Automatic Street Light That Is Powered Through Speed Breaker

CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

As the availability of conventional energy declines, there is need to find

alternate energy sources. All most all the state electricity departments in our country,
they are unable to supply the power according to the demand. The power produced by
these companies is not even sufficient for domestic utilities, in such critical situation it
is very difficult to divert the energy for other public needs. There by an alternative
source must be discovered, many people proposes for solar energy, but it is going to
be a costliest affair, moreover availability of solar energy is poor particularly in rainy
& winter seasons, as a result it is not dependable. Hence an alternative cheapest
method must be determined for few applications, consequently this project work has
been taken up, which is aimed to generate electricity from speed breaker mechanism.

Out of the many alternative energy resources, this technology described in

this project report is the ultimate source of all known forms of energy. It is clear, safe,
and free, does not pollute the environment and thus will be an extremely viable
alternative in the days to come. As our road traffic is increasing day by day, &
vehicles are running one after another continually at high ways as well as in the cities,
the speed breaker mechanism generates nonstop energy, which can be stored &
utilized to energize the street lights. Here the concept is to convert the mechanical
energy in to electric energy.

To prototype module is constructed with low power rating electrical devices,

this is aimed to prove the concept practically. The entire system obtains energy from
the battery; additional power source is not required. To charge the battery, the
mechanism must be activated continuously. To activate the mechanism human efforts
are required, because it is a prototype module & it can not be used for real
applications, there fore running vehicles over this mechanism is not possible. So for
demo purpose, the battery can be charged through mains.

The energy produced by this system is almost infinite potential and free
availability, represents a non-polluting and endless energy source which can be
developed to meet the energy needs to some extent. To estimate the energy potential

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at particular place, where this kind of speed breaker mechanism is to be installed,

detailed information about the traffic density must be collected properly, if non stop
traffic flow is expected, there this system can be used for efficient results. Utility of
energy is also important; it should not be wasted because it is precious. Therefore the
produced energy can be utilized properly at that particular point by energizing a
suitable street light arranged near the speed breaker.

In general most of the street lights are designed to operate at 230 V ac; this
is old technology, now the trend is changed. These lights are replaced with high glow
LED‟s, a group of these lights can produce the same light intensity those are produced
by the old lamps. Moreover the current consumption is very less when compared with
old lamps. The other advantage is that these LED‟s operates at very low voltage.
Therefore the street light used in this project work is designed with these cool high
glow LED‟s. Depending up on the lamp doom size, number of LED‟s arranged in a
group may vary, as it is a prototype module, here 20 to 30 LED‟s are used. To
simulate the lamp post, one small flexible table lamp pole is used & it is fixed over a
wooden plank.

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CHAPTER – 2

DESCRIPTION AS PER THE BLOCK & CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

The description as per the block & circuit diagrams shown in the next chapter
is explained in section wise, the following is the description.

Speed breaker mechanism

The mechanical structure that contains four legs system is considered as

motion converter, the mechanical motion created by the vehicle is converted into the
electrical energy, there by it is called as motion converter. In general any motion
converter that generates electricity by applying some force will be constructed by
implementing electro-mechanical techniques. In this regard here a simple spring
loaded type mechanism is designed, whenever some force is applied manually to its
surface, the mechanism will be pulled down by which the chain drive system rotates
the motor shaft though its pinion.

It works on the principle of simple physics i.e. in practical it works on the

principle that when a moving vehicle passes through this set up ,the kinetic energy of
vehicle will cause roller to rotate which will further rotate transmission shaft and
hence the generator armature (i.e. acting as prime mover to run generator).
The electrical device used to generate electricity is a simple DC motor; this motor
shaft is coupled with the moving mechanism. A small pinion with fewer teeth is
synchronized with the chain, when the mechanism is pulled down, this motor rotates
in clock wise, similarly when the mechanism is released, duo to its spring action it
moves to its home position. In this condition, the motor rotates in anti-clock wise.
There by the motor rotates in both directions, is that when the vehicle moves over the
inclined plates, the motor rotates in both directions & generates energy in the form of
two peak levels.

The mechanical structure is constructed with square type of steel pipes, the
speed breaker mechanism is constructed with inclined plates, when the plates come
down, and this in turn rotates a geared shaft loaded with recoil springs. The output of

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this shaft is coupled to a dynamo to convert kinetic energy into electricity. This the
basic principle involved in it.

The advantage of selecting reduction gear mechanism motor is, though the
external shaft rotates at low speed & depending up on the gear ratio, the internal shaft
will be rotated at high speed. This is essential here; otherwise if the shaft speed is low,
the armature may not produce any energy. Rotary motion can be transferred from one
shaft to another by a pair of rolling gears. Depending up on the ratio of final shaft
speed number gears are arranged in group & are called as gear trains, these gear trains
are mechanisms which are widely used either to increase or to decrease the final shaft
speed. When the speed is increased torque will be reduced, where as if the speed is
decreased torque will be increased, this is the general phenomena for normal DC
motor. In general these teethed gear wheels are coupled in between two parallel
shafts. When two gears are in mesh, the larger gear wheel is often called as crown
wheel and the smaller one is called as pinion.

The disc/wheel coupled with simple chain can be called as driven gear. For
example, if the driven wheel is 50 times bigger then the driving gear (pinion), then
driving gear must made 50 revolutions to rotate the wheel for one revolution. This
type of gear train is referred to as a speed reducer. To avoid wheel slipping, here chain
driving system is implemented. Chain drives operate with a constant ratio, due to the
positive interaction between the chain and pinion, there is no slipping. The driving
sprocket (a tooth on the rim of a wheel) and the driven sprocket each have a number
of teeth designed to match the size and pitch of the chain. Lubrication is an important
factor in chain drive.

Source of voltage

A voltage source is a device that produces electricity by converting some

other form of energy in to electrical energy. By its action the voltage source merely
creates a potential difference or electromotive force between two terminals by
building up opposite charges on these terminals. Here also the motor used as dynamo
generates some potential when its shaft is rotated. As this motor generates very few
volts with little current, it can not drive heavy loads. But in our trail run we found that
it is producing nearly 30 milliamps current at 6V. This energy is sufficient to drive

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three LED‟s, but here the concept is to charge the battery. Therefore to find out
weather this motor is generating energy or not, one LED is connected across the
source, & the remaining energy is used to charge the battery. When the motor shaft is
rotated through the mechanism, this LED glows indicates that the charging is
continued.

The form of energy that is converted in to electrical energy here is called

magnetic energy. One of the important sources of electrical power is the
electromagnetic sources called generators. Generators are nothing but rotating
machines which convert mechanical energy in to electrical energy with the help of
magnetism. A conductor or set of conductors is rotated in a magnetic field and
voltages are developed in the rotating conductor due to magnetic induction.

Electric motor that generates electrical energy

An electrical motor is a machine that converts electrical energy in to

mechanical energy of rotation. It is the reverse of a generator which converts
mechanical energy in to electrical energy. Here the same principle is implemented,
there by the motor is converted as generator.

Electrical motors operate on the basis of Faraday‟s laws of electro-magnetic

induction that are applicable to generators. A conductor or loop of wire placed in a
magnet field is set in to motion when a current is passed through the conductor on the
loop. The direction of the motion, the direction of current and the direction of the
magnetic field are mutually at right angles to each other. To produce electricity, both
ac or dc motors can be used; here in this project work dc motor is used.

