ₱𝟗𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝒕 = 𝟒, 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔, 𝒎 = 𝟒
Unknown: 𝑅
(1+𝑖)𝑛+1 −1 (1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
Solution: Consider 𝑆𝑑𝑢𝑒 = 𝑅 [ 𝑖
− 1] = 𝑅(1 + 𝑖) [ 𝑖
].
0.0006
𝑆 𝑖 95,000,
Then we obtain 𝑅 = (1+𝑖)
𝑑𝑢𝑒
[(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1]= 0.0006 [ 4
0.0006 4(4)
] = ₱5929.93
(1+ ) (1+ ) −1
4 4
Answer: 𝑅 = ₱5929.93
Annuity. Read and analyze the following problems. Solve for the unknown/s in each problem
and provide a complete proof of your calculations.
1. Find the amount and the present value of an annuity of ₱1,500 every 3 months for 5
years if money is worth 8% compounded quarterly.
2. Polly purchased a car. She paid ₱150,000 as down payment and pays ₱5,500 at the
end of each month for 48 months. If the interest is 7.8% compounded monthly, how
much was the car worth?
3. A house and lot are worth ₱4.3 million in cash. A buyer pays a 40% downpayment and
agrees to pay the balance by equal payments at the end of each month for 10 years
at the rate of 9% compounded monthly. How much will be the monthly payment?
4. In order to have ₱1 million in a fund at the end of 15 years, how much must be
deposited in the fund every quarter if money can be invested at 10.5% compounded
quarterly?
5. Find the present value and final amount of an annuity of ₱12,000 at the beginning of
every 6 months for a term of 8 years if the interest is 9.8% compounded semiannually.
6. An investment of ₱2,850 is made at the beginning of each month for 6 years and 7
months. How much will the investment be at the end of the term if interest is 11%
compounded monthly?
7. A loan of ₱40,000 is to be amortized by equal payments at the beginning of each

quarter for 18 months. If interest is 7.5% compounded quarterly, find the periodic
payment.
8. Find the present value and final amount of an annuity of ₱12,000 at the beginning of
every 6 months for a term of 8 years if the interest is 9.8% compounded semiannually.
9. An investment of ₱2,850 is made at the beginning of each month for 6 years and 7
months. How much will the investment be at the end of the term if interest is 11%
compounded monthly?
10. A loan of ₱40,000 is to be amortized by equal payments at the beginning of each

quarter for 18 months. If interest is 7.5% compounded quarterly, find the periodic
payment.
It’s time to answer Quiz 2
MIDTERM EXAM
MODULE 7: DATA MANAGEMENT
Our target learning outcomes are a) Use a variety of statistical tools to process and
manage numerical data; b) Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict
the value of a variable given certain conditions; c) Advocate the use of statistical data in
making important decisions
Introduction to Statistics and Definition

PowerPoint 19: Definition of Statistics and terminologies
What is Statistics?
Statistics is the science of collection, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data to assist in making more effective decisions.
Why study statistics?

Data is everywhere. Statistical techniques are used to make many decisions that
affect our lives. No matter what your career, you will make professional decisions that involve
data. An understanding of statistical methods will help you make these decisions effectively
A. Divisions of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics. It deals with the methods of organizing, summarizing, and

presenting a mass of data to yield meaningful information. It includes anything done
to the data designed to summarize, or describe without any attempt to make
inference or conclusion about the gathered data.
Activities:
 Collect data
e.g., Survey
Present data
e.g., Tables and graphs
Summarize data
e.g., Sample mean
2. Inferential Statistics. It is concerned with generalizing about a population or other

groups of data based on the study of the sample. It comprises those methods
concerned with the analysis of a subset of data leading to predictions or inferences
about the entire set of data.
Activities:
 Estimation
e.g., Estimate the population mean weight using the sample
mean weight
 Hypothesis testing
e.g., Test the claim that the population mean weight is 70 kg
B. Population and Sample
1. Population. It consists of the totality of the observations with which we are concerned.
It refers to a group of a total number of people, objects, or reactions that can be
described as having a unique or combination of qualities. Population can be either
finite or infinite.
 Parameter is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a population
usually represented by Greek letters.
Examples:
 If we consider all math classes to be the population, then the
average number of points earned per student over all the math
classes is an example of a parameter.
 There are 35, 000 students enrolled in a university and 15 % of
them are enrolled in math. The figure of 15% is a parameter
because it is based on the entire population of all enrolled
students.
2. Sample . It refers to a finite number of objects selected from the population. It is a

collection of some elements in a population or is a representative of the entire
population.
 Statistic is any numerical values describing a characteristic of a sample and
usually represented by the ordinary letters of the English alphabets
Example:
 If we consider one math class to be a sample of the population
of all math classes, then the average number of points earned
by students in that one math class at the end of the term is an
example of a statistic. The statistic is an estimate of a population
parameter, in this case the mean.
 An institution polled 2.3 million adults in the Philippines and 80%
said that they would vote for the presidency. That figure of 80 %
is a statistic because it is based on a sample, not the entire
population of all adults in the Philippines.
An illustration below is given to differentiate population and sample.
C. Sample Size Determination
The number of respondents or subjects to form a sample is termed as the sample

size.
1. Cochran (1977) presented a set of formulas that can be used to determine the
sample size.
For finite and known For an infinite or unknown

population size, N population size, N:
Estimating a
Population Mean
Estimating a
Population Proportion
Where n is the sample size, ,𝒁𝜶 is the two- tailed z- score corresponding to the level of
𝟐
significance, s is the known standard deviation, e is the margin of error, p is the past
estimate of the population proportion, and q=1-p
NOTE
a. The level of significance,𝛼 , can take any of the standard values namely, 0.01,
0.05, and 0.10. Theoretically, the level of significance is the probability of the
type 1 error in hypothesis testing.
b. The following table presents the values of 𝒁𝜶 corresponding to the standard
𝟐
values of 𝛼
𝛼 𝒁𝜶
𝟐
0.01 2.575
0.05 1.96
0.10 1.645
c. The standard deviation, s, can be estimated from a pilot data set or the value
can be adopted from a previous study that considered the same or similar
population.
d. In the same manner as s, p can be the past estimate of the population

proportion or can be computed from a pilot data set.
2. Yamane’s Formula (Simplified Formula for Proportions)

If the behavior of the population is not certain or the researcher is not familiar
with the population’s behavior, Yaro Yamen’s formula (1980) or Taro Yamane’s
formula (1967) may be used. The formula is:
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
Where N is the population size and e is the margin of error.
Example 1.41% of Jacksonville residents said that they had been in a hurricane.
How many adults should be surveyed to estimate the true proportion of adults who
have been in a hurricane, with a 95%confidence interval and 3% margin of error.
Solution
41 % is a past estimate of population proportion. Unknown population
size. Hence, we use the following formula.
𝛼 =0.05
p=0.41
q=1-0.41=0.59
𝑍𝛼 = 1.96
2
2
( 𝒁𝜶 ) 𝑝𝑔
𝟐
𝑛≥
𝑒2
( 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔)2 (0.41)(0.59)
𝑛≥
(0.03)2
𝑛 ≥ 1,032.54 ≈ 1.033
Example 2. From a population of 10,000 individuals of a certain town, what sample

