Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College

Laboratory Manual

ANALOG COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

For

Second Year Students

Lab manual made by

Dr. S.N.PAWAR
PROF. S. A.ANNADATE

 Author JNEC, Aurangabad.

 FOREWORD

It is my great pleasure to present this laboratory manual for second year

engineering students for the subject of advance communication
engineering keeping in view the vast coverage required for visualization of
concepts of communication engineering.
As a student, many of you may be wondering with some of the questions in your mind
regarding the subject and exactly what has been tried is to answer through this
manual.

Faculty members are also advised that covering these aspects in initial
stage itself, will greatly relieve them in future as much of the load will be
taken care by the enthusiastic energies of the students once they are
conceptually clear.

HOD
LABORATORY MANUAL CONTENTS

This manual is intended for the second year students of ECT branch in
the subject of Analog Communication Engineering. This manual typically
contains practical/Lab Sessions related to advance communication
engineering, covering various aspects, related to the subject to enhance
understanding.

Students are advised to thoroughly go through this manual rather than

only topics mentioned in the syllabus, as practical aspects are the key to
understanding and conceptual visualization of theoretical aspects
covered in the books.

Good Luck for your Enjoyable Laboratory Sessions.

Dr. S.N.PAWAR
PROF. S. A.ANNADATE
SUBJECT INDEX

1. DOs and DON’Ts in Laboratory.

2.Lab exercise

1. To study of RF Signal Generator

2. To study Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

3. To calculate Modulation index by direct method

4. To calculate Modulation index by indirect method (Trapezoidal

method)

5. To study Frequency Modulation and Demodulation

6. To study Pre – emphasis and de –emphasis

7. To study Sampling and its reconstruction.

8. To study pulse code modulation

9. To study Time division multiplexing

10. To study PA System

3. Quiz on the subject.

4. Conduction Viva-Voce Examination.

5. Evaluation and Marking Systems.

 DOs and DON’Ts in Laboratory:

1. Do not handle any equipment before reading the instructions/Instruction manuals.

2. Read carefully the power ratings of the equipment before it is switched on whether
ratings 230 V/50Hz or 115V/60 Hz. For Indian equipments, the power ratings are normally
230V/50Hz. If you have equipment with 115/60 Hz ratings, do not insert power plug, as our
normal supply is 230V/50 Hz, which will damage the equipment.

3. Observe type of sockets of equipment power to avoid mechanical damage.

4. Do not forcefully place connectors to avoid the damage.

5. Strictly observe the instructions given by the teacher/Lab Instructor.

Instruction for Laboratory Teachers:

1. Submission related to whatever lab work has been completed should be done during the
next lab session.
2. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of marking and evaluation
patterns that will benefit the sincere students.
 Experiment No.1

AIM: To study RF signal generator.

APPARATUS: oscilloscope, function generator, probes, etc.

THEORY:

RADIO-FREQUENCY (RF) SIGNAL GENERATORS

In addition to the necessary power supply, a typical RF signal generator

contains three other main sections: an OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT, a MODULATOR,

and an OUTPUT CONTROL CIRCUIT. The modulator modulates the RF signal of the

oscillator. In addition, most RF generators are provided with connections through

which an external source of modulation of any desired waveform can be applied to

the generated signal. Metal shielding surrounds the unit to prevent signals from the

oscillator from affecting the circuit under test.

A block diagram of a representative RF signal generator is shown in figure.

The function of the oscillator stage is to produce a signal that can be accurately

set in frequency at any point within the range of the generator. The type of

oscillator circuit used depends on the range of frequencies for which the generator

is designed. In lower frequency RF signal generators, the oscillating circuit consists

of one of a group of coils combined with a variable capacitor. One of the coils is

selected by the position of a range selector switch that connects the coil to a

capacitor to provide an inductance-capacitance circuit. The inductive-capacitance

circuit then has the correct range of resonant frequencies.

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of carrier is changed in

accordance with Instantaneous value of modulating signal.

