First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.

A UNIVAC computer at the Census Bureau.

Image Source: United States Census Bureau

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage,
it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or

assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in
their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers
also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is a table of values arranged in rows and columns. Each value can have a
predefined relationship to the other values. If you change one value, therefore, you may need to
change other values as well.

Spreadsheet Applications
Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheets) are computer programs
that let you create and manipulate spreadsheets electronically. In a spreadsheet application, each
value sits in a cell. You can define what type of data is in each cell and how different cells
depend on one another. The relationships between cells are called formulas, and the names of the
cells are called labels.

Entering Data
Once you have defined the cells and the formulas for linking them together, you can enter your
data. You can then modify selected values to see how all the other values change accordingly.
This enables you to study various what-if scenarios
Characteristics of spreadsheet applications

'Features' explained in the previous page are the fundamental things that make a spreadsheet a

good choice for financial modeling

'Characteristics' are the fine details of a particular spreadsheet package that make life easier for
you.

Here are some useful characteristics of a good spreadsheet package

- Can sort data: good for making it easier to find individual data

- Absolute and relative referencing: makes setting up formulas easier

- Can protect certain cells from change: Handy to make the model more robust

- User interface forms: Excellent to load input values into the model

- Macro language support: Allows complicated subroutines and functions to be written

- Automatic re-calculation: Makes the model respond very quickly

- Conditional formatting: Highlight certain numbers of interest such as a profit / loss

- Import / Export support: Easy to load input values in one go and save output values

- Searching and filtering: Very good when looking for specific data in the model
- Lookup tables: Used extensively in modeling to store values

- Pivot tables: Very powerful tool to summarized a huge amount of data into one table

- Pivot charts: Very powerful way of seeing the effect of running 'what if' questions

- Replication: Easy to create a list of values by simply dragging down in a certain way

- Database lookup: Can connect to external databases to get values

- Worksheets supported: Very good for splitting up parts of the model

- Graphing: Pie-charts, Bar charts etc each good for presenting data in a different way

You can expect any spreadsheet software package to include the 'Features' but it is the
characteristics of each package that helps you choose which one to use / buy.

Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program included in the Microsoft Office suite of applications.
Spreadsheets present tables of values arranged in rows and columns that can be manipulated
mathematically using both basic and complex arithmetic operations and functions.

Excel XP

Identifying Basic Parts of the Excel Window

Page 1

Introduction

Microsoft Excel XP is a spreadsheet application in the Microsoft Office suite. A spreadsheet is

an accounting program for the computer. Spreadsheets are primarily used to work with numbers
and text. Spreadsheets can help organize information, such as alphabetizing a list of names or
ordering records, and calculate and analyze information using mathematical formulas.

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify the parts of the Excel window

 Understand the differences between a workbook and a worksheet
 Understand a cell and its importance to Excel
 Move around a workbook

Page 2

The Excel window

Many items you see on the Excel XP screen are standard in most other Microsoft software
programs like Word, PowerPoint, and previous versions of Excel, while some elements are
specific to Excel XP.
Workbook

Also called a spreadsheet, the workbook is a unique file created by Excel XP.

Title bar

The title bar displays both the name of the application and the name of the spreadsheet.

Menu bar

The menu bar displays all of the menus available for use in Excel XP. The contents of any menu
can be displayed by left-clicking the menu name.
Toolbar

Some commands in the menus have pictures or icons associated with them. These pictures may
also appear as shortcuts in the toolbar.

Column headings

Each Excel spreadsheet contains 256 columns. Each column is named by a letter or combination
of letters.

Row headings

Each spreadsheet contains 65,536 rows. Each row is named by a number.

Name box

This shows the address of the current selection or active cell.

Formula bar

The formula bar is plays information entered—or being entered as you type—in the current or
active cell. The contents of a cell can also be edited in the formula bar.
Cell

A cell is an intersection of a column and row. Each cell has a unique cell address. In the picture
above, the cell address of the selected cell is B3. The heavy border around the selected cell is
called the cell pointer.

Navigation buttons and sheet tabs

Navigation buttons allow you to move to another worksheet in an Excel workbook. They are
used to display the first, previous, next, and last worksheets in the workbook.

Sheet tabs separate a workbook into specific worksheets. A workbook defaults to three
worksheets. A workbook must contain at least one worksheet.