size is needed in order to get an accurate result for a certain study using a margin
of error of 3% .
Solution
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
10,000
𝑛=
1 + (10,000)(0.03)2
𝑛 = 1,000
Hence, the sample size needed in order to get an accurate result for a
a certain study using a margin of error of 3% is 1000 individuals.
D. Sampling Techniques
Sampling is the process of selecting units, like people, organizations, or objects from a
population of interest in order to study and fairly generalize the results back to the
population from which the sample was taken. The two types of sampling are
1. Random Sampling Techniques
Members from the population are selected in such a way that each
individual member in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
a. Simple Random Sampling . Every case in the population being sampled has
an equal chance of being chosen. It is an equal probability sampling
Method (EPSEM).
Basic Steps:
1. Make a list of the population units and number them from a 1 to
N, where N is the population size.
2. Select n random numbers from 1 to N using some random
process.
3. Employ any of the following selection procedure:
 Draw lots
 Lottery
 Usage of gadgets like the calculator or computer to
generate Random Numbers
 Table of Random Numbers
b. Systematic Random Sampling. we select some starting point randomly and
then select every kth (such as every 50th) element in the population until the
desired sample size is achieved.
Basic Steps:
1. Construct the sampling frame
2. Determine the sample size
𝑁
3. Determine the sample interval, k: 𝑘 = 𝑛
4. Identify the random start using SRS, r: 1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑘
5. Commencing on the random start, select every kth item until the
desired sample size is reached.
c. Stratified Random Sampling. We subdivide the population into at least two

different subgroups (or strata) so that subjects within the same subgroup share
the same characteristics (such as gender or age bracket), then we draw a
sample from each subgroup (or stratum).
We use Proportional Allocation to draw a sample from each stratum to

reach the desired sample size.
Example 3. Suppose a school has five departments composed of the following

number of students. Determine the number of students to be part of the sample
when the researcher needs 363 respondents.
Department 𝑁ℎ 𝑛ℎ
Business Administration (BA) 1,500 140
Management(M) 1,200 112
Finance(F) 850 80
Entrepreneurship(E) 200 19
Culinary Arts(CA) 150 14
Total 3,900
Solution:
1,500
𝑛𝐴𝐵 = (363) = 139.62 ≈ 140
3,900
1,200
𝑛𝑀 = (363) = 111.69 ≈ 112
3,900
850
𝑛𝐹 = (363) = 79.12 ≈ 80
3,900
200
𝑛𝐸 = (363) = 18.62 ≈ 19
3,900
150
𝑛𝐶𝐴 = (363) = 13.96 ≈ 14
3,900
Hence, 140 students from Business Administration, 112 students

from Management, 80 students from Finance, 19 students from
Entrepreneurship, and 14 students from Culinary Arts are part of the
sample.
Sample Size Round-off

Rule: When the calculated sample size is not a whole number, it
should be rounded up to the next higher whole number. Rounding up
a sample size calculation for conservativeness ensures that your sample
size will always be representative of the population.
Example 4. A sample size calculation determined that 2006.083 data

points were necessary to represent the population. In this case, 2007
data points samples should be taken.
d. Cluster Random Sampling. Divide the population into sections (or clusters), then
randomly select some of those clusters, and then choose all members from
those selected clusters.
e. Multi-Stage Sampling. This method uses several stages or phases in getting

random samples from the general population.
Commonly used if research is of National Scope.
 We divide the country to Regions
 Regions to Municipalities and Cities
 Municipalities and Cities to barangays
 Barangays to Sitios or sections
2. Non Random Sampling Techniques
a. Accidental or Haphazard or Convenience sampling. It is one of the most common

methods of sampling where methods done are normally biased since the researcher
considers his/her convenience in the collection of the data.
b. Purposive sampling. It is based on certain criteria laid down by the researcher. People
who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. The sub- categories of purposive sampling are:
1. Modal Instance Sampling. When we do modal instance sampling, we are
sampling most frequent cases. The problem with modal instance sampling is
identifying the “modal” case.
2. Expert Sampling. It involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known
or demonstrable experience and expertise in some area.
3. Quota Sampling. Selecting items non randomly according to some fixed
quota.
4. Snowball Sampling. Begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for
inclusion in your study. You ask them to recommend others who they may know
who also meet the criteria.
E. Statistical Data
It is the raw materials of research or any statistical investigations usually obtained by
counting or measuring items. Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring
items. Data are categorized
1. according to description:
a) Qualitative (Categorical) Data generally described by words or letters. They are

not as widely used as quantitative data because many numerical techniques do
not apply to the qualitative data. For example, it does not make sense to find an
average hair color and other attributes of the population.
Example 5.
 The gender (male, female) of survey respondents
 The numbers 24, 28, 17, 54, and 31 sewn on the shirts of the
basketball team are categorical data. These numbers are
substitutes for names. They do not count or measure anything.
Qualitative data can be separated into two subgroups:

a. dichotomic takes the form of a word with two options, such as
gender - male or female.
b. polynomic takes the form of a word with more than two options,
such as education - primary school, secondary school and university.
b. Quantitative (Numerical) Data are always numbers and are the result of
counting or measuring attributes of a population.
Example 6.
 The ages (in years) of survey respondents
 distance traveled
 number of children in a family,
Quantitative data can be separated into two subgroups:
1. discrete is the result of counting. It is expressed as whole numbers and

is always exact.
Example 7.
 The numbers of eggs that hens lay are discrete data
because they represent counts.
 The number of students of a given ethnic group in a class.
 The number of books on a shelf.
2. continuous is the result of measuring. It is not necessarily whole

numbers.
Example 8.
 The amounts of milk from cows are continuous data
because they are measurements that can assume any
value over a continuous span. During a year, a
a cow might yield an amount of milk that can be any
value between 0 and 7000 liters. It would be possible to
get 5678.1234 liters because the cow is not restricted to
the discrete amounts of 0, 1, 2, . . . , 7000 liters.
 distance traveled
 weight of luggage
B. according to source:
1. Primary data refers to the information which is gathered directly from an

original source or which are based on direct or first- hand experience using
methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments.
2. Secondary data refers to the information taken from published / unpublished
materials that have been previously gathered by other individuals,
researcher’s or agencies.
C. according to level of measurement
1. Nominal Scale. It involves categorizing cases according to the presence or

absence of some attribute. It is generally used for the purpose of classification.
Data gathered from variables measured at a nominal level can be
categorized but cannot be ranked, as there are no quantitative differences
between and among them.
Example 9.
 gender
 religious affiliation
 eye color
2. Ordinal Scale. It is the simplest scale which orders people, objects, or events
along some continuum. Values of variables measured at the ordinal level offer
at least a rough indication of quantitative differences; they can also be
categorized and ranked, numbers are used only to place objects in order.
Example 10.
 year level
 job position
3. Interval Scale. It is the scale on which zero is arbitrary. It does not reflect the
absence of an attribute. Data gathered from variables measured at an interval
scale can be categorized, ranked, and can be added or subtracted.
Example 11
 IQ Scores
 temperature
4. Ratio Scale. It possesses all of the characteristics of interval scales but has a
true zero point. Thus, a case where 0 is on a scale indicates the total absence
of the property being measured. For values at this level, differences and ratios
are both meaningful.
Example 12.
 Distances (in km) traveled by cars (0 km represents no distance
traveled, and 400 km is twice as far as 200 km.)
 Prices of books(P0.00 does represent no cost, and a P300.00
book does cost twice as much as a P150.00 book.)
 height
 weight
METHODS OF DATA GATHERING

PowerPoint 20: Methods of Data Gathering
A. Interview (Direct) Method – a method of person-to-person exchange between the

interviewer and the interviewee.
Positive:
1. It provides consistent and more precise information since clarification
may be given by the interviewee.
2. Questions may be repeated or maybe modified to suit the interviewee’s
level of understanding.
Negative:
1. Time-consuming
2. Expensive
3. Limited field coverage
B. Questionnaire (Indirect) Method – in this method written responses are given to
prepared questions. A questionnaire is used to elicit answers to the problems of the
study. Questionnaires may be mailed or hand-carried.
Positive:
1. Inexpensive
2. Can cover a wide area in a shorter span of time.
3. Respondents may feel a greater sense of freedom to express views and
opinions because their anonymity is maintained.
Negative:
1. There’s a strong possibility of non-response, especially when
questionnaires are mailed.
2. Questions not easily understood may not be answered.
C. Observation Method – the investigator observes the behavior of the subject

/respondent. It is used when the subjects cannot talk or write.
Positive:
 The recording of behavior at the appropriate time and situation is
made possible.
D. Experiment Method - this method is used when the objective is to determine the
cause-and-effect relationship of certain phenomena under controlled conditions. It
is usually used by scientific researchers.
E. Registration Method – this method of gathering information is enforced by law.