 Fig: RF signal generator block diagram
The function of the modulator is to produce an audio (or video) modulating signal

that can be superimposed on the RF signal produced by the oscillator. The

modulating signal may be provided by an audio oscillator within the generator. This

is termed INTERNAL MODULATION. It may also be derived from an external

source. This is termed EXTERNAL MODULATION. In some signal generators,

either of these two methods of modulation can be employed. In addition, a means of

disabling the modulator section is available so that the pure, un-modulated signal

from the oscillator can be used when desired.

Procedure:-

1. Connect the probe at output terminal of RF generator n another to the

oscilloscope.

2. Check the different waveforms on oscilloscope.

Conclusion:-
 Experiment No.2

Aim:- To study Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation.

Apparatus :- Double side Band AM radio Transmitter and Receiver Kits,

Multi meter.

Theory :-
The original broadcast RF signal is picked up by the aerial and selected by a

relatively broadband RF filter. This signal is usually amplified before

entering the mixer. The mixer then combines the incoming RF signal and the

local Oscillator signal. Shift the input signal to a lower frequency. The mixer

thus receives two RF signals- one at the true RF, direct from the tuned

circuit, and one at RF plus an intermediate frequency (IF), direct from the

local oscillator. The result of mixing the two is to extract the difference or

beat frequency. This is the IF frequency which now contains the AF

components of the original RF signal.

The signal is then passed through a multiple stage fixed filter tuned at 455

kHz (which corresponds to the intermediate frequency). The filter has a

bandwidth of 10kHz, which matches the bandwidth of each radio station.

The IF signal is then amplified and subsequently passed through an envelope

detector before AF amplification.

The block diagram also shows feedback from the detector to the IF

amplifier denoted as AGC or automatic gain control. This provides automatic

regulation of the gain of the receiver in inverse proportion to the signal

strength. This tends to keep the output level constant regardless of the

input signal level eliminates much of the need to readjust the volume control

when changing radio stations

Wave form:-

Procedure :-

( i ) Tracing Method to be followed.

(II) Traced circuit diagram.

(iii) Detection of fault.

(iv) Interpretation of fault.

Circuit diagram, Block diagram.

(vi) Proper placement of components.

Conclusion:-
 Experiment No.3

AIM: To calculate Modulation index by direct method

EQUIPMENT: AM modulator kit, oscilloscope, AF function generator, probes,

wires etc.

THEORY:
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of carrier is changed in
accordance with
Instantaneous value of modulating signal.
E= ( EC MAX + EM) sin wct
Where em = Em max sin wmt is modulating signal.
Ec= EC MAX sinwct is a carrier signal.
E= [Ecmax + Em sin wmt ]sinwct .
The modulation index is defined as ,
M= Emmax
=Ecmax
e= Ecmax(1+msinwmt)sinwmt or
e=sinwct + m sinwmt . sinwct
where Ecmax= 1v
e= sinwct + m/2[cos(wc-wm)-cos(wc+wm)
1.First term is a carrier wave of amplitude 1v & frequency w=2 π fc.
2. The second term is a cosine wave of amplitude ½ m &frequency (fc-fm) this is
lower side band (LSB).
3. The third term is a cosine wave of amplitude m/2 & frequency (fc+ fm). This is
upper side band (USB).

Measurement of carrier wave (RF wave)

1. Give supply to the kit of AM modulator.
2. The carrier wave must have generated carrier wave , open ckt terminal a & b.
3. Connect probe to oscilloscope & other terminal ‘a’ & measure carrier voltage
with respect to ground.
4. Measure the carrier wave & draw the waveform.

Measurement of % modulation.
1. Give supply to the kit of AM modulator.
2. Now short-circuit the terminal a 6 b so that carrier voltages can be applied
to the circuit.
 3. Using function generator provides a selected frequency to the primary of
transformer, which is at emitter of transistor.
4. Now connect probe from o/p ckt to the oscilloscope & measure the
amplitude
Modulation Wave.
5. Calculate Emax (p-p) & Emin(p-p) for 3 set of different readings.

OBSERVATION:

EMax  EMin
%M  x100
EMax  EMin

SR NO EMax (p-p) EMin (p-p) %M

Conclusion:- Thus we have calculated MI of AM wave.