Page 3

Workbooks and worksheets

A workbook automatically shows in the workspace when you open Microsoft Excel XP. Each
workbook contains three worksheets. A worksheet is a grid of cells consisting of 65,536 rows by
256 columns. Spreadsheet information—text, numbers, or mathematical formulas—is entered
into different cells.
Column headings are referenced by alphabetic characters in the gray boxes that run across the
Excel screen, beginning with column A and ending with column IV.

Rows are referenced by numbers that appear on the left and then run down the Excel screen. The
first row is named row 1, while the last row is named 65536.

Important terms

 A workbook is made up of three worksheets.

 The worksheets are labeled Sheet1, Sheet2, and Sheet3.
 Each Excel worksheet is made up of columns and rows.
 In order to access a worksheet, click the tab that says Sheet#.

Page 4

The cell

An Excel worksheet is made up of columns and rows. Where these columns and rows intersect,
they form little boxes called cells. The active cell—or the cell that can be acted upon—reveals a
dark border. All other cells reveal a light gray border. Each cell has a name. Its name is
comprised of two parts: the column letter and the row number.

In the following picture, the cell C3—formed by the intersection of column C and row 3—
contains the dark border. It is the active cell.
 Important terms

 Each cell has a unique cell address composed of a cell's column and row.
 The active cell is the cell that receives the data or command you give it.
 A darkened border, called the cell pointer, identifies it.

Page 5

Moving around the worksheet

You can move around the spreadsheet in several ways.

To move the cell pointer:

 To activate any cell, point to a cell with the mouse and click.
 To move the pointer one cell to the left, right, up, or down, use the keyboard arrow keys.

To scroll through the worksheet:

The vertical scroll bar located along the right edge of the screen is used to move up or down the
spreadsheet. The horizontal scroll bar located at the bottom of the screen is used to move left or
right across the spreadsheet.
The PageUp and PageDown keys on the keyboard are used to move the cursor up or down one
screen at a time. Other keys that move the active cell are Home, which moves to the first column
on the current row, and Ctrl+Home, which moves the cursor to the top-left corner of the
spreadsheet, or cell A1.

To move between worksheets:

As mentioned, each workbook defaults to three worksheets. These worksheets are represented by
tabs—named Sheet1, Sheet2 and Sheet3—that appear at the bottom of the Excel window.

To move from one worksheet to another:

 Click the sheet tab—Sheet1, Sheet2 or Sheet 3—you want to display.

Page 6

Challenge!
  Display the contents of every menu in the menu bar, and note the icons associated with specific
menu choices. Try to find the pictures or shortcuts on the Standard toolbar.
 Click each of the three worksheet tabs—Sheet1, Sheet2 and Sheet3—to become familiar moving
from sheet to sheet in the workbook.
 Use the Page Up (PgUp) and Page Down (PgDn) keys to get used to scrolling in a worksheet.
 Use the horizontal and vertical scrollbars to practice scrolling up, down, left, and right in the
worksheet.

Four Types of Data in a Worksheet

by Mary Ylisela, Demand Media

Spreadsheets are helpful for compiling and tracking important business data.

Worksheets, also referred to as spreadsheets, are used in businesses to track and record
information such as employee work hours, product sales, customer information and business
accounting. Many different types of spreadsheet software are available, but a small business can
often benefit from the use of a simple spreadsheet program. You can tailor your worksheet to suit
the needs of your business, usually using just four primary types of data.

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Dates and Times

Dates are used in worksheets for tracking and calculating. On a simple time sheet, you might use
the date and time column to record each employees start and finish time. These two pieces of
information can also be used to calculate employee hours for payroll. Dates are typically entered
with a hyphen or slash separating the numbers, and, since the year 2000, it's recommended that
the year be represented with four numbers instead of the last two, to avoid confusion over which
century the date refers to.

Text
Text on a worksheet can represent bits of information or be used to name a column or row. The
use of text on your business worksheet provides clarity in the worksheet's purpose so anyone else
in the business can look at the spreadsheet and understand the information represented there.
Different types of text used on a worksheet can range from names of people to product names to
customer addresses. Some spreadsheet programs allow the user to enter up to 32,000 characters
in a text cell, but for the purpose of efficiency it's probably better to be concise.