A DC motor consists of four main parts, i.e. armature, magnetic field,

commutator, & brushes. A commutator consists of two semi-cylindrical pieces of
conducting material separated by an insulating material. The brushes are made of soft
conducting material that can easily slide on the commutator surface. Each half of the
commutator rotates with the loop. Each brush presses against one segment of the
commutator. The brushes remain stationary while the commutator rotates. The
brushes press against opposite segments of the commutator and every time the voltage
reverses polarity, the brushes also switch from one segment to the other. This means

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that one brush always develops positive polarity and the other, negative polarity with
respective to each other. Although the developed across the brushes will be
fluctuating, it will always have the same polarity and is a DC fluctuating voltage. The
variation in the voltage produced by a single rotating loop is called a ripple which
makes the output unstable.

The armature is set in to rotation when a dc voltage from external source is

applied across the brushes. The turning force produced in a motor is called torque and
depends mainly on the strength of the magnetic field.

Battery & its charging circuit

The battery used in the project work is rated for 4.5AH at 6V; this is a
maintenance free type rechargeable battery generally called as secondary cell. A
battery is rated in terms of the discharge current, it can supply continuously for a
specified interval of time. The output voltage should remain constant at a minimum
level of rating over the entire period of time. The current rating depends up on the size
and surface area of the electrodes. Current rating varies in the case of a lead-acid
battery; in general a battery cell with a high ampere-hour capacity is called as heavy
duty battery.

As described above, the dc motor used in the system generates electricity in

the form of ripple when its shaft is rotated. The ripple produced by the motor can not
be used as it is for charging the battery, first it should be converted in to pure dc. Here
a bridge rectifier circuit is constructed with four diodes & it is filtered using a
capacitor. Now the dc voltage produced by the circuit is not stable, it varies according
to the rotor speed, if the motor shaft is rotated at high speed more voltage will be
developed, similarly if the speed is less, low voltage will be produced. The battery can
not be charged at low voltages, always the charging voltage must be slightly more
then the battery terminal voltage. At the same time the battery should not charge with
high voltage. The life of the battery will decrease when it is charged with high-voltage
& high-current. Any how the current produced here is very less; it is not harmful to
the battery, where as for the voltage it must be regulated. Therefore with the help of a
voltage regulator device, the voltage is regulated to 8V, further it is reduced by
another 0.7V by connecting a diode in series with the load.

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LDR

Measurement of light intensity is an important management for many

applications. Generally the light intensity is measured in Lux or Lumens, in some
places it is measured in Foot candles also, Lux is the popularly known unit, and
therefore the light measuring instrument can be called as “LUX METER”. Here the
purpose is not to measure & display the light intensity, by sensing the natural light
weather it is dark or bright, the street light must be controlled accordingly. For this
purpose LDR (Light Dependant Resistor) is chosen.

There are many techniques existed in the world for measuring the light
intensity, these differs depending up on the availability of light sensors, the main
function of the light sensor is to measure the brightness of light. The LDR used in this
project work is aimed to sense the natural light. This is very sensitive device, which
converts the light energy into variable resistance, and the resistance of this LDR will
vary according to the light intensity. As the light intensity increases, resistance
decreases (inversely proportional). The amount of light falling on the surface of the
light sensing device is to be converted in to a proportionate potential, which is used to
trigger the circuit. The trigger circuit is designed with timer chip & it is configured in
monostable mode of operation.

Light dependent cadmium sulphide resistors were a cost effective, versatile,

wide linearity & available in different sizes for different applications. LDR's range in
resistance varies from approximately 50 ohms in bright light to a maximum of 2
mega-ohms in total darkness. In this application, the LDR's were placed in series to
provide an average measurement of light intensity over a given area and to increase
the sensitivity of the sensors over the range of light intensity. For this application the
resistance in the LDR's varied from 400 ohms to 5 kilo-ohms in the reflectance sensor
and from 3 kilo-ohms to 8 kilo-ohms in the intensity sensor.

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Using this LDR a potential divider network is designed, & this net work is
wired with 555 timer chip. The input of this network is a fixed voltage, but its output
is a voltage proportional to intensity of light. This output voltage is fed to trigger pin
of timer IC & based on the voltage levels produced by the network according to the
light intensity, the timer chip configured in monostable mode of operation triggers at
1/3 Vcc & 2/3 Vcc. The description is as followed.

Description of timer chip

The required trigger pulses for switching the street light are generated through
555 Timer IC, which is configured in monostable mode of operation. In this mode of
operation the required voltage levels are varied according to the natural light intensity.
The LDR used in this project work treated as light sensing device and it should be
exposed to the natural light. The resistance variation according to the light will be in
wide range, varies from ohms to mega ohms, when the LDR exposed to the bright
light the resistance decreases by less than 100 ohms. Similarly the dark resistance of
the LDR will be more than 1 mega ohm. When the LDR is exposed to the minimum
light that rises in the morning, triggers the timer IC, and final output of the circuit will
be zero, this in turn de-energizes the light though power mosfet. The timer IC
consists of two` comparators, which are enabled at 1/3 VCC & 2/3 VCC. Thus as long
as the light does not fall on the LDR; the output of the switching transistor that drives
the mosfet will be in zero. If the LDR is exposed to the minimum light, the resistance
of the LDR will be less than 1K-ohms, during the dark the resistance will be more
than 100K ohms. This in turn changes the thresh hold level of the timer and out put is
made high. This will enable the mosfet-driving transistor and in turn energizes the
street light that is designed with high-glow LED‟s. In this configuration the timer chip
is playing active roll.
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The 555 is an integrated circuit implementing a variety of timer and multi-

vibrator applications. The IC was designed and invented by Hans R. Camenzind. It
was designed in 1970 and introduced in 1971 by Signatics (later acquired by Philips).
The original name was the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine".
The 555 gets its name from the three 5-kOhm resistors used in typical early
implementations. It is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good
stability.

The 555 timer is one of the most popular and versatile integrated circuits ever
produced. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors on a silicon chip
installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8). The 556 is a 14-pin DIP that
combines two 555s on a single chip. The 558 is a 16-pin DIP that combines four
slightly modified 555s on a single chip.

The 555 has three operating modes:

 Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications

include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches,
Frequency Divider, Capacitance Measurement, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) etc
 Astable - Free Running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include
LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.
 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin
is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches,
etc.

The connection of the pins is as follows:

Pin. Name Purpose
1 GND Ground, low level (0V)
2 TR A short pulse high → low on the trigger starts the timer
3 Q During a timing interval, the output stays at +VCC
A timing interval can be interrupted by applying a reset pulse to low
4 R
(0V)
5 CV Control voltage allows access to the internal voltage divider (2/3 VCC)

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6 THR The threshold at which the interval ends (it ends if U.thr → 2/3 VCC)
Connected to a capacitor whose discharge time will influence the timing
7 DIS
interval
V+,
8 The positive supply voltage which must be between 3 and 15 V
VCC

The device either it is configured in astable or monostable, the basic function

of triggering at two different levels are common, only the difference is that in
monostable mode of operation the circuit triggers due to the external pulses, where as
in the astable mode of operation, the capacitor charges and discharges continuously,
there by the potential applied to the trigger pin will be changed automatically. In the
A 555 set in the Astable mode is basically an oscillator. It changes states by itself
according to the support components connected externally. On (high) then off (low)
then on then off... in the schematic diagram given below, an LED is connected at the
output, which turns on turn off at every interval of one second. According to that the
timing components are selected, based on the formulas given below frequency can be
adjusted to the required level. The following is the circuit diagram.

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Description of Circuit:

This circuit requires very few external components. The main three are R1, R2
and C1. C2 is merely there to prevent instability problems. R3 limits current to the
LED. A 9V battery is used as power source, but for the same purpose 5V supply also
can be used.

The time high (ON) and time low (OFF) are determined by R1, R2 and C1.
Let's call the time high Th and the time low Tl. The total time is Tt

The formula to solve Th is:

Th = 0.693 X C1 X (R1 + R2)

In the circuit above R1 is 1 Ohm, R2 is 147,000 Ohms (147K) and the Capacitor is
.00001 Farads (10 microfarads).