 Experiment No.4

AIM: To calculate Modulation index by indirect method (Trapezoidal

method)

APPARATUS: AM modulator kit, oscilloscope, AF function generator, probes,

wires etc.

THEORY:
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of carrier is changed in
accordance with
Instantaneous value of modulating signal.
E= ( EC MAX + EM) sin wct
Where em = Em max sin wmt is modulating signal.
Ec= EC MAX sinwct is a carrier signal.
E= [Ecmax + Em sin wmt ]sinwct .
The modulation index is defined as ,
M= Emmax
=Ecmax
e= Ecmax(1+msinwmt)sinwmt or
e=sinwct + m sinwmt . sinwct
where Ecmax= 1v
e= sinwct + m/2[cos(wc-wm)-cos(wc+wm)
1.First term is a carrier wave of amplitude 1v & frequency w=2 π fc.
2. The second term is a cosine wave of amplitude ½ m &frequency (fc-fm) this is
lower side band (LSB).
3. The third term is a cosine wave of amplitude m/2 & frequency (fc+ fm). This is
upper side band (USB).

Measurement of carrier wave (RF wave)

5. Give supply to the kit of AM modulator.
6. The carrier wave must have generated carrier wave , open ckt terminal a & b.
7. Connect probe to oscilloscope & other terminal ‘a’ & measure carrier voltage
with respect to ground.
8. Measure the carrier wave & draw the waveform.

Measurement of % modulation.
4. Give supply to the kit of AM modulator.
 5. Now short-circuit the terminal a 6 b so that carrier voltages can be applied
to the circuit.
6. Using function generator provides a selected frequency to the primary of
transformer, which is at emitter of transistor.
4. Now connect probe from o/p ckt to the oscilloscope & measure the
amplitude
Modulation Wave.
5. Calculate Emax (p-p) & Emin(p-p) for 3 set of different readings.

OBSERVATION:

%M = ( L1- L2) / (L1 + L2 ) x 100

SR NO L1 L2 %M

CONCLUSION: Thus we have calculated MI of AM wave.

 Experiment No. 5

AIM: To study frequency modulation and Demodulation.

APPARATUS: Matrix trainer kit - Frequency modulator, Function generator,

Connecting wires, Oscilloscope

THEORY

A modulator is a circuit which changes frequency of a carrier w.r.t. instantaneous

amplitude of modulating signal while keeping other parameters constants.

1. Tuning – allows different channels to be selected.

2. Transmission range - as the carrier is high frequency the transmission range is

high.

3. Practical antenna length – as the carrier frequency is high the antenna

dimensions are small.

4. Wireless communication – as the carrier is radiated in air, wireless

communication is possible.

The F.M. (frequency modulator) is the circuit used for radio / T.V. communication

and in other applications.

The advantages of using F.M. are

1. Noiseless reception.

2. Operating range is large.

3. High frequency

4. High efficiency of transmission.

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The practical circuit of the frequency modulator is shown in figure.

The circuit uses function generator I.C. XR 8038 this is a precise waveform

generator IC capable of generating sine, square, triangular, sawtooth and pulse

waveforms with a minimum number of external components and adjustments. Its

operating frequency range is from 0.001Hz to 1 Mhz.

The frequency of the waveform generator is direct function of d.c. voltage at

terminal 7. Thus frequency modulation can be achieved by giving modulating signal

to pin 7. The pin 2 output sine wave which is then frequency modulation by the

modulating signal.

The input modulating signal is applied to pin 7 and to pin 8 for small frequency

deviation, large deviation are possible by connecting signal to pin 8 only. C2 and C3

is a timing capacitor.

Selectable through J1 for two frequency range, the preset P5 connected at pin 4

and 5 are for adjusting duty cycle. The preset P3 and P4 at pin 1 and 12 adjusts the

sine wave distortion. Pin 2 is sine wave output (modulated). POT P2 for carrier

frequency adjustment.

PROCEDURE

1. Keep the power switch on off condition.

2. Connect the power cord to mains supply.

3. Pot p1 works as attenuator provided for controlling the input to modulator

(modulating signal).