Related Reading: Hiding & Unhiding a Worksheet in Excel

Values
Values, or numbers, are used in many different ways on a business worksheet. You can use
whole-number values to represent how many of a certain product you have in your stock or how
much of something you've sold. Decimal number values are commonly used to enter employees'
hourly wages or percentages. The use of values on a worksheet is helpful in business accounting,
as well as simple tracking of such things as sales and revenue.

Formulas
Formulas are vital to many accounting worksheets, as well as payroll. The use of formulas in
your business worksheet allows you to add, subtract, multiply or divide information in one cell
by the values in another cell. More complicated formulas that use algebraic expressions and
other mathematical equations can also be used if that's what's best for your worksheet. The
purpose of a formula in your worksheet is to help you combine data from one or more other
category in your worksheet in the manner designed by the formula.

What is word processing?

AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
TECHNOLOGY
This lesson introduces key concepts related to how computers work.
Computer-related terms are defined and basic computer functions are
explained. In particular, the following topics are addressed.

.What is a computer?

.What are the components of a computer?

.How does a computer work?

.How does the software work?

.How does computer process information?

.How does the computer’s memory work?

.How is data stored?

.Why is documentation important?

.What are viruses?

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
A computer allows users to store and process information quickly and
automatically.
A computer is a programmable machine. It allows the user to store all sorts of
information and then ‘process’ that information, or data, or carry out actions
with the information, such as calculating numbers or organizing words.
Computer:
A machine that can receive and store information and change or process it.
Information: Knowledgethat is communicated.
Data (pl.): The representation of information in a formalized manner suitable
for communication, interpretation and processing, generally by a computer system.
Note: the term ‘raw data’ refers to unprocessed information.
Computers can be generally classified by size and power, although there can
be considerable overlap. Following are descriptions of several different types
of computers.
Mainframe computers are large-sized, powerful multi-user
computers that can support concurrent programs. That means, they can
perform different actions or ‘processes’ at the same time. Mainframe
computers can be used by as many as hundreds or thousands of users at the
same time. Large organizations may use a mainframe computer to execute
large-scale processes such as processing the organization’s payroll.
Mini-computers are mid-sized multi-processing computers. Again,
they can perform several actions at the same time and can support from 4 to
200 users simultaneously. In recent years the distinction between mini-
computers and small mainframes has become blurred. Often the distinction
depends upon how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.
Organizations may use a mini-computer for such tasks as managing the
information in a small financial system or maintaining a small database of
information about registrations or applications.
Workstations are powerful, single-user computers. They have the
capacity to store and process large quantities of data, but they are only used
by one person at a time.
However, workstations are typically linked together to form a computer
network called a local area network, which means that several people, such as
staff in an office, can communicate with each other and share electronic files
and data

UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS6

Computer network:
A grouping of computers and peripherals connected together by
telecommunications links to enable a group of users to share and exchange
information.

A workstation is similar to a personal computer but is more powerful and

often comes with a higher-quality monitor. In terms of computing power,
workstations lie in between personal computers and mini-computers.
Workstations commonly support application that requires relatively high-
quality graphics capabilities and a lot of memory, such as desktop publishing,
software development and engineering applications.
Personal computers
(PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type of computer in
use today. The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computer designed
for an individual user. Today, the world of PCs is basically divided between
IBM-compatible and Macintosh-compatible machines, named after the two
computer manufacturers. Computers may be called ‘desktop’ computers,
which stay on the desk, or ‘laptop’ computers, which are lightweight and
portable. Organizations and individuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks,
including word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, preparation and
delivery of presentations, organization of spreadsheets and database
management. Entry-level PCs are much more powerful than a few years ago,
and today there is little distinction between PCs and workstations.
WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF A
COMPUTER?
Computers are made up of two parts: the hardware and the software.

Hardware:
The physical equipment required to create, use, manipulate and store electronic
data.

Software:
The computerized instructions that operate a computer manipulate the data and
execute particular functions or tasks.

All computers require the following hardware components:

Central processing unit (CPU)

Central processing unit (CPU): The chip or chips at the heart of a computer that
enable it to process data. Also known as a processor.

•memory

Memory: An area within a computer system that holds data waiting to be

processed.

•storage device
Storage device: The place where a computer puts data.

•input devices: the devices that allow data and instructions to enter a
computer (such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner)

Input: Any resource required for the functioning of a process, in the course of
which it will be transformed into one or more outputs.