Th = .693 X .00001 X (1 + 147,000)

Th = .693 X .00001 X 147001
Th = 1.014 Seconds

Now to figure out the Time low, we use the same formula ignoring R1.

Tl = 0.693 X C1 X R2
Tl = .693 X .00001 X 147,000
Tl = 1.014 seconds

All that is left to figure out is Time Total. Just add the Tl and Th.

Tt = Th + Tl
Tt = 2.03 seconds

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If we want to convert this to frequency instead of time:

F = 1/Tt
F = .5 Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second.

Using a one ohm resistor for R1 gives nearly the same time on as off. The
ratio of time ON to total time is called Duty Cycle. The example circuit we made has
a duty cycle of 1:2 or 50% (50% on and 50% off)

To make a circuit that provides with a longer time on and shorter time off, the
following is the example:

C1 = 10 microfarad (.00001 Farad)

R1 = 147K
R2 = 47K

Th = .693 X .00001 X 194,000

Th = 1.34 seconds.
Tl = .693 X .00001 X 47,000
Tl = .33 seconds

This produces a circuit with the LED on for 1.34 seconds and off .33 seconds.
Its duty cycle is now 3:4 or 75%. The following is the simple formula to figure out
duty cycle.

Percentage of Duty Cycle = (Th divided by Tt) X 100

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CHAPTER – 3

POWER SOURCE DESCRIPTION

As it is an automated street light & the light will be energized during dark
automatically, the power consumption will be more in dark. As it is a demo module
one low power street light is designed with high glow LED‟s, this light is designed
with 25 LED‟s. As each light consumes 10 milliamps current all the LED‟s together
consumes nearly 250 milliamps, the remaining circuit may consumes another 50
milliamps. Hence total power consumption of the circuit will be 300 milliamps
approximately. The main source for the system is battery, for this purpose 6V/4.5AH
is used, the following is the description.

BATTERY

This device can be called as chemical voltage source; a chemical voltage

source is one of the most important sources of electrical energy. It is a self contained
voltage source and does not need any out side energy. When the battery is discharged
it is supposed to be charged with suitable power source either from solar panel or
from mains supply. As the aim is to charge the battery through speed breaker
mechanism, both these sources are regretted. The electrical energy supplied by a
chemical source of voltage is produced by chemical action within the source itself.
Chemical voltage sources normally exist in the form of batteries and cells of various
types. These batteries are extensively used for mobile applications.

The battery used here is a maintenance free battery built in with a group of
cells combined together to increase the voltage and current to the required level. A
cell or battery is classified as a „primary‟ or „secondary‟ depending up on the manner
in which the chemical energy is converted in to electrical energy. The primary cell
cannot be re-charged, it is a type use and through concept battery. A secondary cell
must be charged with electrical energy first to enable it to convert the chemical energy
into electrical energy. Because of its action of storing energy supplied to it, a battery
consisting of secondary cells is often called a storage battery. Here in this project
work this kind of re-chargeable storage battery is used. As the load operates at 6V
DC, & the control circuit is also utilizes same supply, here 6V DC lead acid re-

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chargeable battery is used and it is accommodated near the speed breaker mechanism.
As the control circuit including street light consumes only 0.3Amps, long back-up
time can be achieved. To calculate the back up time, first we must calculate the over
all power consumption, as stated above it consumes 0.3 amps, let us assume it is the
consumption of continuous, therefore back-up time = battery rating / consumption, i.e.
4.5/0.3 = 15 hours approximately. In general the average power of the battery is
considered as 20% less then the rating. According to this equation back up time is
depends up on the power consumption & average power of the battery.

Batteries are maintenance free sealed lead acid rechargeable batteries. The
batteries are having excellent economy stability and superior output. Various
characteristics have been improved such as leak proof, overcharging and over
discharging. This compact & powerful sealed lead-acid battery with higher
performance can be used as a power source for portable instruments and also for
power backup use. Batteries are now being used in a wide range of applications.

Charging method

These Batteries are maintenance free. There is no need to add water. Battery
performance and service life are greatly affected by the charging method. There are
various different charging methods: constant voltage charging, constant current
charging, tapered current charging and some combination systems.

Batteries can be charged by any of those methods. However, constant voltage

charging combined with limited current is recommended for obtaining maximum
capacity and service life together with acceptable recharge times and economy.

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CHAPTER – 4

ADVANTAGES OF LED STREET LIGHTS

LED‟s are gaining traction as a great alternative to traditional lighting because

they are relatively environmentally friendly, don't consume much electricity and have
long life spans. Some of the world's biggest electronics firms are now advertising
LED‟s as the next big thing in lighting. By 2013, the LED market may spread in to
almost all lighting systems. In the past, LED lights had been seen in devices like
indicator lights in appliances & in large sports scoreboards. But now, many large
cities around the world -- Los Angeles, San Francisco, Toronto, China, to name a few
-- are now switching to LED streetlights. Portugal is in the midst of a massive
conversion program that is expected to encompass all of its streetlights.

Some cities have harnessed LED lights to create clever effects, such as
increasing in brightness when a pedestrian walks by. Chief among the advantages of
LED‟s is that they have extremely long lives -- they don't have filaments that can
quickly burn out -- and they don't contain toxic chemicals like mercury, unlike
traditional high-pressure sodium lamps or mercury-vapor lamps. An LED light can
last 100,000 hours. These lights also have reduced maintenance costs because of their
long lives, and they give off less heat than other bulbs. Because they last so long,
LED‟s are suitable for places where replacing light bulbs is expensive, inconvenient
or otherwise difficult.

LED‟s are highly energy efficient. While compact fluorescent lamps (CFL‟s)
recently have been touted as the standard in green lighting, LED‟s actually have
doubled their energy efficiency. They use 15 percent of the energy of an incandescent
bulb while generating more light per watt. LED‟s produce 80 lumens per watt;
traditional streetlights can only muster 58 lumens per watt.

LED‟s are increasingly becoming a popular alternative of all other lights

because of their energy efficiency and long lifespan; LED streetlights are advocated
as a means for reducing carbon emissions. In addition, they don‟t need warm up,
instant switching, & they don‟t produce ultraviolet light. According to one estimate,
converting all American light fixtures to LED‟s would halve the amount of energy

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used for lighting in the country. By integrating solar panels, the lights can become
self-sufficient and even send excess energy back to the grid, with the adoption of so-
called "smart" energy grids.

One important advantage is that because they produce "directional" light (light
emitted in one direction), rather than a diffused glow -- they can be used to direct light
on specific areas. Unlike compact fluorescent lamps, they can be dimmed, allowing
for more flexibility in controlling light levels. Some cities have harnessed LED lights
to create clever effects, such as increasing in brightness when a pedestrian walks by or
integrating systems that alert officials when a particular light needs maintenance.
They can also be used to blink rapidly to signal to emergency responders where they
are needed.

The initial cost of LED lighting is high, and consequently, it can take several
years for the cost difference to be made up through cheaper energy bills. For Ex: an
LED streetlight may costs around Rs: 10,000, while standard lights cost Rs: 2,500
each. Similarly, a 60-watt fluorescent bulb for a home lamp can be purchased for Rs:
50, with a similar compact fluorescent bulb costing around Rs; 100/-. But an LED
bulb produced by Phillips and designed for home use, costs around Rs: 1,500. The
high cost derives in part from the material used: LED‟s are often made on sapphire or
other expensive substances.

Some users have been disappointed in the brightness of LED‟s. But new
technological developments have LED‟s closer to producing classic bright white light.
Eventually, LED‟s are expected to be able to produce all colors of the spectrum, but
for now, they are generally limited to red, yellow, green (hence their use in traffic
lights), blue and a white that bears a slight blue tint.