Example 13.
 registration of births
 deaths
 vehicles
 licenses
Positive:
1. Information is kept systematized.
2. Information is always made available to the public.
Characteristics of a Good Question

1. A good question is unbiased.
2. Questions must not be worded in a manner that influences the answer of a
respondent in a certain way, that is, to favor a certain response or be against it.
3. An unbiased question is stated in neutral language and there is no element of
pressure
4. A good question must be clear and simply stated.
5. It is easier to understand and a question that is simple and clear and is more likely to
be answered truthfully.
6. Questions must be precise
7. Questions must not be vague. The question should indicate clearly the manner on
how the answers must be given.
8. Good questionnaires lend themselves to easy analyses.
METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
PowerPoint 21: Methods of Presentation of Data
1. Textual Presentation – This type of presentation incorporates data in a set of narrative

sentences or paragraphs. It emphasizes and compares important figures. However, it
can be tedious to read especially if it consists of lengthy paragraphs and some figures
or words are repeated many times.
2. Tabular Presentation – This is a systematic way of categorizing related data in rows

and columns. This methodical arrangement called statistical table presents data in a
more concise and greater detail than in textual or graphical form.
3. Graphical Method – This is a method of presenting quantitative data in pictorial form

produces a device which is often referred to as graph or chart. They have visual
appeal that can attract better and hold further, the reader’s interests.
Kinds of Graphs and Diagrams

1. Bar Graph. A bar graph uses bars of equal width to show frequencies of
categories of qualitative data. The vertical scale represents frequencies or
relative frequencies. The horizontal scale identifies the different categories of
qualitative data. It is best used for large changes over time/category.
2. Frequency Polygon. One type of statistical graph involves the class midpoints.
A frequency polygon uses line segments connected to points located directly
above class midpoint values. A variation of the basic frequency polygon is the
relative frequency polygon, which uses relative frequencies (proportions or
percentages) for the vertical scale. When trying to compare two data sets, it
is often very helpful to graph two relative frequency polygons on the same
axes.
3. Ogive. Another type of statistical graph called an ogive (pronounced “oh-

jive”) involves cumulative frequencies. Ogives are useful for determining the
number of values below some particular value, as illustrated in Example 3. An
ogive is a line graph that depicts cumulative frequencies. An ogive uses class
boundaries along the horizontal scale, and cumulative frequencies along the
vertical scale.
4. Pie chart is a graph that depicts qualitative data as slices of a circle, in which
the size of each slice is proportional to the frequency count for the category.
5. A stemplot (or stem-and-leaf plot) represents quantitative data by separating

each value into two parts: the stem (such as the leftmost digit) and the leaf
(such as the rightmost digit).
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES AND OTHER LOCATIONS
Measures of Central Tendencies

PowerPoint 22: Measures of Central Tendencies and other Locations
Numerical values that tend to locate in some sense the middle of a set of data
when arranged in increasing or decreasing order. The term average is often
associated with these measures mean, median, mode, midrange
1. Mean 𝝁 or x
a. Arithmetic Mean. It is obtained by adding all the observations and dividing

the sum by the number of observations, thus it is called computational
average.
1. Population Mean: If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ..., 𝑥𝑛 represents a finite population of size N,

the population mean is given by
2. Sample Mean: If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ..., 𝑥𝑛 represents a finite sample of size n,

the sample mean is given by
Example 14: Suppose you chose ten people who entered the campus
and whose ages are as follows: 15 25 18 20 25 18 18 20 20 25
What is the mean age of this sample?
Solution:
The mean age of the sample is 20.40 .
b. Weighted Mean. If the data values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ..., 𝑥𝑘 have assigned weights 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 ,

..., 𝑤𝑘 , respectively, the mean is given by
Example 15:A student was taking 5 subjects last semester. Find his average
if his final grades were as follows:
Solution:
3(1.75) + 5(2.50) + 3(2.25) + 2(1.50) + 4(3.0)

̅=
𝒙 = 2.32
3+5+3+2+4
Characteristics of Mean
1. Interval and ratio measurements
2. All the scores or measurements are considered in the computation of the
mean.
3. Very high or very low scores or measurements affect the mean.
2. Mode 𝝁̂ or 𝒙 ̂
It is the value in the distribution with the highest frequency. It locates the point
where the observation values occur with the greatest density. It can be used for
quantitative aw sell as qualitative data.
A data set can have one mode, more than one mode, or no mode.
 When two data values occur with the same greatest frequency, each
one is a mode and the data set is bimodal.
 When more than two data values occur with the same greatest
frequency, each is a mode and the data set is said to be multimodal.
 When no data value is repeated, we say that there is no mode.
Example 16
Observe the given ungrouped data below:
a. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (No Mode)
b. 15.2, 12.3, 4.6, 12.3, 6.5, 12.3, 5.5 (𝒙
̂=12.3)
c. 15,12,4,15,4,6,5 (𝒙̂=15 and 𝒙 ̂= 4)
d. 3,4,5,1,3,2,4,5,7,10 (𝒙
̂=3, 𝒙̂=4, and 𝒙 ̂= 5)
Characteristics of Mode
1. It is very easy to compute but is seldom used because it is very unstable.
2. When a rough or quick estimate of a central value is wanted.
3. It is most appropriate for nominal scale as a measure of popularity.
3. Median
It is a value that divides the distribution into two equal parts (after arranging
the values in ascending or descending order). As such, it is a positional average. The
median is defined by
Example 17: During the first marking period, Nicole's math quiz scores were
90, 92, 93, 88, 95, 88, 97, 87, and 98. What was the median quiz score?
Solution: Ordering the data from least to greatest, we get:
Since n =9 (odd),
The median quiz score is 92. (Four quiz scores were higher than 92 and four
were lower.)
Example 18: The ages of 10 college students are listed below. Find the median.
18, 24, 20, 35, 19, 23, 26, 23, 19, 20
.
Solution: Ordering the data from least to greatest, we get:
Since n =10 (even),
The median age of the college students is 21.5
Characteristics of Median
1. Ordinal or ranked measurements
2. Only the middle scores or measurements are considered in the computation
of the median.
3. Very high or very low scores do not affect the median.
4. When there are extreme cases, thus the distribution is markedly skewed.
5. When we desire to know whether the cases fall within the upper halves or the
lower halves of a distribution
Measures of Locations
It describes or locates the position of certain non-central pieces of data relative to
the entire set of data. These measures, also known as quantiles or fractiles, are values below
which a specific fraction or percentage of the observations in a given data set must fall.
These are percentiles, deciles, and quartiles
1. Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts. These
values, denoted by 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃99 , are such that 1% of the data falls below 𝑃1 , 2% falls
below 𝑃2 , …, and 99% falls below 𝑃99 .
The 𝑘th percentile, 𝑃𝑘 (𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, … ,99), can be determined using the
following procedure:
a. Arrange the data in increasing order and compute the value of the index 𝑖=
𝑘
(100) 𝑛, where 𝑛 is the number of observations.
𝑥𝑖 +𝑥𝑖+1
b. If 𝑖 is an integer, 𝑃𝑘 = 2
. If 𝑖 is not an integer, use the rounded up value for 𝑖
and take 𝑃𝑘 = 𝑥𝑖 . Note that 𝑥𝑖 here pertains to the score in the data set.
2. Deciles are values that divide a set of observations into 10 equal parts. These
values, denoted by 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , … , 𝐷9 , are such that 10% of the data falls below 𝐷1, 20%
falls below 𝐷2, …, and 90% falls below 𝐷9 .
The 𝑘th decile, 𝐷𝑘 (𝑘 = 1, 2, … ,9), can be determined using the following
procedure:
a. Arrange the data in increasing order and compute the value of the index 𝑖 =
𝑘
(10) 𝑛, where 𝑛 is the number of observations.
b. If 𝑖 is an integer, 𝐷𝑘 = 2
and take 𝐷𝑘 = 𝑥𝑖 .
3. Quartiles. are values that divide a set of observations into 4 equal parts. These
values, denoted by 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , and 𝑄3 , are such that 25% of the data falls below 𝑄1 , 50%
falls below 𝑄2 and 75% falls below 𝑄3 .
The 𝑘th quartile, 𝑄𝑘 (𝑘 = 1, 2, 3), can be determined using the following

