Republic of the Philippines

Surigao del Sur State University

Bislig Campus
Maharlika, Bislig City
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Module Number 2

The lesson will introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking that can serve you in a wide
variety of situations. Often when you start working on a mathematical problem, you may only
have a vague sense of how to proceed. You may begin by looking at examples, drawing pictures,
playing around with symbols, rereading the problem to focus on more of its details, and so forth.
The closer you get to a solution, however, the more your thinking has to crystallize. And the
more you need to understand, the more you need language that expresses mathematical ideas
clearly, precisely and unambiguously.
This lesson aims to give you some ideas about the characteristics and conventions of
mathematics as a language that is a foundation for dealing with everyday life. It also focuses on
logical symbols, logical connectives, and truth tables.
DEFINITION OF A MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
For thousand years, mathematicians had developed spoken and written natural languages that are
highly effective for expressing mathematical language. This mathematical language has
developed and provides a highly efficient and powerful tool for mathematical expression,
exploration, reconstruction after exploration and communication. Its power comes from
simultaneously being precise and yet concise. But mathematical language is being used poorly
because of poor understanding of the language. The mathematical language and logical
reasoning using that language form the everyday working experience of mathematics.
The mathematical language is the system used to communicate mathematical ideas. This
language consists of some natural language using technical terms (mathematical terms) and
grammatical conventions that are uncommon to mathematical discourse, supplemented by a
highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical formulas. The mathematical notation used
for formulas has its own grammar and shared by mathematicians anywhere in the globe.
Characteristics of a Mathematical Language
Precise
Precision in mathematics is like a culture of being correct all the time. Definition and limits
should be a distinction. Mathematical ideas are being developed informally and being done
formally, with necessary and sufficient conditions stated up front and restricting the discussion to
a particular class of objects. Mathematical culture of precision has developed a precise, highly
symbolic language, and a dialect manner that allows for the adaptation, adjustment and
cumulative refinement of concept based on experiences, and mathematical reasoning is expected
to be correct.
Concise (shows simplicity)
Being concise is a strong part of the culture in mathematical language. The mathematician
desires the simplest possible single exposition at the price of additional terminology and
machinery to allow all of the various particularities to be subsumed into the exposition at the
highest possible level.
Powerful

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Being powerful is a way of expressing complex thought with relative ease. The abstraction in
mathematics is the desire to unify diverse instances under a single conceptual framework and
allows easier penetration of the subject and the development of more powerful methods.
According to Galileo Galilei, “Mathematics is the language in which God has written the
universe”. It can be attributed that mathematics is a universal language because the principles
and foundations of mathematics are the same everywhere around the world.
Mathematical Expressions, Sentences and Statements
A mathematical expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun. It is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest. An
expression does not state a complete thought, in particular, it does not make sense to ask if an
expression is true or false.
A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. In a mathematical sentence, it makes sense
to ask about the truth of a sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is sometimes true or sometimes false?
Mathematics is a universal language. It is with own set of vocabulary, rules and system of
communication which requires more than just knowing what those words and sentences are.
What do you think is the verb counterpart in mathematical language?
Consider the mathematical sentence 3+ 4=7. The verb is “¿”. If you read the sentence as ‘three
plus four is equal to seven’, then it’s easy to ‘hear’ the verb. Indeed, the equal sign (¿) is one of
the most popular mathematical verb.
Sentences can be true or false. The notion of truth (i.e., the property of being true or false) is of
fundamental importance in the mathematical language. Languages have conventions. In English,
for example, it is conventional to capitalize proper names (like ‘Carol’ and ‘Christmas Day’).
This convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish between a common noun (like ‘carol’, a
Christmas song) and a proper noun (like ‘Carol’). Mathematics also have conventions. There are
rules on how to attach prefixes and suffixes.