Finally, some experts think that though many cities are interested in LED
streetlights, the greatest barrier to widespread adoption of the technology may simply
be education. Many people are unaware of the many uses of solid-state lighting, as
LED‟s are classified, and that high initial costs can lead to long-term savings. But
with companies like Phillips investing millions in research and development and
clamoring for valuable municipal contracts, LED streetlights certainly have a bright
future.

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The First Purely White LED Produced in Korea

It is claimed from Korea Researchers that the world‟s first purely white LED
(light-emitting diode) has been produced in Korea. Soo-Young Park, a professor of
organic materials for photonics at the Department of Materials Science and
Engineering at Seoul National University in Korea, led the group, which includes
researchers from the University of Valencia in Spain. LED‟s are much more energy-
efficient than incandescent or compact fluorescent lighting (CFL), but the quality of
light they can give a room is up for debate.

Because LED‟s do not naturally produce white light, getting them to look like
they do adds to their production cost, making them much more expensive than your
average incandescent or CFL. Many companies have been trying to come up with
different LED recipes and components to produce a nice white light, while keeping
the consumer cost down. Park and his group claim to have engineered a molecule
with one orange and one blue light-emitting material that produces a white light in the
visible light spectrum when put together. In other words, they say they‟ve invented a
white-light-emitting diode.

Repeated laboratory tests apparently showed that the new form of LED
molecule is efficient, color stable, and able to be reproduced again and again, making
it a legitimate candidate for use in LED lighting. A detailed explanation of the group‟s

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molecular work can be found in the current issue of Journal of the American
Chemical Society.

According to Mr. Park and his group in their paper, an ideal material for a
white-light source should be cost-effective, stable, and robust, emit over the whole
visible spectrum, not suffer from self-absorption, and its pure color should be easily
reproducible. With this goal in mind, we have successfully synthesized and
characterized.

White LED

LED technology is driving the future of lighting with the developments made
in the efficacy of white LED‟s in the past few years, as white light is the main driver
for general illumination, there is a particularly strong focus on improving the
efficiency of white LED‟s, which currently outperform tungsten halogen lamps.
Manufacturing methods have allowed for significant progress to be made in
increasing the efficiency of LED‟s. Previously, the only way to produce white LED
light was by the additive colour mixing of the three basic colors using so-called
“multi-LED”, i.e., three semiconductor chips (red, green and blue LED‟s) had to be
combined. Today it is possible to produce white LED light with a single chip.

Few tips

1. LED‟s are encapsulated in plastic or resin cases so that they can withstand
mechanical shocks.
2. Unlike bulbs, LED‟s do not generate heat and power loss through heating is
practically nil.
3. LED‟s require very low current and voltage typically 20 mill ampere current and
1.8 volts. So these are ideal in battery operated circuits.

What is inside an LED?

Inside the casing of an LED, there are two terminal posts connected by a small
chip made of Gallium compound. This material exhibits the property of photon
emission when the p-n junction is forward biased. Different colors are produced by
doping the base material with other substances.

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Inside the Light Emitting Diode

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CHAPTER – 5

GENERATING ELECTRICITY THROUGH SPEED BUMPS

An amateur innovator in Guwahati has developed a simple contraption that

can generate power when a vehicle passes over a speed breaker. Kanak Gogoi, a small
time businessman, has developed a mechanism to generate power by converting the
potential energy generated by a vehicle going up on a speed breaker into kinetic
energy. The innovation has caught the eye of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT),
Guwahati, which will fund a pilot project to generate electricity from speed-breakers.

The idea is basic physics.

Gogoi has welded five-meter-long metal plates into the speed-breaker instead
of the conventional bitumen-and-stone-chip rumble strip. The plates are movable and
inclined with the help of a spring-loaded hydraulic system. The fulcrum-attached
plates are pushed down when a vehicle moves over them and bounce back to original
position as it passes.

“When the vehicle moves over the inclined plates, it gains height resulting in
increase in potential energy, which is wasted in a conventional rumble strip,” Gogoi
says. “When the plates come down, they crank a lever fitted to a ratchet-wheel type

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mechanism. This in turn rotates a geared shaft loaded with recoil springs. The output
of this shaft is coupled to a dynamo to convert kinetic energy into electricity,” he
explains.

IIT Guwahati has evaluated the machine and recommended it to the Assam
ministry of power for large scale funding. A K Das, a professor at iit‟s design
department says it is a „very viable proposition‟ to harness thousands of mega watts of
electricity untapped across the country every day.

“A vehicle weighing 1,000 kg going up a height of 10 cm on such a rumble

strip produces approximately 0.98 kilowatt power. So one such speed-breaker on a
busy highway, where about 100 vehicles pass every minute, about one kilo watt of
electricity can be produced every single minute. The figure will be huge at the end of
the day,” he said. The Assam power ministry is expected to back the iit pilot project.
Das says a storage module like an inverter will have to be fitted to each such rumble
strip to store this electricity. The cost of electricity generation and storage per mega
watt from speed-breakers will be nearly Rs 1 crore as opposed to about Rs 8 crore in
thermal or hydro power stations.

How Do these Speed Bumps/Ramps work?

Simplicity is the solution to all the problems. The designer of the speed bumps
might have been influenced by that saying, as the construction of these speed bumps
can't get much simpler.

The mechanism consists of a ramp which has a series of silver colored panels.
These panels are placed inside a pad which is almost flush to the road. The panels are
so arranged that they can be compressed and then spring back to the same position
after the vehicle has passed over. When a steady stream of traffic passes over the
speed bump, the panel moves in an up and down motion which moves a mechanical
system fixed under the road. The mechanical system is connected to a motor which
moves due to the oscillatory motion and is thus used to generate energy. It has been
proved that if there is a steady stream of traffic moving over the ramp then it can
produce around 10-36 KW of power. Also, only 4 ramps are needed to light a road up
to a distance of one mile. If the amount of traffic is high, 10 ramps can generate

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power equal to that produced by a wind turbine. These ramps have already been put to
use in London and Japan, and at least a dozen countries are already planning to
introduce them in the near future.

Speed bumps have long been the bane of motorists' lives, but these will
capture the kinetic energy of vehicles. Peter Hughes from London, the designer
behind the idea, said: "They are speed bumps, but they are not like conventional speed
bumps. They don't damage your car or waste petrol when you drive over them - and
they have the added advantage that they produce energy free of charge." An engineer
who formerly advised the United Nations on renewable energy sources, Hughes
added: "If it the energy wasn't harnessed by the speed bumps, it would go to waste."

The construction cost of ramps varies depending on size - consist of a series of

panels set in a pad virtually flush to the road. As the traffic passes over it, the panels
go up and down, setting a cog in motion under the road. This then turns a motor,
which produces mechanical energy. A steady stream of traffic passing over the bump
can generate 10-36kW of power.

"With a steady flow of traffic, four of the ramps used as speed bumps would
be enough to power all the street lights, traffic lights and road signs for a mile-long
stretch of street. The ramp is silent, comfortable and safe for vehicles. It is not only
green energy; it is free energy, once you have paid for the capital cost of the
equipment," said Hughes. "The full potential of this is absolutely enormous." Hughes
claims that 10 ramps could generate the same power as one wind turbine. The
"electro-kinetic road ramp" system can either be raised to act as a speed bump or laid
flat, so that drivers don't realize they are passing over it.

Speed humps were introduced in the UK in 1981. There are an estimated

30,000 in London and at least that number in the rest of the country. Conventional
speed bumps cost about £2,000 each.

A nightclub opened in Rotterdam in the Netherlands last year that is run partly
on energy generated by people dancing. Last year, it was also reported that
pedestrians' footsteps could be used to power lighting at shopping centers.