procedure:
a. Arrange the data in increasing order and compute the value of the index 𝑖 =
𝑘
(4 ) 𝑛, where 𝑛 is the number of observations.
b. If 𝑖 is an integer, 𝑄𝑘 = 2
and take 𝑄𝑘 = 𝑥𝑖 .
Example 19: As part of a quality-control study aimed at improving a production line, the
weights (in ounces) of 50 bars of soap are measured. The results are as follows, sorted from
smallest to largest. Find, first quartile, the 9th decile, and the 43rd percentile.
11.6 12.6 12.7 12.8 13.1 13.3 13.6 13.7 13.8 14.1
14.3 14.3 14.6 14.8 15.1 15.2 15.6 15.6 15.7 15.8
15.8 15.9 15.9 16.1 16.2 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.5
16.5 16.6 17.0 17.1 17.3 17.3 17.4 17.4 17.4 17.6
17.7 18.1 18.3 18.3 18.3 18.5 18.5 18.8 19.2 20.3
a. 43rd Percentile
We compute the index. Note that 𝑘=43 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛=50

43
Then 𝑖 = (100) 50 = 21.5 ≈ 22 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑝)
From the data set, 𝑥22 = 15.9

Hence, we have 𝑃43 = 𝑥22 = 15.9
Hence, 43% of the values lie below 15.9.
b. 9th Decile
Let us compute the index i given that 𝑘 = 9 and 𝑛 = 50

9
𝑖 = (10) 50 = 45
(𝑥45+𝑥46)
Since i is an integer, 𝐷9 = 2
. From the data set, 𝑥45 = 18.3 and 𝑥46 = 18.5
18.3+18.5
Thus, we have , 𝐷9 = 2
= 18.4
Hence, 90% of the values lie below 18.4.
c. First quartile
We compute the index. Note that 𝑘=1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛=50

1
Then 𝑖 = (4) 50 = 12.5 ≈ 13 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑝)
From the data set, 𝑥13 = 14.6

Hence, we have 𝑄1 =𝑥13 = 14.6
Hence,25% of the values lie below 14.6.
Measures of Variability or Dispersion

PowerPoint 23: Measures of Dispersion
It indicates the extent to which individual items in a series are scattered about the
average. It is used to determine the extent of the scatter so that steps may be taken to
control the existing variation. General Classifications of Measures of Variation are
• Measures of Absolute Dispersion
• Measures of Relative Dispersion
A. Measures of Absolute Dispersion: Expressed in the units of the observations. I cannot

be used to compare variations of two data sets when the averages of these data sets
differ or when the observations differ in units of measurement.
1. Range. It is the difference between the largest and smallest values. It gives an
idea of the spread of the data set but is affected by outliers and does not
consider all values in the data set.
Range =Highest Value - Lowest Value
2. Variance and the Standard Deviation are the most common and useful
measures of variability. These two measures provide information about how the
data vary about the mean.
 The variance 𝜎 2 or 𝑠 2 is a measure of variation which considers the
position of each observation relative to the mean of the set.
 Given a finite population 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ..., 𝑥𝑛 , the population variance is
given by
 2

 x   
i
2
or   2
N xi 
2
 x i
2
N N2
 Given a finite sample 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ..., 𝑥𝑛 ,, the sample variance is given

by
 x  x n xi   x 
2 2 2
i i
s2
 or  
2
n1 nn  1 
 The standard deviation 𝜎 or s is the square root of the variance.
 Population Standard Deviation:
 x  
2
i

N
 Sample Standard Deviation
 x  x 
2
i
s
n1
where:   population standard deviation
xi  ith observation
s  sample standard deviation
  population mean
x  sample mean
N  population size
n  sample size
If the data are clustered around the mean, then the variance and the
standard deviation will be small. If, however, the data are widely scattered about the
mean, the variance and the standard deviation will be somewhat large.
Example 20. A high school teacher at a small private school assigns

trigonometry practice problems to be worked via the net. Students must use a
password to access the problems and the time of log-in and log-off are automatically
recorded for the teacher. At the end of the week, the teacher examines the amount
of time each student spent working the assigned problems. The data is provided
below in minutes.
15, 28 25 48 22 43 49 34 22 33 27 25 22 20 39
1. Find the Range, Standard Deviation, and Variance for the above data.
X 𝒙𝟐
15 225
28 784
25 625
48 2304
22 484
43 1849
49 2401
34 1156
22 484
33 1089
27 729
25 625
22 484
20 400
39 1521
452 (Total) 15160 (Total)
For the Standard deviation:
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 2 − (𝑥𝑖 )2
𝑠=√
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
15(15160) − (452)2
𝑠=√
15(15 − 1)
𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟕𝟏𝟖
For the variance:
The variance is 109.98095. The standard deviation is 10.48718. The variance is
the square of the standard deviation. 10.48718 squared is equal to 109.98095.
𝒔𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟗𝟓
For Range:
The range is 34. The high score is 49; the low score is 15. 49 − 15 = 34.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 34
B. Measures of Relative Dispersion. It is used to compare variations in the dispersion of

two data sets when the averages of these data sets differ or when the observations
differ in units of measurement. It is unit less.
1. Coefficient of Variation. It indicates how large the standard deviation is
in relation to the mean. It can be used to compare variations for
different variables with different units. The larger the coefficient of
variation, the more dispersed the observations are.
Population:
𝜎
𝐶𝑉 = ( ) × 100%
𝜇
Sample:
𝑠
𝐶𝑉 = ( ) × 100%
𝑥̅
Example 21: If we have a standard deviation of 1.5 and a mean of 5, the ratio of
the standard deviation to the mean is 0.3. In other words, the standard deviation
is 30% of the mean. When comparing two data sets, the general rule of thumb
you should follow is:
The higher the coefficient of variation, the higher the variability of the data set
This means that, when comparing two or more data sets, the one with the highest
coefficient of variability can be said to have the highest variation.
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