•output devices: the devices that allow information to be represented

(that is, given out) to the user, such as a display screen or printer)

Output: The products of the transformation of inputs by a process Printers,

scanners and external disk drives that may be connected to the computer are
also sometimes called ‘peripheral devices’.

Peripheral device: Any piece of equipment in a computer system that is

not actually inside the computer itself. The central processing unit (CPU) is the
heart of the computer. It carries out all of the instructions given in a program,
such as a word processing or spreadsheet program.
The CPU consists of one or more chips (another name for “integrated
circuits”).
Chip:
A small piece of semi-conducting material (such as silicon) about 1 centimeter
(¼inch) square on which an integrated circuit is embedded. An integrated circuit is
a number of electronic components joined together to form a path for electricity.
Central processing unit chips contain the circuits representing the CPU.

A microprocessor is a particular type of chip. The original IBM personal

computer used the Intel 8088 microprocessor. Most of today’s
microcomputers are designed around a microprocessor from one of two
product families: x86 or Power. The 80286, 80386, and 80486 models that
followed were referred to by the last three digits, 286, 386, and 486. For the
next generation, however, Intel broke with tradition and introduced the
Pentium in 1993. In 1997, it introduced the Pentium II to address multi-media
applications, and most recently the Pentium
III to address the new opportunities provided by access to large volumes of
information on the World Wide Web. Other manufacturers of chips (such as
Cyrix) produce chips of similar power and capabilities.

CPU’s are not all equal. Some process data faster than others. A computer
contains a system clock that emits pulses to establish the timing of all
systems operations. The system clock operates at a speed quite different from
a clock that keeps track of the time of the day. The system clock determines
the speed at which the computer can execute an instruction, and therefore
limits the number of instructions the computer can complete within a specific
amount of time. The time to complete an instruction execution cycle is
measured in megahertz (MHz) or millions of cycles per second.
Although some instructions require multiple cycles to complete, the
processor speed should be thought of in terms of the number of instructions
the processor can execute in one second. Today, microprocessor speeds
exceed 300 MHz if all other specifications are identical, then higher ratings
means faster processing.
When determining what type of computer you are using or considering
what type of computer to acquire, it is important to know that these terms –
286, 386, 486, Pentium
– refer to the type of processor in the computer. Newer computers will come
with
Pentium microprocessors (or the equivalent from other manufacturers); older
ones with microprocessors from the x86 family

It is important to know the type of processor in your computer. Some newer

computer programs will not run on older processors, and some newer
processors are too sophisticated for older software.

The faster the processor in a computer, the more quickly the computer will perform
operations.

The most common type of memory that most users are familiar with is ‘main
memory’ or ‘RAM’ (random-access memory).

Random access memory (RAM):

An area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds a user’s data, operating
system instructions and program instructions.

The word ‘main’ is used to distinguish it from external mass storage devices
such as the hard drive or disk drives. Note that the term ‘mass storage’ refers
to various techniques and devices for storing large amounts of data; mass
storage is distinct from memory because it retains data even when the
computer is turned off. Thus mass storage is sometimes referred to as
‘auxiliary storage’. Following are definitions of common storage devices:

Storage: The area within a computer system where data can be left on a longer
term basis while it is not needed for processing.

Diskette. A small, removable, flexible Mylar plastic disk covered with a thin
layer of a magnet sable substance, onto which digital data can be recorded and
stored. Also known as a floppy disk.

Hard drive: The storage area within the computer itself, where megabytes of
space are available to store bits of information. Also known as a hard disk.

Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser
technology to read and write data on a disk. Also known as a laser disk.

Magnetic tape: A continuous plastic strip covered with magnetic oxide; the
tape is divided into parallel tracks onto which data may be recorded by selectively
magnetizing parts of the surface, or spots, in each of the tracks. The data can then
be stored and reused.

HOW DOES A COMPUTER WORK?

A computer functions in the following manner:
•The computer accepts input. Computer input is whatever is
entered or fed into a computer system. Input can be supplied by a person
(such as by using a keyboard) or by another computer or device (such as a
diskette or CD-ROM). Some examples of input include the words and
symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, and instructions for
completing a process, pictures, and so on.

•The computer performs useful operations, manipulating the

data in many ways. This manipulation is called processing. Examples of
processing include performing calculations, sorting lists of words or
numbers, modifying documents and pictures according to user instructions,
and drawing graphs. A computer processes data in the CPU.