Translate from English Language to Math Translate from Math Language to English
Language Language
1. The sum of two numbers is 10. 1. 20 ÷(2+8)
2. The square root of 9 added to x is 5. 2. ( x−5 ) +6 x
3. Two added to a number subtracted 3. 1 m=100 cm=1000 mm
from 10 equals 3.
Solution:
1. x + y=10 or a+ b=10 1. 20 divided by the sum of 2 and 8
2. √ 9+ x=5 2. 6x is added to a number subtracted
3. 2+ ( 10− x ) =3 by 5
3. 1 m is equal to 100 cm is equal to
1000 mm

Conventions of Mathematical Language

Mathematical languages have conventions and it helps individual distinguish between different
types of mathematical expressions. A mathematical convention is a fact, name, notation or usage
which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians. For example, one evaluates multiplication
before addition following the principle of PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication,

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Division, Addition, Subtraction). Mathematicians abide by conventions to be able to understand
what they write without constantly having to redefine basic terms. Almost all mathematical
names and symbols are conventional.
The mathematical notation has its own grammar and is not dependent on a specific natural
language, but shared internationally by mathematicians regardless of their country’s spoken
language. This includes the conventions that the formulas are written predominantly left to right,
even when the writing system of the substrate language is right-to-left, and that the Latin
alphabet is commonly used for simple variables and parameters.
Typographical conventions in mathematics provide uniformity across mathematical texts and
help individuals to grasp new concepts quickly. Mathematical notation includes letters from
various alphabets, as well as special mathematical symbols. Letters in various fonts often have
specific, fixed meanings in particular areas of mathematics. In general, anything that represents a
variable should be set in italic and this applies to characters from the Latin/English alphabet (
a , b , c , …; A , B ,C , … ¿ as to letters from any other alphabet, most notably Greek
(α , β , γ , … ; Α , Β , Γ , …). Usage of subscripts (e.g. x n) and superscripts (e.g. x n) is also an
important convention.
Any idea, no matter how simple it is, would become very difficult if there is no knowledge of the
language in which the ideas were presented. Students have trouble understanding
mathematical ideas: not necessarily because the ideas are difficult, but because they are
being presented in a foreign language – the language of mathematics.

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LOGIC
 allows us to determine the validity of arguments in and out of mathematics
 illustrates the importance of precision and conciseness of the language of mathematics
Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both. If a proposition is
true, then its truth value is true which is denoted by T; otherwise, it’s truth value is false and is
denoted by F. Propositions are usually denoted by small letters as shown in the example:
p: Everyone should study logic.
It may be read as p is the proposition “Everyone should study logic.” If a sequence of
proposition is considered, we denote the propositions by p1, p2, … .
Example 1. Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not. If
it’s a proposition, give its truth value.
a) p: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
b) q: Find a number which divides your age.
c) r: My seatmate will get a perfect score in the exam.
d) s: Welcome to the Philippines!
e) t: 3+2=5
f) u: f ( x )=
√ x is a rational function.
x +1
g) v: What is the domain of the function?
h) w: I am lying.
i) p1: Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
j) p2: If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a Filipino.
k) p3: If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen card, and if
you are entitled to a Senior Citizen card, then you are more than 60 years old.
Solution: In order for it to be considered a proposition, it must be a declarative sentence, and it
should have a truth value of either true or false, but not both true and false at the same time.
a) This is a declarative sentence, and Mindanao is really an island in the Philippines. Hence,
p is a true proposition.
b) This is an imperative statement, and so it is not a proposition.
c) The statement is a declarative sentence. Although the truth value will only be known after
the exam, it can only be either true (my seatmate gets a perfect score) or false (he will
have mistakes), but not both. Hence, r is a proposition.
d) Statement s is an exclamatory sentence, and so it is not a proposition.
e) Obviously, 3+2=5 is a true mathematical sentence. But, is it a declarative sentence? The
answer is yes. Transforming it into word sentence will give “The sum of three and two is
five”, which is clearly a declarative sentence. Therefore, t is a true proposition.
f) This is a declarative sentence. Since the numerator of the function is not a polynomial,
the function f is not rational and so the statement is false. Therefore, u is a false
proposition.
g) It is an interrogative sentence hence; it is not a proposition.
h) Although w is a declarative sentence, it is not a proposition since it cannot be true nor
false.