4. Pot p2 is provided for carrier frequency variation from 70 KHz. to 110 KHz.

5. Put the power switch off the kits on and see the power switch glows.

6. Connect oscilloscope at output.

7. Set output frequency (carrier) above 80 KHz. With pot. P2 and j1 at b side. (j1

at a for low frequency carrier fm observation)

8. Connect the function generator sine wave output to modulator input (any

frequency from 20 to 1 KHz).

9. Set the input amplitude with pot P1 such that modulation at the output is seen.
10. Observe and note the input frequency and output frequency on scope.

11. Repeat above experiment for no signal and at different frequencies.

12. Place J2 at A side and connect +v as modulating signal (AF input) and note dc

voltages on pin 7 for minimum and maximum FM output frequencies.

Demodulator

In FM signal the amplitude of wave remain constant and modulated signal is

used to change the carrier frequency. In such envelope detector can not be

used for demodulating of those wave the circuit use to obtain modulating

signal from FM wave are discriminator. The most commonly used

discriminator are the faster seeley discriminator.

Figure (1) shows the schematic diagram of faster seeley discriminator. It

consists of two identical diode detector circuit L,S,D,R,C, AND LS2, D2,R2,C2

. The FM signal is inductively coupled to see. They also exist on a capacitive

coupling between primary an centre tapped sec. the input of diode D1 =

vector sum of the pri voltage.

When incoming frequency is greater than fc then, sec. circuit behave as

inductor and lags Vs by an angle less than 900. In the result, the ph. Relation

of Vs1 and Vs2 with Vp becomes as shown in figure (20).

Signal frequency smaller than the centre tapped fc. The secondary circuit

behaves as capacitive and is leads Vs by 900 but the reference to centre

point. They are 1800 out of phase as D1 is smaller than the vector sum of Vs2

and Vp.

It can therefore concluded that effect variation in input signal amp. is to

vary the +ve amp of output signal corres and the faster seely discriminator

is sensitive output is always proceed by limiter.

Block Diagram:-

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the signal generator at input terminal and keep the signal

level at suitable level.

2. Connect oscilloscope one at output and other at input.

3. Connect digital multimeter at output terminal.

4. Vary frequency in step and note down ph. Shift from oscilloscope. Af

output on dmm.

5. Also observe the ph shift on oscilloscope when af output is on the

side and also on –ve side.

CONCLUSION

Thus, we have studied phase discriminator and graph plotted between

frequency AF output is approx linear.

 Experiment No.6

AIM: To study Pre emphasis and De emphasis.

APPARATUS: Pre emphasis and De emphasis training kit, Connecting wires,

Oscilloscope

THEORY

Pre Emphasis

In processing electronic audio signals, pre-emphasis refers to a system process

designed to increase (within a frequency band) the magnitude of some (usually
higher) frequencies with respect to the magnitude of other (usually lower)
frequencies in order to improve the overall signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing
the adverse effects of such phenomena as attenuation
distortion or saturation of recording media in subsequent parts of the system.
The mirror operation is called de-emphasis, and the system as a whole is called
emphasis.
Pre-emphasis is achieved with a pre-emphasis network which is essentially a
calibrated filter. The frequency response is decided by special time constants.
The cutoff frequency can be calculated from that value.
Pre-emphasis is commonly used in telecommunications, digital
audio recording, record cutting, in FM broadcasting transmissions, and in
displaying the spectrograms of speech signals.
One example of this is the RIAA equalization curve on 33 rpm and 45 rpm vinyl
records. Another is the Dolby noise-reduction system as used with magnetic
tape.
In high speed digital transmission, pre-emphasis is used to improve signal
quality at the output of a data transmission. In transmitting signals at high data
rates, the transmission medium may introduce distortions, so pre-emphasis is
used to distort the transmitted signal to correct for this distortion. When done
properly this produces a received signal which more closely resembles the
original or desired signal, allowing the use of higher frequencies or producing
fewer bit errors.
Pre-emphasis is employed in frequency modulation or phase
modulation transmitters to equalize the modulating signal drive power in terms
of deviation ratio. The receiver demodulation process includes a reciprocal
network, called a de-emphasis network, to restore the original signal power
distribution.
De Emphasis