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The Motioned Powered Speed Bump is a novel method of generating energy

from the weight and movement of cars over them. The speed bumps look more like a
flat metal plate than a traditional concrete speed bump. The metal bumps have long
think pedals running across the top which are pressed down as a car moves over the
speed bump. The movement of these pedals turns gears inside the bump which
generates around 2,000W of electricity per car!

The following is the picture shows motion power

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CHAPTER – 6

DESCRIPTION ABOUT LDR

A photo resistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is sensitive to

light. When light falls upon it then the resistance changes. Values of the resistance of
the LDR may change over many orders of magnitude the value of the resistance
falling as the level of light increases.

It is not uncommon for the values of resistance of an LDR or photo resistor to

be several mega-ohms in darkness and then to fall to a few hundred ohms in bright
light. With such a wide variation in resistance, LDR‟s are easy to use and there are
many different circuits are available.

LDR‟s are made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their
light sensitive properties. Many materials can be used, but one popular material for
these photo resistors is cadmium sulphide (Cds). Light dependent resistors or LDR‟s
are often used in circuits where it is necessary to detect the presence or the level of
light. They can be described by a variety of names from light dependent resistor,
LDR, photo resistor, or even photo cell or photo conductor.

Although other devices such as photodiodes or phototransistor can also be

used, LDR‟s are a particularly convenient electronics component to use. They provide
large change in resistance for changes in light level. In view of their low cost, ease of
manufacture, and ease of use LDR‟s have been used in a variety of different
applications. At one time LDR‟s were used in photographic light meters, and even

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now they are still used in a variety of applications where it is necessary to detect light
levels. The device is used in control circuits to turn lights on and in photographic
exposure meters.

LDR Circuit Symbol

How an LDR works?

It is relatively easy to understand the basics of how an LDR works without

delving into complicated explanations. It is first necessary to understand that an
electrical current consists of the movement of electrons within a material. Good
conductors have a large number of free electrons that can drift in a given direction
under the action of a potential difference. Insulators with a high resistance have very
few free electrons, and therefore it is hard to made them move and hence a current to
flow.

An LDR or photo resistor is made any semiconductor (such as Cadmium

sulphide material with a high resistance. It has a high resistance because there are
very few electrons that are free and able to move – the vast majority of the electrons
are locked in to the crystal lattice and unable to move. Therefore in this stage there is
a high LDR resistance.

When light falls on the semiconductor, the semiconductor lattice absorbs the
light photons and some of their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives some
of them sufficient energy to break free from the crystal lattice so that they can then
conduct electricity, this results in a lowering of the resistance of the semiconductor
and hence the overall LDR resistance. The resistance of the LDR increases as the
intensity of the light falling on it increases incident photons drive electrons from the
valence band into the conduction band.

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Below figure shows the structure of a Light Dependent Resistor that contains
cadmium sulphide track and an atom to illustrate electrons in the valence and
conduction bands.

The process is progressive, and as more light shines on the LDR

semiconductor, so more electrons are released to conduct electricity and the resistance
falls further.

LDR Characteristics:

LDR‟s are very useful components that can be used for a variety of light
sensing applications. As the LDR resistance varies over such a wide range, they are
particularly useful, and there are many LDR circuits are available for different
applications.

The cadmium sulfide (CdS) or LDR, whose resistance is inversely dependent

on the amount of light falling on it, is known by many names including the photo
resistor, photo resistor, photoconductor, photoconductive cell, or simply the photocell.
A typical structure for a photo resistor uses an active semiconductor layer that is
deposited on an insulating substrate. The semiconductor is normally lightly doped to

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enable it to have the required level of conductivity. Contacts are then placed either
side of the exposed area.

The photo-resistor, CdS, or LDR finds many uses as a low cost photo sensitive
element and was used for many years in photographic light meters as well as in other
applications such as smoke, flame and burglar detectors, card readers and lighting
controls for street lamps. Providing design engineers with an economical CdS or LDR
with high quality performance, Token Electronics now offers commercial grade PGM
photo resistor. Designated the PGM Series, the photo resistors are available in 5mm,
12mm and 20mm sizes, the hermetical package offer high quality performance for
applications that require quick response and good characteristic of spectrum.

Features:

1. Quick Response
2. Reliable Performance
3. Epoxy or hermetical package
4. Good Characteristic of Spectrum

Applications:

1. Photo switch
2. Photoelectric Control
3. Auto Flash for Camera
4. Electronic Toys, Industrial Control

LDR‟s are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits. Normally the
resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when
they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.

A light dependent resistor is a small, round semiconductor. Light dependent

resistors are used to re-charge a light during different changes in the light, or they are
made to turn a light on during certain changes in lights. One of the most common uses
for light dependent resistors is in traffic lights. The light dependent resistor controls a
built in heater inside the traffic light, and causes it to recharge over night so that the

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light never dies. Other common places to find light dependent resistors are in: infrared
detectors, clocks and security alarms.

The main purpose of a light dependent resistor is to change the brightness of a

light in different weather conditions. This can easily be explained with the use of a
watch. Some watches start to glow in the dark so that it is possible to see the time
without having to press any buttons. It is the light dependent resistor that allows the
watch to know when it has gotten dark, and change the emissions level of the light at
that time. Traffic lights use this principle as well but their lights have to be brighter in
the day time.

Light dependent resistors have become very useful to the world. Without them
lights would have to be on all the time, or they would have to be manually adjusted. A
light dependent resistor saves money and time for any creation that needs a change in
light. Another feature of the light dependent resistor is that it can be programmed to
turn on with changes in movements. This is an extremely useful feature that many
security systems employ. Security would be harder without light dependent resistors.

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CHAPTER – 7

DESCRIPTION ABOUT POWER MOSFETS

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a device

used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. Julius Edgar Lilienfeld first
proposed the basic principle of the device in 1925. In MOSFET‟s, a voltage on the
oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting channel between the two other
contacts called source and drain. The channel can be of n-type or p-type and is
accordingly called an n-MOSFET or a p-MOSFET (also commonly n-MOS, p-MOS).
It is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the
bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common. The 'metal' in the
name is now often a misnomer (unsuitable name) because the previously metal gate
material is now often a layer of poly-silicon (polycrystalline silicon). Aluminum had
been the gate material until the mid 1970s, when poly-silicon became dominant, due
to its capability to form self-aligned gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity,
since it is difficult to increase the speed of operation of transistors without metal
gates.

IGFET is a related term meaning insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and is

almost synonymous with MOSFET, though it can refer to FETs with a gate insulator
that is not oxide. Another synonym is MISFET for metal–insulator–semiconductor
FET.

A Power MOSFET is a specific type of metal oxide semiconductor field-

effect transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large amounts of power. Compared to
the other power semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor, etc.), its main advantages
are high commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the
IGBT an isolated gate that makes it easy to drive.

It was made possible by the evolution of CMOS technology, developed for

manufacturing Integrated circuits in the late 1970s. The power MOSFET shares its
operating principle with its low-power counterpart, the lateral MOSFET.

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The power MOSFET is the most widely used low-voltage (i.e. less than 200
V) switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC-to-DC converters, and low
voltage motor controllers.

The Field Effect Transistor Family tree

The MOSFET is a type of field effect transistor that has a "Metal Oxide" gate
(usually silicon dioxide commonly known as glass), which is electrically insulated
from the main semiconductor N-channel or P-channel. This isolation of the
controlling gate makes the input resistance of the MOSFET extremely high in the
Mega-ohms region and almost infinite. As the gate terminal is isolated from the main
current carrying channel. “NO current flows into the gate” and like the JFET, the
MOSFET also acts like a voltage-controlled resistor. Also like the JFET, this very
high input resistance can easily accumulate large static charges resulting in the
MOSFET becoming easily damaged unless carefully handled or protected.