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 i) It is a declarative sentence, which is true for anyone because each of us finds logic either
fun or boring. Hence, p1 is a true proposition.
j) This is a declarative sentence, but this is not true. There are also Grade 11 students of
other nationalities.
k) It is clearly a declarative statement, and it is obviously true as well. Therefore, it is a true
proposition.
A simple proposition (also called atomic proposition) cannot be broken down into other
component preposition. In other words, they are the building blocks of propositional logic (as
atoms are considered building blocks in chemistry). Consequently, a compound proposition is
composed of simple prepositions. They are formed using logical connectors or combination of
the logical connectors not, and, or, if-then, and if and only if.
Example 2. For each of the propositions in Example 1, determine whether it is a simple or
compound proposition.
Solution: As given in example 1, the only propositions are statements p, r, t, u, p1, and p3. The
propositions p, r, t, and u are simple propositions. On the other hand, the following are the
compound propositions.
p1: Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
p2: If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a Filipino.
p3: If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen card, and
if you are entitled to a Senior Citizen card, then you are more than 60 years old.
Logical Operators
Given a proposition, a truth table will show its possible truth values. For example, since a
simple proposition has two possible truth values, its truth table will be:

p
T
F
The truth table is useful because it can be used to display all the possible truth value
combinations of two or more propositions. For example, suppose p and q are propositions. We
can construct a truth table displaying the relationship between the possible truth values of p and
the truth values of q as shown below.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
In general, a truth table involving n number of propositions has 2n rows. Above, we have two
propositions so we have 22=4 rows. So if we have 3 propositions, we have 23=8 as shown.

p q s
T T T
T T F
T F T

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 T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

This truth table will help us define logical operators. If a given proposition is a compound
proposition, the truth table is used to exhibit the relationship between the truth values of its
simple components and the truth values of the given compound proposition.

 The simplest logical operator is the negation operator, which is denoted by

(not). It is defined by the truth table:

p
p
T F
F T
The truth table tells us that when p is true, its negation p us false. On the other
hand, when p is false, the negation p is true

Example. State the negation of the following propositions.

x−1
a) n1: p ( x ) = is a polynomial function.
x +2
b) n2 : 2 is an odd number.
c) n3 : The tinikling is the most difficult dance.
d) n 4: Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.

Solution: The negation of the given propositions is given below.

x−1
a) n1: p ( x ) = is not a polynomial function.
x +2
b) n2: 2 is not an odd number.
c) n3 : The tinikling is not the most difficult dance.
d) n 4: Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.

NOTE: It is a common mistake to assume that the proposition not p ( p) is automatically

false, just because it is a negation. Remember that a proposition can also be false thus its
negation will become true. Take a look at n2 in the example. We know that the proposition
is false (obviously because 2 is an even number, not an odd). So as we negated n2 , it
becomes n2 saying “2 is not an odd number” which is true.

Also take note negation is not necessarily the complete opposite of the given proposition.
Just like n 4, it tells us that “Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano”, not “Everyone in
Cebu does not speak Cebuano” (which is entirely false).

 The next logical operator allows us to state an expression for two propositions to be true.
It is called the conjunction operator and is denoted by ˄. The two propositions involved
are called conjuncts. The conjunction of two propositions p and q is denoted by p˄q (p
and q). Its truth table is defined as:

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 p˄
p q
q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
To simplify, the only time that p˄q will become true is if both propositions are true. If
even one of them is false, then the conjunction is false.

Example: Let p and q be the following propositions.

p: Angels exist.
q: π >3

Express the following conjunctions as English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.