In telecommunication, de-emphasis is the complement of pre-emphasis, in the

anti noise system called emphasis. De-emphasis is a system process designed to
decrease, (within a band of frequencies), the magnitude of some (usually higher)
frequencies with respect to the magnitude of other (usually lower) frequencies
in order to improve the overall signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing the adverse
effects of such phenomena as attenuation distortion or saturation of recording
media in subsequent parts of the system.
Special time constants dictate the frequency response curve, from which one
can calculate the cutoff frequency.
In serial data transmission, de-emphasis has a different meaning, which is to
reduce the level of all bits except the first one after a transition. That causes
the high frequency content due to the transition to be emphasized compared to
the low frequency content which is de-emphasized. This is a form of
transmitter equalization; it compensates for losses over the channel which is
larger at higher frequencies. Well known serial data standards such as PCI
Express, SATA and SAS require transmitted signals to use de-emphasis.

CONCLUSION

Thus, we have studied the Pre emphasis and De emphasis circuit and its use

in telecommunications.
 Experiment No.7

AIM: To study sampling and its re-construction.

THEORY:

SAMPLING FREQUENCY: The 6.4 MHz Crystal oscillator generates the 6.4 MHz
clock. The decade counter divides the frequency by 10 and the ripple counter
generate the basic sampling frequencies -320KHz to 20 KHz and the other control
frequencies. The basic sampling frequencies is given to a multiplexer For each
"Press" on the frequency select
switch, the output of the state counter increases by one and it counts from 000 to
100. As
the state counter counts from 000 to 100, the corresponding input of the
multiplexer is
switched to the output. As soon as the count reaches 101, the output of the 3 to 8
decoder
resets the state counter and the whole cycle repeats. Also LED connected to the
output of
the decoder is switch ON, which indicates the sampling frequency selected. Refer
the
truth table for better understanding.

EQUIPMENTS:
Analog Signal Sampling & Reconstruction Kit, 20 MHz Dual Trace Oscilloscope,Patch
Chords

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect power supply in proper polarity to the kit & switch on.
2. Connect the lKHz,5V pp Sinewave signal, generated onboard, to the ANALOG
INPUT, by means of the patch-cords provided.
3. Connect the sampling frequency signal in the internal mode, by means of the
shorting pin provided.
4. Using switch SW1 select 50% duty cycle as shown in the table.
5. Connect the SAMPLE OUTPUT to the input of the 2nd Order Low Pass Filter.
6. Using frequency selector switch, select desired sampling frequency. The selected
sampling frequency is indicated by the glowing LED.
7. Take observation as mentioned below for various sampling frequency: 32 KHz,
16KHz, 8KHz, 4KHz , 2KHz.
OBSERVATIONS:_

CONCLUSION:

From the above observations we conclude that as the Sampling Frequency is

increased, the reconstructed output is less distorted and almost original signal is
reconstructed. For a sampling frequency of 2KHz, only 2 samples of the 1KHz signal
are
taken; whereas that for a sampling frequency of 8KHz, 8 samples of 1KHz signal are
taken.
Hence, as the number of samples taken of the signal increases, the distortion of
the
reconstructed signal decreases.

As per the Nyquist Criterion atleast two samples are required for the
reconstruction of the signal. If the Nyquist Criterion is not satisfied, or if the
signal is not
band-limited, then spectral overlap, called "aliasing" occurs, causing higher
frequencies to
show up at lower frequencies in the recovered message, and specially in voice
transmission
intelligibility is seriously degraded Thus, universally for the voice band (300Hz to
3300Hz), the sampling frequency used is 8KHz, which satisfies the Nyquist
Criterion.
 Experiment No.8

AIM: To study pulse code modulation

APPARATUS:
PCM kit, oscilloscope, function generator, probes.