Field Effect Transistors can be used to replace normal Bipolar Junction

Transistors in electronic circuits and a simple comparison between FET's and
transistors stating both their advantages and their disadvantages is given below.

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Field Effect Transistor (FET) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

1 Low voltage gain High voltage gain
2 High current gain Low current gain
3 Very input impedance Low input impedance
4 High output impedance Low output impedance
5 Low noise generation Medium noise generation
6 Fast switching time Medium switching time
7 Easily damaged by static Robust
Some require an input to turn it
8 Requires zero input to turn it "OFF"
"OFF"
9 Voltage controlled device Current controlled device
10 Exhibits the properties of a Resistor
11 More expensive than bipolar Cheap
12 Difficult to bias Easy to bias

Basic structure of MOSFET

Several structures had been explored at the beginning of the 1980s, when the
first Power MOSFETs were introduced. However, most of them have been abandoned
(at least until recently) in favor of the Vertical Diffused MOS (VDMOS) structure
(also called Double-Diffused MOS or simply DMOS).

The cross section of a VDMOS (see figure 1) shows the "verticality" of the
device: It can be seen that the source electrode is placed over the drain, resulting in a
current mainly vertical when the transistor is in the on state. The "diffusion" in
VDMOS refers to the manufacturing process: the P wells (see figure below) are
obtained by a diffusion process (actually a double diffusion process to get the P and
N+ regions, hence the name double diffused).

Power MOSFETs have a different structure than the lateral MOSFET: as with
all power devices, their structure is vertical and not planar. In a planar structure, the
current and breakdown voltage ratings are both functions of the channel dimensions
(respectively width and length of the channel), resulting in inefficient use of the
"silicon estate". With a vertical structure, the voltage rating of the transistor is a

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function of the doping and thickness of the N epitaxial layer (see cross section), while
the current rating is a function of the channel width. This makes possible for the
transistor to sustain both high blocking voltage and high current within a compact
piece of silicon.

It is worth noting that power MOSFETs with lateral structure exists. They are
mainly used in high-end audio amplifiers. Their advantage is a better behavior in the
saturated region (corresponding to the linear region of a bipolar transistor) than the
vertical MOSFETs. Vertical MOSFETs are designed for switching applications, so
they are only used in ON or OFF states.

Cross-section of a VDMOS, showing an elementary cell.

Note: A cell is very small (some micrometers to some tens of micrometers wide), and
that a power MOSFET is composed of several thousand of them.

The gate of a JFET must be biased in such a way as to forward-bias the PN

junction but in a MOSFET device no such limitations applies so it is possible to bias
the gate in either polarity. This makes MOSFET's specially valuable as electronic
switches or to make logic gates because with no bias they are normally non-
conducting and the high gate resistance means that very little control current is
needed. Both the P-channel and the N-channel MOSFET is available in two basic
forms, the Enhancement type and the Depletion type.

Depletion-mode MOSFET

The Depletion-mode MOSFET, which is less common than the enhancement

types is normally switched "ON" without a gate bias voltage but requires a gate to

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source voltage (Vgs) to switch the device "OFF", It is similar to the JFET types. For
N-channel MOSFET's a "Positive" gate voltage widens the channel, increasing the
flow of the drain current and decreasing the drain current as the gate voltage goes
more negative. The opposite is also true for the P-channel types. The depletion mode
MOSFET is equivalent to a "Normally Closed" switch.

Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit Symbols

Depletion-mode MOSFET's are constructed similar to their JFET transistor

counterparts where the drain-source channel is inherently conductive with electrons
and holes already present within the N-type or P-type channel. This doping of the
channel produces a conducting path of low resistance between the drain and source
with zero gate bias.

Enhancement-mode MOSFET

The more common Enhancement-mode MOSFET is the reverse of the

depletion-mode type. Here the conducting channel is lightly doped or even un-doped
making it non-conductive. This results in the device being normally "OFF" when the
gate bias voltage is equal to zero.

A drain current will only flow when a gate voltage (Vgs) is applied to the gate
terminal. This positive voltage creates an electrical field within the channel attracting
electrons towards the oxide layer and thereby reducing the overall resistance of the
channel allowing current to flow. Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause an
increase in the drain current, Id through the channel. Then, the Enhancement-mode
device is equivalent to a "Normally Open" switch.

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Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit Symbols

Enhancement-mode MOSFET's make excellent electronics switches due to

their low "ON" resistance and extremely high "OFF" resistance and extremely high
gate resistance. Enhancement-mode MOSFET's are used in integrated circuits to
produce CMOS type Logic Gates and power switching circuits as they can be driven
by digital logic levels. The MOSFET has an extremely high input gate resistance and
as such an easily damaged by static electricity if not carefully protected. MOSFET's
are ideal for use as electronic switches or common-source amplifiers as their power
consumption is very small. Typical applications for MOSFET's are in
Microprocessors, Memories, Calculators and Logic Gates etc. Also, notice that the
broken lines within the symbol indicates a normally "OFF" Enhancement type
showing that "NO" current can flow through the channel when zero gate voltage is

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applied and a continuous line within the symbol indicates a normally "ON" Depletion
type showing that current "CAN" flow through the channel with zero gate voltage.
For P-Channel types the symbols are exactly the same for both types except that the
arrow points outwards.

This can be summarized in the following switching table.

MOSFET type Vgs = +ve Vgs = 0 Vgs = -ve

N-Channel Depletion ON ON OFF
N-Channel Enhancement ON OFF OFF
P-Channel Depletion OFF ON ON
P-Channel Enhancement OFF OFF ON

Power MOSFET Motor Control

Because of the extremely high input or Gate resistance that the MOSFET has,
its very fast switching speeds and the ease at which they can be driven makes them
ideal to interface with op-amps or standard logic gates. However, care must be taken
to ensure that the gate-source input voltage is correctly chosen because when using
the MOSFET as a switch the device must obtain a low RDS(on) channel resistance in
proportion to this input gate voltage. For example, do not apply a 12v signal if a 5v
signal voltage is required. Power MOSFET‟s can be used to control the movement of
DC motors or brush less stepper motors directly from computer logic or Pulse-width
Modulation (PWM) type controllers. As a DC motor offers high starting torque and
which is also proportional to the armature current, MOSFET switches along with a
PWM can be used as a very good speed controller that would provide smooth and
quiet motor operation.

As the motor load is inductive, a simple "Free-wheeling" diode is connected

across the load to dissipate any back emf generated by the motor when the MOSFET
turns it "OFF". The Zener diode is used to prevent excessive gate-source input
voltages.

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CHAPTER – 8

ELECTRIC MOTORS – AN OVER VIEW

Electric motors, both ac & dc motors, come in many shapes and sizes. Some
are standardized electric motors for general-purpose applications. Other electric
motors are intended for specific tasks. In any case, electric motors should be selected
to satisfy the dynamic requirements of the machines on which they are applied
without exceeding rated electric motor temperature. Thus, the first and most important
step in electric motor selection is determining load characteristics -- torque and speed
versus time. Electric motor selection is also based on mission goals, power available,
and cost.

Starting and running torque are the first parameters to consider when sizing
electric motors. Starting torque requirements for electric motors can vary from a small
percentage of full-load to a value several times full-load torque. Starting torque varies
because of a change in load conditions or the mechanical nature of the machine,
which the electric motor is installed in. The latter could be caused by the lubricant,
wear of moving parts, or other reasons.