(a) p˄q
(b) p˄( q)
(c) Angels do not exist and π ≤3.
(d) While angels do not exist, π >3.

Solution: The corresponding English sentences or symbols are given below.

(a) p˄q: Angels exist and π >3.

(b) p˄( q): Angels exist and π ≤3.
(c) ( p)˄( q)
(d) ( p)˄q

NOTE: Conjunctions do not always use the word ‘and’. Words like ‘but’, ‘even though’,
‘yet’, and ‘while’ are also used to flag conjunctions.

 The third logical operator is called the disjunction operator and is denoted by ˅. The two
propositions involved are called dis0juncts. This operator will allow us to express
alternatives. The disjunction of two propositions is denoted by p˅q (p or q). It is defined
by the truth table:
p˅
p q
q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
To simplify, the truth table tells us that a conjunction can be true even if only one of the
propositions is true.
Example. Let p, q and r be the following propositions.

p: Victor has a date with Liza.

q: Janree is sleeping.
r: Eumir is eating.

Express the following propositions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.

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 (a) p˅q
(b) q˅( r)
(c) p˅(q˅r)
(d) Either Victor has a date with Liza or Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating.
(e) Either Victor has a date with Liza and Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating.
(f) Either Victor has a date with Liza or Janree is sleeping and Eumir is eating.
(g) Either Victor has a date with Liza and Janree is sleeping, or Victor has a date with
Liza and Eumir is eating.

Solution: The corresponding English expressions or symbols are as follows.

(a) p˅q: Victor has a date with Liza or Janree is sleeping.

(b) q˅( r): Either Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating.
(c) p˅(q˅r): Either Victor has a date with Liza, or Janree is sleeping or Eumir is eating.
(d) (p˅q)˅r
(e) (p˄q)˅r
(f) p˅(q˄r)
(g) (p˄q)˅(p˄r)

Note the placement of the commas in the English expressions and the placement of the
parenthesis in the symbols. In (c), q and r are inside the parenthesis. If you look at its
corresponding statement, after writing the proposition p, a comma is inserted before making
a disjunction statement of q and r. In (d), a comma is introduced after the disjunction
statement of p and q before writing the proposition r, so its corresponding symbol, p and q is
grouped inside the parenthesis. But also note that (p˅q)˅r, p˅(q˅r), and p˅q˅r are just
similar.

Example. Let p, q and r be the propositions as in the previous example.

Consider the following scenario. One Friday night, Victor and Janree are busy studying for
their logic exam. Meanwhile, Eumir just tweeted a picture of himself eating crispy pata and
sisig. What is the truth value of the proposition ( p)˅(q˄r)?

Solution: From Eumir’s tweet, we can conclude that he is eating so proposition r is true. Since
Victor and Janree are studying, the proposition p is false (Victor don’t have a date with Liza) and
proposition q is also false (Janree is not sleeping). Thus, we have:

p q r
F F T
Remember that if a proposition is false, its negation is true. Proposition p is false, thus
proposition p is true. And remember that in conjunction (˄), if one of the conjuncts
if false, the whole proposition is false. Since proposition q is false, then we can say that
proposition p˄q is also false. Thus,
p˄
p q r
p q
F F T T F
After that, we find the truth value of the disjunction ( p)˅(q˄r). As mentioned about
disjunctions, even if only one of the disjuncts is true, we can consider the whole disjunction
proposition as true. Thus,
(
p^
p q r
p q
p)˅(q˄r)

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 F F T T F T

 Conditionals are very important in mathematics since most mathematical statements are
expressible in this form. The conditional of propositions p and q is denoted by p →q (If
p, then q) and is defined through the truth table:
p→
p q
q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The conditional p →q may also be read as ‘p implies q’. The first proposition is called the
hypothesis, while the second proposition is called the conclusion.
As it is just very easy to express the English expressions and symbols in conditional, the
given examples will be to remind us that we must be careful in interpreting conditionals
(especially in its truth value).
Example: Suppose that Geebe is a Grade 11 student. Consider the following:
p1: If Geebe is in Grade 11, then she is a senior high school student.

p2: If Geebe is in Grade 11, then she is working as a lawyer.

p3: If Geebe has a degree in Computer Science, then she believes in true love.