THEORY:
Pulse Code Modulation is also known as a digital pulse modulation technique.
The pulse modulation

(PCM) is quite complex compared to the analog pulse modulation

techniques(i.e. PAM, PWM, PPM) in these sense that the message signal is
subjected to a great number of operations.

Fig. 1 shows the basic elements of a PCM system. It consists of three main
parts i.e. transmitter, transmission path and receiver. The essential
operations in the transmitter of a PCM system are sampling, quantizing and
encoding as shown in fig.1.

Sampling is operation in which an analog (i.e. continuous-time) signal is

sampled according to the sampling theorem resulting in a discrete-time
signal. The quantizing and encoding operations are usually performed in the
same circuit which is known as an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

Also the essential operations in the receiver are regeneration of impaired

signals, decoding and demodulation of the train of quantized samples. These
operations are usually performed in the same circuit which is known as
digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

CONCLUSION:
Hence a digital modulation technique PCM is studied. It is a coding technique since
analog signal is converted into binary coded bit stream.
 Experiment No. 9

AIM-:-To study time division multiplexing.

APPARATUS-:-ADTRON TRAINER KIT
1. Sine wave signal generators.
2. Dual channel C.R.O.
3. Digital Multimeter etc.

 In place of logic data input analog signal may also be connected at the
data input terminals with maximum amplitude of + 4.5 volts peak to
peak.