Electric motors feature torque supplied to the driven machine, which must be
more than that required from start to full speed. The greater the electric motor's
reserve torque, the more rapid the acceleration. Electric motor drive systems that use
gear reducers have parts that rotate at different speeds. To calculate acceleration
torque required for these electric motors, rotating components must be reduced to a
common base. The part inertias are usually converted to their equivalent value at the
drive shaft. Equivalent inertia W2K22 of the load only is found from:

W2K22 = (W1K12) (N1/N2)2

Where W1K21 = load inertia in lb-ft2, N1 = load speed in rpm, and

N2 = electric motor speed in rpm.

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Electric motors have bodies, which have a straight-line motion are often
connected to rotating driving units by rack-and-pinion, cable, or cam mechanisms. For
these electric motor parts, the equivalent WK2 is found from:

WK2 = W(S/2ΠN)2

Where W = load weight, S = translation speed in fpm, Π is pi, and N =

rotational speed in rpm.

Electric Motors - Acceleration time:

Acceleration time for electric motors is directly proportional to total inertia

and inversely proportional to the electric motor torque. For electric motors with
constant acceleration torque, acceleration time is: where WK2 = rotational inertia in
lb-ft2, (N2 - N1) = the speed difference, and Tx = acceleration torque in lb-ft. For
translating bodies, acceleration time is: where W = weight of the load in lb, (S2 - S1)
= the translation speed difference, and Fx = translation force in lb.

An approximation method is necessary to find the electric motor's acceleration

time if acceleration torque is not linear during speed increase. The quickest method is
to break up the speed versus torque curves of the electric motor and the driven
machine into segments and calculate acceleration time for each segment. Accurate
electric motor acceleration times usually result.

Electric Motors - Power rating:

Electric motors offer the horsepower required to drive a machine, which is

typically referred to as electric motor load. The most common equation for power
based electric motors on torque and rotational speed is: hp = (torque X rpm)/5,250.

If the electric motor's load is not constant and follows a definite cycle, a
horsepower versus time curve for the driven machine is helpful. From this curve both
peak and rms the electric motor's horsepower can be determined. Rms load
horsepower indicates the necessary continuous electric motor rating. Peak load
horsepower is not necessarily an indication of the required electric motor rating.

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However, when a peak load is maintained for a period of time, electric motors feature
a rating, which usually should not be less than peak load horsepower.

Duty cycle - Electric Motors:

Continuous steady-running loads over long periods are demonstrated by fans

and blowers. On the other hand, electric motors installed in machines with flywheels
may have wide variations in running loads. Often, electric motors use flywheels to
supply the energy to do the work, and the electric motor does nothing but restore lost
energy to the flywheel. Therefore, choosing the proper electric motor also depends on
whether the load is steady, varies, follows a repetitive cycle of variation, or has
pulsating torque or shocks.

For example, electric motors that run continuously in fans and blowers for
hours or days may be selected on the basis of continuous load. But electric motors
located in devices like automatically controlled compressors and pumps start a
number of times per hour. And electric motors in some machine tools start and stop
many times per minute.

Duty cycle is a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time which
is expressed as the ratio of on-time to cycle period. When operating cycle is such that
electric motors operate at idle or a reduced load for more than 25% of the time, duty
cycle becomes a factor in sizing electric motors. Also, energy required to start electric
motors (that is, accelerating the inertia of the electric motor as well as the driven load)
is much higher than for steady-state operation, so frequent starting could overheat the
electric motor.

For most electric motors (except squirrel-cage electric motors during

acceleration and plugging) current is almost directly proportional to developed torque.
At constant speed, torque is proportional to horsepower. For accelerating loads and
overloads on electric motors that have considerable droop, equivalent horsepower is
used as the load factor. The next step in sizing the electric motor is to examine the
electric motor's performance curves to see if the electric motor has enough starting
torque to overcome machine static friction, to accelerate the load to full running
speed, and to handle maximum overload.

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Electric Motors - Efficiency:

Small universal electric motors have an efficiency of about 30%, while 95%
efficiencies are common for three-phase machines. In less-efficient electric motors,
the amount of power wasted can be reduced by more careful application and
improved electric motor design.

Electric motor's feature an efficiency level, which also depends on actual

electric motor load versus rated load, being greatest near rated load and falling off
rapidly for under and overload conditions.

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CHAPTER – 09

GENERAL PURPOSE SINGLE BIPOLAR TIMERS

 Low turn off time
 Maximum operating frequency
 Greater than 500khz
 Timing from microseconds to hours operates in both a stable and mono stable
modes
 High output current can source or sink 200ma
 Adjustable duty cycle
 TTL compatible
 Temperature stability of 0.005% per OC

N D
DIP8 SO8
(Plastic Package) (Plastic Micropackage)

DESCRIPTION

The NE555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of

producing accurate time delays or oscillation. In the time delay mode of operation, the
time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable
operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both
accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be
triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the out- put structure can source or sink
up to 200mA. The NE555 is available in plastic and ceramic minidip package and in a
8-lead micro package and in metal can package version.
ORDER CODES

Part Temperature Package

Number Range N D
NE555 0oC, 70oC  
SA555 –40oC, 105oC  
SE555 –55oC, 125oC  

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ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

Symbol Parameter Value Unit
Vcc Supply Voltage 18 V
Toper Operating Free Air Temperature Range for NE555 for SA555 for SE555 0 to 70 oC
–40 to 105
–55 to 125
Tj Junction Temperature 150 oC

Tstg Storage Temperature Range –65 to 150 oC

OPERATING CONDITIONS
Symbol Parameter SE555 NE555 - SA555 Unit
VCC Supply Voltage 4.5 to 18 4.5 to 18 V
Vth, Vtrig, Vcl, Vreset Maximum Input Voltage VCC VCC V

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Tamb = +25oC, VCC = +5V to +15V (unless otherwise specified)
SE555 NE555 - SA555
Symbol Parameter Unit
Min. Typ. Max. Min. Typ. Max.
ICC Supply Current (RL ) (- note 1)Low State mA
VCC = +5V 3 5 3 6
VCC = +15V 10 12 10 15
High State VCC = 5V 2 2
Timing Error (monostable) (RA = 2k to
100k, C = 0.1F) Initial Accuracy - (note 2)
Drift with Temperature Drift with Supply 0.5 2 1 3 %
Voltage 30 100 50 ppm/C
0.05 0.2 0.1 0.5 %/V
Timing Error (astable)
(RA, RB = 1k to 100k, C = 0.1F,VCC =
+15V) Initial Accuracy - (note 2)Drift with
Temperature Drift with Supply Voltage 1.5 2.25 %
90 150 ppm/C
0.15 0.3 %/V
VCL Control Voltage level V
VCC = +15VVCC = +5V 9.6 10 10.4 9 10 11
2.9 3.33 3.8 2.6 3.33 4
Vth Threshold Voltage V
VCC = +15VVCC = +5V 9.4 10 10.6 8.8 10 11.2
2.7 3.33 4 2.4 3.33 4.2
Ith Threshold Current - (note 3) 0.1 0.25 0.1 0.25 A
Vtrig Trigger Voltage 4.8 5 5.2 4.5 5 5.6 V
VCC = +15VVCC = +5V 1.45 1.67 1.9 1.1 1.67 2.2
Itrig Trigger Current (Vtrig = 0V) 0.5 0.9 0.5 2.0 A
Vreset Reset Voltage - (note 4) 0.40.7 1 0.4 0.7 1 V
Ireset Reset Current mA
Vreset = +0.4VVreset = 0V 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4
0.4 1 0.4 1.5
VOL Low Level Output Voltage VCC = +15V, 0.1 0.15 0.1 0.25 V
IO(sink) = 10mA 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.75
IO(sink) = 50mA IO(sink) = 100mAIO(sink) = 2 2.2 2 2.5
200mA 2.5 2.5
VCC = +5V, IO(sink) = 8mA 0.1 0.25 0.3 0.4
IO(sink) = 5mA 0.05 0.2 0.25 0.35
VOH High Level Output Voltage V
VCC = +15V, IO(source) = 200mA 12.5 12.5
IO(source) = 100mAVCC = +5V, 13 13.3 12.75 13.3
IO(source) = 100mA 3 3.3 2.75 3.3
Idis(off) Discharge Pin Leakage Current (output high) 20 100 20 100 nA
(Vdis = 10V)
Vdis(sat) Discharge pin Saturation Voltage(output low) mV
- (note 5) VCC = +15V, Idis = 15mAVCC = 180 480 180 480
+5V, Idis = 4.5mA 80 200 80 200
trtf Output Rise TimeOutput Fall Time 100 200 100 300 ns
100 200 100 300
toff Turn off Time - (note 6) (Vreset = VCC) 0.5 0.5 s