PowerPoint 24: Correlation and Regression
A. Correlation
It measures the strength of the association or relationship between variables. the

variables are not designated as dependent or independent.
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌=𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋
It is not define as causation (cause and effect relationship)
Assume that the association is linear, that one variable increases or decreases a fixed
amount for a unit increase or decrease in the other.
Pearson Correlation Coefficient

 denoted by 𝑟
 use to measure the degree of linear association or relationship
 measured on a scale that varies from +1 through 0 𝑡𝑜 – 1
 formula is
n xy   x y
r
n x2   x 2
n y 2   y  2
The value of r is interpreted as follows:
r Interpretation
1.0 Perfect positive/negative correlation
0.80-0.99 Very strong positive/ negative correlation
0.60-0.79 Strong positive/ negative correlation
0.40-0.59 Moderate positive/ negative correlation

0.20-0.39 Weak positive/ negative correlation
0.01-0.19 Very weak positive/ negative correlation
0.0 No correlation
Perfect positive Perfect negative

correlation correlation
No correlation Use other measures

of correlation
Example 22. Given the following data on the number of hours of study (x) for an
examination and the scores (y)received by a random sample of 10 students,
compute for the Pearson correlation coefficient.
Student 𝒙 𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒚𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟐
1 8 56 448 3136 64
2 5 44 220 1936 25
3 11 79 869 6241 121
4 13 72 936 5184 169
5 10 70 700 4900 100
6 5 54 270 2916 25
7 18 94 1692 8836 324
8 15 85 1275 7225 225
9 2 33 66 1089 4
10 8 65 520 4225 64
n xy   x y
r
n x  2
 x 2
n y 2   y  2
106996  95652
r
101121  95 1045688  652
2 2
r  0.9625
There is a very strong positive linear relationship between the number of hours
of study (𝑥) for an examination and the scores (𝑦) received by a random sample of
10 students.
Example 23: Consider the scores obtained in Math and Statistics by 10 students.
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Math 5 8 10 12 12 14 15 16 18 20
Score
Stat 2 7 8 9 10 12 14 10 16 12
Score
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Math Score 5 8 10 12 12 14 15 16 18 20 130
(𝒙)
Stat Score 2 7 8 9 10 12 14 10 16 12 100
(𝒚)
𝒙𝒚 10 56 80 108 120 168 210 160 288 240 1440
𝒙𝟐 25 64 100 144 144 196 225 256 324 400 1878
𝒚𝟐 4 49 64 81 100 144 196 100 256 144 1138
101440  130100
r
101878  130 101138  100
2 2
r  0.8692
There is a very strong positive linear relationship between math and stat scores.
B. Regression
It is used to examine the relationship between one dependent and one independent
variable and to predict the dependent variable (Y) when the independent variable (X) is
known.
It finds the best line (regression line) that predicts Y from X.
The Regression Line

It is a line that is as close as possible to all the data points at once.
The Regression Equation

It is an equation that represents the relationship between one dependent and
one independent variable.
𝒚= 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙
The slope is
n xy   x y
b
n x2   x 2
The y-intercept
a
 y  b  x 
n  n 
 
Coefficient of Determination (𝑹𝟐 )
It is the square of the correlation coefficient.

It is interpreted as the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that is
predictable from the independent variable.
The fraction of data points falls on the regression line
𝑹𝟐 =1 (all points lie exactly on a straight line with no points scattered about the line) means
that the dependent variable is perfectly predicted without error using the independent
variable X
𝑹𝟐 =0 means that the dependent variable cannot be predicted using the independent
variable X.
An 𝑹𝟐 between 0 and 1 indicates the extent to which the dependent variable is predictable.
An 𝑹𝟐 of 0.10 means that 10 percent of the variance in Y is predictable from X;
an 𝑹𝟐 of 0.20 means that 20 percent is predictable; and so on.
SSR
R2   100
SSY
Where: SSR  b1 SPXY
SPXY   x i y i 
 x  y 
i i
SSY   y i
2

 y  i
2
SSX   x i
2

 x  i
2
Example 23: The paired data below consist of the costs of advertising (in thousands
of pesos) and the number of products sold (in thousand units).
Cost # Products  xy x 2
y 2
(x) Sold
(y)
9,000.00 85,000.00 765,000,000.00 81,000,000.00 7,225,000,000.00
2,000.00 52,000.00 104,000,000.00 4,000,000.00 2,704,000,000.00
3,000.00 55,000.00 165,000,000.00 9,000,000.00 3,025,000,000.00
4,000.00 68,000.00 272,000,000.00 16,000,000.00 4,624,000,000.00
2,000.00 67,000.00 134,000,000.00 4,000,000.00 4,489,000,000.00
5,000.00 86,000.00 430,000,000.00 25,000,000.00 7,396,000,000.00
9,000.00 83,000.00 747,000,000.00 81,000,000.00 6,889,000,000.00
10,000.00 73,000.00 730,000,000.00 100,000,000.00 5,329,000,000.00
Total 44,000.00 569,000.00 3,347,000,000.00 320,000,000.00 41,681,000,000.00
1. Plot a scatter diagram
2. Find the equation of the regression line to predict weekly sales from advertising
expenditures.
Thus, the equation is 𝑦 = 55788.25 + 2.7885𝑥
3. Estimate the number of products sold when advertising costs is P4,500.
𝑦=55788.25+2.7885𝑥
𝑦=𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑑=55788.25+2.7885(4,500)
𝑦=𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑑=68,336.50 units
4. Determine the coefficient of determination
Therefore, 50.08 % of the variance in the number of products sold is predictable from
the cost of advertising.
A . Classify the following statements as to whether they belong to the area of

descriptive statistics or inferential statistics
___________________ 1. At most 5% of SLU students are smokers.

___________________ 2. Assuming that less than 20% of the Kalinga coffee beans were
destroyed by a typhoon these past months, we should expect an
increase of no more than P30 for a kilogram of coffee by the end
of the year.
___________________ 3. An employee generalized that the average monthly salary of a
regular employee in a certain company is P12,000.
___________________ 4. A study found out that all customers who have received a gift
certificate from a store 75% went back to the store to shop.
___________________ 5. The average grade in statistics of 50 students is 83.60.
B. At what level are the following variables measured?

_______________ 1. Students rated as superior, above average, average, below
average, or poor
_______________ 2. The scores of students in a statistics quiz
_______________ 3. The main source of income
_______________ 4. The birth order of children in the family
_______________ 5. Age of students availing a discount
_______________ 6. Weights of a sample of bags of raw materials for the
production of a certain product, measured in grams.
_______________ 7. The natural eye color of a sample of 100 children.
_______________ 8. The economic status of a sample of families in a certain area.
_______________ 9. The final grade of graduate students taking up Statistics.
_______________ 10. The school in which a graduate student is enrolled in.
C. Classify the following variables as quantitative or qualitative variables. If the variable

is quantitative, identify whether it is discrete or continuous.
_______________ _______________ 1. The type of payment used by customers

_______________ _______________ 2. The evaluation rating of instructors
_______________ _______________ 3. The classification of employees in a
company
_______________ _______________ 4. The weekly allowance of students
_______________ _______________ 5. The length of telephone calls made by
students to their parents
D. In each of the following situations, identify the population, each variable, and
determine if the variable is qualitative or quantitative.
1. A quality control worker with Sweet-Tooth Candy weighs every 100 candy bar th
to make sure it is very close to the published weight.
2. John decides to group his employees according to the type of skill possessed.
3. A researcher is studying the effect of a newly formulated method in glue

laminating wood. She performs an experiment where she compares the shear
stress of the “gluelam” wood using the new method and commercially
available “gluelam” wood. She used 10 items for each method (new and
commercial).
E. To assign workers to two stores, the owner has the workers count off by two to divide
them into teams. Is this (team) a qualitative or quantitative variable?
F. A school is studying its students’ test scores by grade. Explain how the characteristic
‘grade’ could be considered either a categorical or a numerical variable?
G. Which of the following situations will result in probability or non-probability sampling?