Analyze the truth values of these conditionals.

Solution:
p1: ‘Geebe is in Grade 11’ and ‘Geebe is a senior high school student’ are both true. Based
on the truth table above, if both propositions are true, its conditional is also true.
p2: ‘Geebe is in Grade 11’ is true, but ‘Geebe is working as a lawyer’ is false because Grade
11 student is not yet qualified to be a lawyer. Since the hypothesis is true but the
conclusion is false, then p2 is false, as stated in the second row of the truth table of
conditionals.
p3: ‘Geebe has a degree in Computer Science’ is false because Geebe is still in Grade 11, and
so cannot possibly have a university degree yet. On the other hand, we do not know the
truth value of ‘Geebe believes in true love’. It may be true; it may be false. But looking at
the truth table of conditionals, if the hypothesis is false, no matter what the truth value
of the conclusion, the whole proposition is considered false.
NOTE: In logic conditionals, the hypothesis need not be connected to the conclusion. It
won’t matter even if the hypothesis will not really cause the conclusion. For example, ‘If
2>0, then you will pass this course’. Of course, 2>0 is true but it does not mean that you
will also pass the course just because 2>0.
 We now define another compound proposition which we can derive from two conditional
propositions, the biconditional proposition. The biconditional of two propositions p and
q is denoted by p ↔q (p if and only if q) and is defined as the truth table:
p↔
p q
q

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 T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
To simplify, the truth value of a biconditional will be true if both p and q have the same truth
values.
Example: Suppose that Geebe is a Grade 11 student. Consider the following:
p1: Geebe is in Grade 11 if and only if she is a senior high school student.

p2: Geebe is in Grade 11 if and only if she is working as a lawyer.

p3: Geebe has a degree in Computer Science if and only if she believes in true love.

Analyze the truth values of these biconditionals.

Solution:
p1: Both simple components of the biconditional proposition are true. Hence, the
biconditional is true, according to the first row of the biconditional truth table.
p2: Since it is true that Geebe is in Grade 11 but it is not true that Geebe is working as a
lawyer, the biconditional is false as the second row of the biconditional truth table indicates.
p3: The truth value of the biconditional depends on whether Geebe believes in true love or
not. If Geebe does not believe in true love, then both components are false which makes
the biconditional true according to the truth table. On the other hand, supposing Geebe
believes in true love, the truth value of biconditional is false.

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ACTIVITY:
1. Express the following propositions in symbols, where p, q, r and s are defined as
follows.
p: Neil is a big eater. r: Jeric likes to travel.
q: Len has a big voice. s: Lemy likes violet.
a) While Len has a big voice, Neil is not a big eater.
b) Jeric likes to travel or he does not.
c) It is not true that Neil is a big eater and Lemy does not like violet.
d) It may or may not be the case that Lemy likes violet.
e) Either Neil is a big eater or Len has a big voice, yet Lemy likes violet.
f) If Neil is a big eater or Len has a big voice, then Lemy likes violet.
g) Neil is a big eater or Len has a big voice if and only if Lemy likes violet and Jeric
likes to travel.
2. Express the following propositions in words, using the given propositions in number
1.
a) p˄( q) f) (q →r )
b) p˄( p) g) ¿˄( q)¿ →¿˄s ¿
c) ¿˅r ¿ h) p ↔( p)
d) ¿˅q ¿˄r ¿ i) (( p)→ q)↔ r
e) ¿˄( q) ¿˅¿˄s ¿
3. Using the truth values below of the given propositions in 1 and 2, find the truth
values of all items in 1 and 2.

p q r s
T F T T

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