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Notes :
 Supply current when output is high is typically 1mA less.
 Tested at VCC = +5V and VCC = +15V.
 This will determine the maximum value of RA + RB for +15V operation the max total is R = 20M and for 5V
operationthe max total R = 3.5M.
 No protection against excessive Pin 7 current is necessary, providing the package dissipation rating will not be
exceeded.
 ime measured from a positive going input pulse from 0 to 0.8x VCC into the threshold to the drop from high to low
of theoutput trigger is tied to threshold.

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APPLICATION INFORMATION

MONOSTABLE OPERATION
In the monostable mode, the timer functions as a one-shot. Referring to figure
10 the external capacitor is initially held discharged by a transistor insidethe timer.

The circuit triggers on a negative-going input signal when the level reaches 1/3
Vcc. Once triggered, thecircuit remains in this state until the set time has elapsed, even

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if it is triggered again during this interval. The duration of the output HIGH state is given
by t = 1.1 R1C1 and is easily determined by figure 12.
Notice that since the charge rate and the threshold level of the comparator are both
directly proportional to supply voltage, the timing interval is independent of supply.
Applying a negative pulse simultaneously to the reset terminal (pin 4) and the trigger
terminal (pin 2) during the timing cycle discharges the external capacitor and causes the
cycle to start over. The timing cycle now starts on the positive edge of the reset pulse.
During the time the reset pulse in ap-plied, the output is driven to its LOW state.
When a negative trigger pulse is applied to pin 2, the flip-flop is set, releasing the short
circuit across the external capacitor and driving the output HIGH. The voltage across the
capacitor increases exponentially with the time constant  = R1C1. When the volt- age
across the capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc, the comparator resets the flip-flop which then
discharge the capacitor rapidly and drivers the output to its LOW state.
Figure 11 shows the actual waveforms generated in this mode of operation.
When Reset is not used, it should be tied high to avoid any possibly or false triggering.

A Stable Operation
When the circuit is connected as shown in figure 13 (pin 2 and 6 connected) it
triggers itself and free runs as a multi vibrator. The external capacitor charges through
R1 and R2 and discharges through R2 only. Thus the duty cycle may be precisely set by
the ratioof these two resistors.
In the a stable mode of operation, C1 charges and discharges between 1/3 Vcc
and 2/3 Vcc. As in the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times and therefore
frequency are independent of the supplyvoltage.

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Figure 14 shows actual waveforms generated in this mode of operation.

The charge time (output HIGH) is given by : t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1 and the discharge
time (output LOW) by : t2 = 0.693 (R2) C1 Thus the total period T is given by : T = t1

+ t2 = 0.693 (R1 + 2R2) C1 The frequency of oscillation is them : f=

and may be easily found by figure 15. The duty cycle is given by:
R2
D=
R1 = 2R2

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PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR

When the timer is connected in the monostable mode and triggered with a continuous
pulse train, the output pulse width can be modulated by a signal applied to pin 5. Figure
16 shows the circuit.

LINEAR RAMP
When the pull up resistor, RA, in the monostable circuit is replaced by a constant
current source, a linear ramp is generated. Figure 17 shows a circuit con- figuration that
will perform this function.

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50% DUTY CYCLE OSCILLATOR

For a 50% duty cycle the resistors RA and RE may be connected as in figure 19.
The time period for theoutput high is the same as previous,

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than 1/2 RA because the junction of RA and RB can- not bring pin 2 down to 1/3 VCC
and trigger the lowercomparator.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Adequate power supply bypassing is necessary to protect associated circuitry.
Minimum recom- mended is 0.1Fin parallel with 1Felectrolytic.
PACKAGE MECHANICAL DATA
8 PINS - PLASTIC DIP

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Millimeters Inches
Dimensions Min. Typ. Max. Min. Typ. Max.
A 3.32 0.131
a1 0.51 0.020
B 1.15 1.65 0.045 0.065
b 0.356 0.55 0.014 0.022
b1 0.204 0.304 0.008 0.012
D 10.92 0.430
E 7.95 9.75 0.313 0.384
e 2.54 0.100
e3 7.62 0.300
e4 7.62 0.300
F 6.6 0260
i 5.08 0.200
L 3.18 3.81 0.125 0.150
Z 1.52 0.060

PACKAGE MECHANICAL DATA

8 PINS - PLASTIC MICROPACKAGE (SO)

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Millimeters Inches
Dimensions Min. Typ. Max. Min. Typ. Max.
A 1.75 0.069
a1 0.1 0.25 0.004 0.010
a2 1.65 0.065
a3 0.65 0.85 0.026 0.033
b 0.35 0.48 0.014 0.019
b1 0.19 0.25 0.007 0.010
C 0.25 0.5 0.010 0.020
c1 45o (typ.)
D 4.8 5.0 0.189 0.197
E 5.8 6.2 0.228 0.244
e 1.27 0.050
e3 3.81 0.150
F 3.8 4.0 0.150 0.157
L 0.4 1.27 0.016 0.050
M 0.6 0.024
S 8o (max.)

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CHAPTER – 10

CONCLUSION

The project work “Automatic Street light that is powered through speed
breaker” is designed & developed successfully, for the demonstration purpose a proto
type module is constructed with lower ratings of devices, & results are found to be
satisfactory. As it is a demo module it can not be used for real applications, but the
concept is near to the real working system, to make it more realistic, higher rating
power generator with suitable gear mechanism is essential to produce more energy.

This concept falls under the subject of non-conventional energy resources, out
of the many alternative energy resources one dependable source is solar energy, but it
is quite costliest affair. Therefore alternative cheapest source is to generate electricity
from speed breaker. This technology proven here is the ultimate inexpensive source of
all known forms of energy. When it is implemented practically, depending up on the
size & traffic flow, each speed breaker may produce tens of kilowatts power every
day, this power can be utilized for many applications. One important advantage of
producing energy through this technology is that it does not pollute the environment.
As high ways are aimed to flow the traffic freely, there should not be any hurdles,
where as in cities we find traditional speed breakers every where, moreover our road
traffic is increasing day by day, & vehicles are running one after another continually.
Hence these speed breakers can be altered with this technology, there by all the street
lights belongs to a particular city can be energized.

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REFERENCES

As the technology is simple & it doesn‟t contain any critical logic,

uncomplicated circuit is designed to charge the battery. Similarly the street light is
automated with another simple circuit designed with timer chip. There fore we have
not gone through many references, regarding mechanical construction we referred few
books related to mechatronics. The following are the books.

(1) The IC 555 Timer Applications Source book

By: HOWARD M. BERLIN
(2) Mechatronics and measurement systems - By: DAVID G. ALCIATORE And
MICHAEL B. HISTAND
(3) Electronic Devices & Circuits – ALLEN MOTTERSHEAD
(4) Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques
By: William David Cooper
(5) Mechatronics – Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and electrical
Engineering – By: W. Bolton
(6) Practical transistor circuit design and analysis By: GERALD E. WILLIAMS

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