Theory:-
INTRODUCTION:-
The topic of TDM is an extension of pulse modulation system. It is
treated here to permit the two major multiplexing methods to be compared.
In time division multiplex, use is made of the fact that narrow pulses with
wide spaces between them are generated in any of the pulse modulation
systems, so that the spaces can be used by signals from other sources.
Moreover, although the spaces are relatively fixed in width, pulses may be
made as narrow as desired, thus permitting the generation of high level
hierarchies.
The method of achieving TDM is best illustrated by describing the
make-up of an actual system, and so a practical basic PMC system used in
North America has been selected as the example. In somewhat simplified
fashion, this may be described as a 24 channel system, having a sampling
rate of 8000 samples per second, 8 bits i.e., 256 sampling levels) per sample,
and a pulse width of approximately 0.625 s. This means that the sampling
interval is 1/8000 = 0.000125 s = 125 s, and the period required for each
pulse group is 8 x 0.625 = 5 s. If there were no multiplexing and by one
channel were sent, the transmission would consist of 8000 frames per
second, each made up of furious activity during the first 5 s and nothing at
all during the remaining 120 s. This would clearly be wasteful and would
represent an unnecessary complicated method of encoding a single channel,
and so this system loads this large spaces between the pulse groups. In fact,
each frame is used to provide 24 adjacent channel time slots, with the
twenty-fifth shot assigned for synchronization. Each frame consists of 193
bits – 24 x 8 for each channel, plus 1 for sync, and since there are 8000
frames per second, the bit rate is 1.544 Mbit/s.
Slow-speed TDM, as often used in radio telemetry, is produced simply
with rotating mechanical switches. A number of channels are fed
simultaneously to the switch in the transmitter one channel to each with
contact while the output is taken from the moving rotor. This rotates slowly
and remains in contact with each channel for a predetermined period, during
which time the output of that channel is the only one passed on for
transmission. There is a corresponding rotating switch in the receiver,
synchronized to the one in the transmitter, which reverses the process to
separate the received channels.
The high-speed TDM described here uses electronic switching and
delay lines to accomplish the same result. Each sampling circuit, one per
channel simultaneously receives a trigger pulse which causes it to sample its
signals and each channel output is then fed to an adder. However whereas
the output of the first sampler goes straight to the adder, that of the
second is delayed by 5 s, with a delay line or delay circuit. The output of
the third sampling circuit is similarly delayed but by 10 s. In this way each
successive interval during the 125 s frame is occupied by the transmission
of a different channel, and the process is repeated 8000 times per second.
In the receiver, the output of the main detector is fed simultaneously
to 24 AND gates. An AND gate, or coincidence circuit is a simple device
having one output and two or more input terminals. So arranged that an
output is obtained only if all (in this case both) input signals are present. In
this case each gate has two input terminals, and the second input to each
gate is provided from a clock-synchronized gating generator which a
monostable multivibrator is providing rectangular pulses of 5 s duration,
8000 times per second. Delay lines or circuits are used once again. With the
gating pulse to the first gate not delayed at all, that to the second gate
delayed by 5 s and so forth. In this fashion each gate is open only during
the appropriate time intervals, and the 24 channels are duly separated.
If transmission is by wire, the 1.544-Mbit/s pulse train is the signal
sent, but if cable or radio communication is used, the pulse trains, all
combined together into a higher TDM hierarchical level.
It should be mentioned that the 1.544 Mbit/s, -law system is by no
means in world wide use. As a matter of fact is represents yet another of
those instances where CCITT has had to produce two sets of parallel
recommendations, one for the United States (and Japan in this case) and
another for the rest of the world ! This other TDM system
Also used 8 bits per sample and a frame rate of 8000 per second, but
has A-law pre emphasis and 32 channels, of which 30 are used for
transmission and the remaining two (channels 0 and 16 for signaling and
synchronization the pulse rate is 2.048 Mbit/s. In recommendation G.711,
CCITT states that;
Digital paths between countries which have adopted different
encoding laws should carry signals encoded in accordance with the A-law ….
Any necessary conversion should be done by the countries using the -law.
PULSE COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
Pulse techniques are widely used in radar, satellite communication and
telephone where available channel bandwidth has to be traded for noise
reduction. In such Multiplex systems, the rate, of sampling pulses, should
exceed 2 M. where M. is the modulating frequency. In a typical case of a
value of sampling rate of 8000 per a sample of the analogue input signal, is
taken every 125 s, the pulse duration may be a suitable synchronizing pulse
is needed to provide unison between the sending the channel distributors.
Also sufficient time interval (guard time) is to be provided for transient of a
pulse wave to decay and for the associated gates to open and close. An
circuit can be used to separate a long synchronized pulse or a Schmitt
trigger can loyed if the synchronizing pulse is marked by its amplitude.
A schematic diagram, of a time division multiplex system, is shown
above.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
Block diagrams for generation and decoding of T.D.M. signals are as
shown in the diagram.
Clock generator generates the clock pulses which are fed to the
counter 1 and 2 synchronously. Clock freq. Can be varied by clock frequency
adj. Potentiometer, and its frequency can be observed by blinking of Clk
LED.
Counter 1 and counter 2 is two bit BCD counter. Count value A1 – A0
selects one of the input signal Do to D3 and transmits it to the output
terminal Y. As clock pulse advances the count value by one, successive dates
are transmitted, at the output from D0 to D3 on receipt of next clock pulse.
 Similarly count value B1-B0 decodes the data at the X input to one of
the output Y0 to Y3 and dates are decoded at the successive output Y0 to
Y3 on receipt of next clock pulse.
It should be observed that as the counters are synchronized by the same
clock pulses, data’s transmitted are decoded and available on the same
channel.

PROCEDURE-:-
 Connect the required supply and switch on the unit see that the supply
LED glows.
 With jumper links, select any data from 0000 to 1111 for D0 to D3.
 Connect the output terminal Y to the logic indicator.
 Select low frequency for the clock oscillator by clock frequency
adjust potentiometer.
 Clock frequency can be observed by blinking of Clk LED.
 Observe the output.
 You will observe that output selects the data in sequence from D0
to D3 at the rate of clock frequency which demonstrates the principal
of T.D.M.
Repeat the above procedures for different clock freq. And so also for
different input data.
 Experiment No. 10
Aim: - To study PA system.

Apparatus: PA system, CRO and multimeter.

Block Diagram:

Voltage Process Driver Power

Mixer Amplifier Circuits Amplifier Amplifier

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of a PA system

Theory: -

A public address system (PA system) is an electronic system

comprising microphones, amplifiers, loudspeakers, and related equipment. It
increases the apparent volume (loudness) of a human voice, musical
instrument, or other acoustic sound source or recorded sound or music. PA
systems are used in any public venue that requires that an announcer,
performer, etc. be sufficiently audible at a distance or over a large area.
Typical applications include sports stadiums, public transportation vehicles
and facilities, and live or recorded music venues and events. A PA system
may include multiple microphones or other sound sources, a mixing console to
combine and modify multiple sources, and multiple amplifiers and
loudspeakers for louder volume or wider distribution.