1. Population: All residents of a big city
Sampling technique: For one week, researchers stop every fourth
person who passes by a busy downtown street corner.
2. Population: All students in a large high school
Sampling technique: selecting the first 50 students reporting to
school on a Wednesday morning.
3. Population: All the 72 guests at a birthday party.
Sampling technique: The name of each person is written on a slip of
paper then all are placed in a box, mixed, then drawn one after the
other for the available ten door prizes.
4. Population: Business owners with less than 15 employees
Sampling technique: Get information from the DTI (business permits
section), then select a sample size of about 30% from each of the
included 12 barangays
H. In each of the following situations, a random sample must be obtained. Determine

whether a cluster, stratified, or systematic random sampling would be appropriate.
Explain in detail how the sampling is to be conducted. Do not discuss expected results
or conclusions.
1. A large convenience store chain wishes to determine its customers’ level of
satisfaction with regard to their service.
2. A nationwide survey on charter change is to be conducted. (Note: there are

seventeen regions in the Philippines.)
3. An educational researcher wants to compare the difference in career goals

between male and female students of Otto Hahn University who has 10,000
students.
4. A social researcher wants to determine whether electronic engineers who

work in the communications field earn more than those who are in
semiconductor industries.
5. A market analyst would like to compare the durability, in terms of mean time
before wear, of two leading brands of car tires.
J. The numbers of incorrect answers on a true or false competency test for a random
sample of 15 students were recorded as follows: 2, 1, 3, 0, 1, 3, 6, 0, 3, 3, 5, 2, 1, 4, and
2. Find a. mean, b. median, c. mode.
K. A student was taking five subjects in college during the first semester. Find his average
grade if his final grades were as follows:
Subject Math Physics English Speech Statistics
Grade 1.75 2.50 2.25 1.50 3.0
Units 3 5 3 2 4
L. A corporation administers an aptitude test to all new sales representatives.

Management is interested in the extent to which this test is able to predict their
eventual success. The accompanying table records average weekly sales (in
thousands of pesos) and aptitude test scores for a random sample of eight
representatives.
1. Plot a scatter diagram
2. Estimate the linear regression of weekly sales on aptitude test scores.
3. Estimate the weekly sales when test scores is 70
4. Determine the coefficient of determination
Quiz 3
MODULE 8: MATHEMATICS OF GRAPHS
Our target learning outcomes are: a) Characterize and construct different kinds of
graphs; b) Differentiate Eulerian graphs and Hamiltonian graphs; c) Use mathematical
concepts and tools in other areas such as networks, circuits and systems.
PowerPoint 24: Mathematics of Graphs
A. Basic Concepts
Graph Theory is a field of mathematics that started hundreds of years ago to help solve
problems such as finding the shortest path between two points passing through several other
points. Now, elements of graph theory are used extensively in many fields like gaming theory,
biology and social networking.
A graph is a collection of vertices (also called points or nodes) and edges (or lines). The
set V(G) is called the vertex set of G and the set E(G) is called the edge set of G.
Example 1:
𝐺 = (𝑉(𝐺) , 𝐸(𝐺))
where 𝑉(𝐺) = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒 }
𝐸(𝐺) = { 𝑎𝑏, 𝑐𝑑, 𝑏𝑒, 𝑎𝑒 }
G:
The number of vertices in a graph G is called its order (p) and the number of edges
on a graph G is called its size (q)
Example 2:
G:
Order of G = p = 5
Size of G = q = 6
The ends of an edge are said to be incident with the edge, and vice versa. Two
vertices which are incident with a common edge are adjacent as are two edges which are
incident with a common vertex.
Example 3:
G:
V1 is incident with edge v1v4

V3 and v2 are adjacent
An edge with identical ends is called a loop. An edge with distinct ends is called a
link. A trivial graph is a graph with just one vertex. All other graphs are called nontrivial.
Example 4:
G1: G2: ● a
G1 is a nontrivial graph
while G2 is a trivial graph.
w1w2 is a link while

w3w3 is a loop
A simple graph is a graph with no loops and no two of its links join the same pair of
vertices
Example 5:
G3:
G3 is a simple
graph.
A complete graph is a simple graph in which each pair of distinct vertices is joined
by an edge. It is denoted by K n . An empty graph is a graph with no edges.
Example 6:
G 1: G2: ● ●
● ●
G1 is a complete graph with 6 vertices designated as K6 while G2 is an empty graph.
VERTEX DEGREES
The degree of a vertex V is the number of edges of G incident with v, each loop
counting as two edges.
Example 7:
a b
c d d(a)=3
d(f)=5
d(c)=4
g
f e
THEOREM 1.1
The sum of the degrees of all the vertices in a graph is equal to twice the number of
edges of the graph.
 d c   2 
vV
A graph G is K-regular if d(v)=k for all v ∈ V.
Example 8:
2-regular graph
PATHS AND CONNECTION

A walk in a graph G is an alternating sequence W: v0, e1, v1, e2, v2, …, vn-1, en, vn (n ≥
0) of vertices and edges, beginning and ending with vertices. The length of a walk is the
number of edges it encounters. A walk of length 0 is called a trivial walk
Example 9:
WALK: v1-1-v2-3-v3-3-v2-5-v5
SPECIAL KINDS OF WALKS
There are special kinds of walks – trail and path. A trail is a walk in which no edge is
repeated. A path is a trail in which no vertex is repeated.
Example 10:
In the graph of Example 9,

v1-1-v2-5-v5-10-V6-9-V5 is a trail and
v1-1-v2-5-v5-10-V6 is a path
Two vertices u and v of G are said to be connected if there is a (u,v)- path in G.
Example 11:
Connected graph Disconnected graph
CYCLES
A cycle is a walk in which n≥3, v0 = vn and the n vertices are distinct. A cycle of length
n is referred to as an n-cycle. A nontrivial closed trail is called a circuit.
v0, v1, … , vn
Example 12:
A
B E
C D
A-C-B-A is a cycle of the graph shown above. A-B-C-D-E-A is another cycle.
Practice Problem: Given: Graph G shown below: My Score:
a b
c y dd
x c e
f g
Identify the following:

a. V(G)
b. vertices incident to x
c. edges incident to a
d. vertices adjacent to d
e. edges adjacent to y
f. p
g. E(G)
h. shortest path from b to g
B. EULER GRAPHS
During the 18th century in the Prussian city of Königsberg, a river ran through the four
land masses of the city and seven bridges crossed the forks of the river. The river and the
bridges are shown below. As an amusement, townsfolk would see if they could find a route
that would take them across every bridge once and return them to where they started.
Leonard Euler, one of the most prolific mathematicians ever, was able to solve this
problem in 1735, by introducing edges representing the bridges and vertices representing
the land masses. This laid the foundation for graph theory as a field in mathematics.
7 BRIDGES OF KONNIGSBERG
EULER TOURS
A trail that traverses every edge of G is called Euler trail of G. A tour of G is a closed
walk that traverses each edge of G at least once. An Euler tour is a tour which traverses
each edge exactly once. A graph is Eulerian if it contains an Euler tour.
THEOREM
A nonempty connected graph is Eulerian if and only if it has no vertices of odd
degree.
COROLLARY
A connected graph has as Euler trail if and only if it has at most two vertices of odd
degree
Example 13:
G1 G2
The trail d-a-b-c-d-b of G1 is an Euler trail. G1 has a tour d-a-b-c-d-b-d but it is not an
Euler tour. G2 has an Euler tour B-A-C-E-D-C-B hence an Euler graph.
Practice Problems: My Score:
Given the graph shown below, answer the following questions:
Is the graph an Euler graph?

If yes, why?
If yes, find an Euler tour.
C. HAMILTONIAN GRAPHS
A path that contains every vertex of G is called a hamilton path of G. Note that in
Hamilton path, all the edges may or may not be covered but edges must not repeat. A
hamilton cycle of G is a cycle that contains every vertex of G. A graph is hamiltonian if it
contains a hamilton cycle.
Example 14:
The path a-b-c-d of G2 is a hamilton path.

The cycle a-b-c-d-e-a of G1 is a hamilton cycle thus G1 is a hamilton graph.
But G2 and G3 are not hamilton graphs.
Note that (1) any Hamiltonian cycle can be converted to a Hamiltonian path by
removing one of its edges.; (2) every graph that contains a Hamiltonian cycle also contains
a Hamiltonian path but vice versa is not true; (3) there may exist more than one Hamiltonian
paths and Hamiltonian cycle in a graph.
My Score:
Practice Exercise 10:
Given the graphs shown below, determine which graph is Hamiltonian and for such graph,
find a Hamilton cycle:
MODULE 9: LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Our target learning outcomes are: a) Identify problems that linear programming can
handle; b) Write linear programming models and solve using the graphical method
Introduction
PowerPoint 25: Inequalities
PowerPoint 26: Graphical Method
Linear Programming
PowerPoint: Linear Programming
For almost all the human activities there is a desire to deliver the most with the least.
For example, in the business point of view, maximum profit is desired from least investment;
maximum number of crop yield is desired with minimum investment on fertilizers; maximizing
the strength, longevity, efficiency, utilization with minimum initial investment and operational
cost of various industrial equipment and machineries. (Kulkarni et al., 2017). This is Operations
Research.
Operations Research is an important tool in making decisions and in analyzing
physical systems. In mathematical terms, it is finding the best solution from among the set of
all feasible solutions.
Operations Research
A process of mathematical modelling with the objective of finding the optimal
solution for a certain problem.
A generalized model in operations research takes the following form:
- Maximize or Minimize (Objective Function)
- Subject to (Constraints)
The objective function is the value which we want to be optimized.
The constraints are the limitations or parameters of the problem.
A solution to the model is feasible if it satisfies all the constraints.
A solution is optimal if it is both feasible and yields the best (max / min) value of the
objective function.
Inequalities
The concept of inequalities is widely used in the study of operations research. As such, it
is important to remember how to draw the graph of a line and how to identify the region
corresponding to the inequality. The following is a simple guide on how to draw the graph of
a line:
- Identify the 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts of the line.
- Draw a line connecting the intercepts.
The 𝑥 intercept of a line is found by setting the value of 𝑦 to be 0. For the 𝑦 intercept,
set the value of 𝑥 to 0.
For inequalities with ≤, the corresponding region is, in most cases, the area below the
line, while for inequalities with ≥, the corresponding region is, in most cases, the area above
the line.
Say, let us graph the inequalities: 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 12 and 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≤ 10.
For 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 12, set this into a linear equation 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 then solve for the x and y
intercepts, that is,
When x = 0 in 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 then y = 4, so we have (0, 4).
When y = 0 in 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 then x = 6, so we have (6, 0).
Connect these two points to make the line and shade the area below the line since
the inequality is ≤.
Similar approach is done for 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≤ 10. Verify.
Linear Programming
A simple mathematical modelling under operations research which uses a graphical

solution for a 2-variable problem. The graphical solution part of linear programming can be
summarized into two steps:
1. Determine the feasible solution space.

2. Determine the optimal solution from all the feasible points.
In LP Models, the constraints are most likely presented as inequalities. There are 2 trivial
constraints, called the non-negativity constraints, which limits the variables to non-negative
values.
The inequalities are graphed, and the common region for the inequalities is then
called the feasible region.
The feasible region is a set of values which satisfies ALL the constraints. Among these
possible values, one of them is bound to be the optimal solution.
In general, the optimal solution can be found in the corner points of the feasible
region.
The optimal solution is the pair of values for the variables that provide the maximum
(or minimum) value for the objective function.
Example 1: Solve for the optimal solution of the following OR Model:

Maximize: 𝑧 =𝑥+𝑦
Subject to: 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 12
5𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≤ 10
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0
Step 1: Graph the Linear Inequalities
The red line is for 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 12, and the blue line is for 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≤ 10
Step 2: Identify the Feasible Region
We only considered quadrant 1 because of the non-negativity constraints 𝑥 ≥ 0 and

𝑦 ≥ 0.
Step 3: Identify the Corner Points of the Feasible Region
The corner points of the feasible region are (0, 0), (0, 4), (6/11, 40/11) and (2, 0).
The (6/11, 40/11) is obtained by solving the lines 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 and 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 10
simultaneously.
Step 4: Evaluate the corner points and identify the optimal solution for the Objective Function
Corner Points Objective Function
Maximize, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦
(0,0) 0+0=0
(0,4) 0+4=4
(2,0) 2+0=2
6 40 6 40 46
( , ) + = ≈ 4.1818
11 11 11 11 11
From the table above, we have shown that the optimal solution is found at the point
6 40
(11 , 11), where the objective function is at its maximum with the value of 4.1818.
Creating an OR Model based on a given situation.

Applications of Linear Programming in Operations Research, in general, requires
knowledge of how to properly formulate a model that reflects the parameters as well as the
objective of a certain situation.
This is the conversion of the worded problem into a mathematical expression.
While there may be different techniques in formulating an OR Model, the following
can be used as a guide:
Let z = a x + b y be an objective function that depends on x and y. Furthermore, z is
subject to a number of constraints on x and y. If a maximum or minimum value of z exist, it
can be determined.
Steps:
1. Define the variables
2. Write the objective function: z = a x + b y
3. Write a system of inequalities defining the constraints on x and y.
4. Graph the system of inequalities representing the constraints.
5. Identify the vertices (corner points) of the feasible region.
6. Evaluate the objective function at each vertex or corner of the graphed
region. The maximum and the minimum of the objective function occur at one
or more of the corner points.
7. Interpret the result. Write the final answer in complete statement.
Example 2: Boysen produces enamel and acrylic paint from two particular raw materials M1
and M2. The following data provides the data regarding the production restrictions.
Maximum daily
Tons of Raw Materials per
availability (in
ton of:
tons)
Enamel
Acrylic Paint
Paint
Raw Material, M1 6 4 24
Raw Material, M2 1 2 6
Profit per ton (in millions of Php) 5 4
If the maximum daily demand for enamel paint is at 2 tons, determine the production
output that would maximize the profit.
Define the variables

Let 𝑥 be the number of tons of acrylic paint produced in a day
𝑦 be the number of tons of enamel paint produced in a day
Identify the objective function

The aim is to maximize the profit. The daily profit is based on the number of tons of
each type of paint produced in a day. Knowing that the profit for each ton of acrylic paint
produced in a day is at Php 5 million while the profit for each ton of enamel paint produced
in a day is at Php 4 million, thus, the objective function is:
Maximize Profit, z: 𝑧 = 5𝑥 + 4𝑦
Identify the constraints:

6𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≤ 24 Maximum availability for material M1 is at 24 tons, each ton of acrylic
paint uses 6 tons of material M1 while each ton of enamel point uses 4
tons of material M1.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≤ 6 Maximum availability for material M2 is at 6 tons, each ton of acrylic
paint uses 1 ton of material M2 while each ton of enamel paint uses 2
tons of material M2.
𝑦≤2 Daily production for enamel paint should not exceed the daily demand
of 2 tons
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0 Non – negativity constrain
Illustrate constraints by graphing
The red line is for 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≤ 24, while the green line is for 𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≤ 6, and the blue line
is for 𝑦 ≤ 2.
Identify the feasible region, corner points, and optimal solution
𝑦 ≥ 0.
The corner points of the feasible region are (0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 2), (3, 1.5) and (4, 0).
The (2, 2) is obtained by solving the lines 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6 and 𝑦 = 2 simultaneously.
The (3, 1.5) is obtained by solving the lines 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 24 and 𝑥 + 2𝑦6 simultaneously.
Evaluating the corner points and identify the optimal solution for the Objective Function
Corner Points Objective Function

Maximize Profit, 𝑧 = 5𝑥 + 4𝑦
(0,0) 5(0) + 4(0) = 0
(0,2) 5(0) + 4(2) = 8
(4,0) 5(4) + 4(0) = 20
(2,2) 5(2) + 4(2) = 18
(3,1.5) 5(3) + 4(1.5) = 21
Conclusion
The objective function is maximized at the point (3,1.5) with a value of 21. This means
that a maximum profit of Php 21 million can be achieved if 3 tons of acrylic paint and 1.5
tons of enamel paint is produced in a single day.
Example Problem 2 (this conforms with the included power point presentation):
Bottled water and medical supplies are to be shipped to survivors of an earthquake

by plane. Each container of bottled water will serve 10 people and each medical kit will aid
6 people. Each plane can carry no more than 80,000 pounds. The bottled water weighs 20
pounds per container and each medical kit weighs 10 pounds. Each plane can carry a total
volume of supplies that does not exceed 6000 cubic feet. Each water bottle is 1 cubic foot
and each medical kit also has a volume of 1 cubic foot.
Determine how many bottles of water and how many medical kits should be sent on
each plane to maximize the number of earthquake victims who can help.
Define the variables
Let 𝑥 represents the number containers containing bottled water to be shipped

𝑦 represents the number containers containing medical kits to be shipped
Identify the objective function
The aim is to maximize the number of earthquake survivors (we represent it with z) that
can be helped with the bottled water and the medical kit.
For each container of bottled water will serve 10 people while each medical kit will
aid 6 people.
Thus, the objective function is; Maximize Profit, z: 𝑧 = 10𝑥 + 6𝑦
Identify the constraints
20𝑥 + 10𝑦 ≤ 80000 The bottled water weighs 20 pounds per container while each
medical kit weighs 10 pounds. A plane can carry no more than
8000 pounds.
𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 6000 Each water bottle is 1 cubic foot and each medical kit also has
a volume of 1 cubic foot. A plane can carry a total volume of
supplies that does not exceed 6000 cubic feet.
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0 Non – negativity constraints
Illustrate constraints by graphing

𝑦 ≥ 0. The red line is for 20𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 8000 and is shaded below because it is ≤, while the blue
line is for 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6000 and is shaded below because it is ≤.
Identify the feasible region, corner points, and optimal solution
Feasible
region
The corner points of the feasible region are (0, 0), (0, 6000), (2000, 4000), and (4000, 0)
The (2000, 4000) is obtained by solving the lines 20𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 8000 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6000
simultaneously by the method of elimination and substitution.
Evaluating the corner points and identify the optimal solution for the Objective Function
Objective Function
Corner Points
Maximize Profit, : 𝑧 = 10𝑥 + 6𝑦
(0,0) 10(0) + 6(0) = 0
(0,6000) 10(0) + 6(6000) = 36000
(2000,4000) 10(2000) + 6(4000) = 44000
(4000,0) 10(4000) + 6(0) = 40000
Conclusion
Thus, the maximum value of z is 44000 and this occurs when 𝑥 = 2000 and 𝑦 = 4000.
In practical terms, this means that the maximum number of earthquake survivors who
can be helped with each plane shipment is 44000. This can be accomplished by sending
2000 water bottles and 4000 medical kits.
A garment factory manufactures men’s shirts and women’s blouses. The production
process includes cutting, sewing, and packaging. The factory employs 25 workers in the
cutting department, 35 workers in the sewing department, and 5 workers in the packaging
department. Each employee works an 8-hour shift per day for 5 days a week. The following
table gives the time requirements and profit per unit for the two garments:
Minutes per unit
Garment Cutting Sewing Packaging Profit/unit
Shirts 20 70 12 Php 80.00
Blouses 60 60 4 Php 120.00
Determine the optimal weekly production schedule for the garment factory.
Quiz 4
Final Term Exam
Congratulations! You did it!

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MODULE IN

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTANCY, MANAGEMENT, COMPUTING and INFORMATION STUDIES

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

MATHEMATICS IN such as finance, voting, health

Module and Unit Topics 5

Course Study Guide and House Rules 6

Contact Information of the Facilitator 15

Module 1 – The Nature of Mathematics 17

Module 7 – Data Management 109

Module 1 The Nature of Mathematics

Module 2 Mathematics in Nature

Module 3 Mathematics as a Study of Patterns

Module 4 The Language of Mathematics

Module 5 Reasoning and Problem Solving

Module 6 Mathematics of Finance

Module 7 Data Management

Module 8 Mathematics of Graphs

Module 9 Linear Programming

Additional Guidelines for correspondence-based learning:

Topic Learning Outcomes Activities

MODULE 8 Mathematics of Graphs

Saint Louis University Calendar for the First Semester AY 2019-2020

Registration: August 3 – 7, 2020

Summative Assessment Activities

MIDTERM TENTATIVE FINAL

Contact Information of the Facilitator

DR. DANIEL M. ABRATIQUE

Cellphone (Smart): +639217643423

The Meaning of Mathematics and Its Characteristics

Mathematics may be viewed in different perspectives. In its wildest significance, it is

MODULE 2: MATHEMATICS IN NATURE

Geometry is the branch of mathematics that basically describes shapes and

Some Common Shapes Visible in Nature

Sphere. A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical

Cones. A cone is a three-dimensional

Parallel lines. In mathematics, parallel lines stretch to

Interesting Figures in Nature

Below are some manifestations of fractals in nature.

Lightning Waterfalls Mountains

There are Two Kinds of Symmetry

One is bilateral symmetry in which an object has two sides that

The other kind of symmetry is radial symmetry. This is where

Assignment 1: (20 points) Search or take pictures of revelations of Mathematics in

MODULE 3: MATHEMATICS AS A STUDY OF PATTERNS

Video viewing: God’s Fingerprint – The Fibonacci Sequence – Golden Ratio

Mathematics is the science of patterns and relationships. Patterns provide a sense of

How many diagonals can be drawn in a hexagon?

How many circles will be in the next figure in the pattern?

It is a list or set of numbers that follow a certain sequence or pattern. As an

It is a kind of pattern formed of sequences of lines and curves to form

For numbers 25 – 35:Identify the missing shape in the series.

For nuber2 32 – 35: Identify the missing shape in the series.

Congratulations Louisan! You did it!

MODULE 4: THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

In this module, our goals are as follows:

B. Sets and Basic Operations on Sets

1. The set of denominations of Philippine currency.

2. A set can also be described by writing a description of its elements between