Simple PA systems are often used in small venues such as school auditoriums,
churches, and small bars. PA systems with many speakers are widely used to
make announcements in public, institutional and commercial buildings and
locations—such as schools, stadiums, and passenger vessels and
aircraft. Intercom systems, installed in many buildings, have both speakers
throughout a building, and microphones in many rooms so occupants can
respond to announcements.

Procedure: -
1. Connect the supply and switch on System.
2. Apply the input signals to mixer.
3. Observe/Measure the signal wave parameters at different test points
of different sections.
4. Repeat step 3 for different sections.

Conclusion: - The construction, working and Applications of PA system are

stidied.
4. Quiz on the subject:
1) What is standard IF value for AM receiver & FM receiver?

2) In a receiver which stage rectifies the IF signal?

3) From which component the three point tracking is achieved?

4) Define double spotting ,image frequency ,sensitivity , selectivity & fiedility .

5) Define carrier signal, modulating signal & modulated signal.

6) How many side bands exists in AM&FM?

7) Define frequency spectrum in AM.

8) What is the use of Bessel’s function?

9) What is the disadvantage of FM over AM?

10) What are the different types of detectors in AM & FM?

11) What are the different forms of AM?

12) What is AGC? What are it’s types? State use of it ?

13) What is band spreading?

15) What is ganged tuning?

16) Which stage of AM & FM receiver determines the gain?

17) Define bandwidth. State the B.W. of AM & FM signal.

18) Define balanced modulator.

19) What are the o/p components of BM.?

20) What are the different types of BM?

21) ) What is SSB ? What are it’s types?

22) State the different AM & FM generation methods?

23) What is two & three point tracking?

24) What is IF of audio & video signal in TV?

24) What is aspect ratio?

25) What is PAL?

26) What is channel BW of TV signal?

27) What is interlaced scanning?

28) State the line frequency of TV system in India?

29) How many lines exist in one field in TV?

30) What modulation techniques are used for audio & video signal in TV?

31) What antenna is used for TV reception?

32) What is the use of pattern generator?

33) What is the voltage given to deflection coil?

34) Explain the role of horizontal & vertical blanking pulses?

35) The service range of TV transmitter is controlled by which parameter?

36) What is ghost image?

37) Which TV broadcasting system is used in India?

38) If the width of picture tube is 20 inch, what is it’s size?

39) Which type of focusing is used in TV receiver?

40) How many frames are transmitted per second in TV system?

41) What are the different types of picture tube distortions?

42) List out the TV receiver antennas.

43) What are the different types of camera tubes & picture tube?

44) What is persistence of vision?

45) What is ion trap?

46) What is the role of acquadag coating?

47) What are CCIR standards for TV.?

48) What are the three primary colours used in TV?

49) What is the role of colour killer?

50) What is the voltage generated by EHT?
5. Conduction of Viva-Voce Examinations:
Teacher should conduct oral exams of the students with full preparation. Normally, the
objective questions with guess are to be avoided. To make it meaningful, the questions
should be such that depth of the students in the subject is tested. Oral examinations are to
be conducted in co-cordial environment amongst the teachers taking the examination.
Teachers taking such examinations should not have ill thoughts about each other and
courtesies should be offered to each other in case of difference of opinion, which should be
critically suppressed in front of the students.

6. Evaluation and marking system:

Basic honesty in the evaluation and marking system is absolutely essential and in the
process, impartial nature of the evaluator is required in the examination system. It is a
wrong approach or concept to award the students by way of easy marking to get cheap
popularity among the students, which they do not deserve. It is a primary responsibility of
the teacher that right students who are really putting up lot of hard work with right kind of
intelligence are correctly awarded.

The marking patterns should be justifiable to the students without any ambiguity and
teacher should see that students are faced with just circumstances.