Process: A systematic series of actions a computer uses to manipulate data.

•The computer stores data. A computer must store data so that it is

available for processing. Most computers have more than one location for
storing data (the hard drive or C:\, and the floppy drive or A :\). The place
where the computer stores the data depends on how the data is being used.
The computer puts the data in one place while it is waiting to be processed
and another place when it is not needed for immediate processing. The
storage of data in the computer is called ‘online storage’ while the storage
of data on computer tapes, diskettes or

CD-ROMs is called ‘offline storage’

•computer produces output. Computer output is information that

has been produced by a computer. Some examples of computer output
include reports, documents, music, graphs, and pictures. Output can be in
several different formats, such as paper, diskette, or on screen.
A computer receives data as input, processes it, stores it and then produces
output.

HOW DOES THE SOFTWARE WORK?

Software is the computerized instructions that operate the computer,
execute particular functions or tasks, and manipulate the data. For software
(the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed.
That is, the instructions need to be written in a programming language that
the computer can understand. Without a program, a computer is useless.

Programming language:
An artificial set of rules, vocabulary and syntax used to instruct the computer to
execute certain tasks.

Computer program: A sequence of instructions that can be executed by a

computer to carry out a process.

Over the years, a wide range of programming languages have been

developed, including BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C++, JAVA, and so on. Each
language has a unique set of words (codes) that it understands and a special
syntax for organizing program instructions.

The language the computer actually understands is called machine language,

which comprises numbers only. This language is used by the computer to
understand the programming language and translate the terms into
executable instructions. Lying between programming languages and
machine languages are assembly languages.
Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as
machine languages but they enable a program to use names instead of
numbers

Please note: most people who use computers today do not need to worry
about programming, machine, or assembly languages. This is because the
software being used today is written in a highly user-friendly manner and in
a way that does not require knowledge of the computer languages which
were used to create and use it.

User friendly: Computer software or hardware that is simple to set up, run and
use.

There are two kinds of software, systems software and applications

software. Systems software includes the operating system and all the
utilities that enable the computer to function. The most important program
that runs on a computer is the operating system. Every general-purpose
computer must have an operating system in order to run other programs.
This includes controlling functions such as the coordination of the hardware
and applications software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the input
and output devices and managing time sharing for linked or networked
computers. In many respects an operating system works like an air traffic
controller to coordinate activities within the computer. Examples of
operating systems are Windows NT, DOS and OS/2. The Windows family of
operating systems includes a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that makes the
software user friendly.

Operating system: A collection of software that allows a computer to function.

Applications software includes programs that users access to

carryout work. They include applications for the following functions.

•Word processing is the most common applications software . The great

advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make
changes without retyping the entire document. Word processors make it
easy to manipulate and format documents.

•Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically

create and manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows
and columns with predefined relationships to each other ). Spreadsheets
are used for mathematical calculations such as accounts, budgets, and
statistics and so on.

•Database management applications are computer programs that let people

create and manipulate data in a database. A database is a collection of
related information that can be manipulated and used to sort information,
conduct statistical analyses or generate reports.

•Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that enable

users to create highly stylized images for slide presentations and reports.
They can also be used to produce various types of charts and graphs. Many
software applications include graphics components including: paint
programs, desktop publishing applications and so on.

.Communications applications typically include software to enable people

to send faxes and emails and dial into other computers.

Software programs are continually being written or upgraded to undertake

certain tasks. As a result the software can become obsolete quickly.

Software can be either ‘proprietary’ (also called ‘closed’) or ‘open’.

Proprietary software is privately owned and controlled. A proprietary
software design or technique is one that is owned by a company, which will
usually not divulge specifications that would allow other companies to
duplicate the product.
Increasingly, proprietary software is seen as a disadvantage in many
organizations; users prefer to use ‘open’ software, which is software
designed using specifications are publicly accessible. The great advantage of
open software is that anyone can create add-on products for it because they
can understand how it was designed. People using open software can mix
and match products from different manufacturers. By making software
public, however, a manufacturer allows others to duplicate its product,
which many manufacturers do not want.

HOW DOES A COMPUTER PROCESS

INFORMATI?
When data is input into a computer, the numbers or words we understand
are translated into a binary numbers system. Binary is the language of
computers.

Everything you type, input, output, send, retrieve, draw and so on is, in the
end, converted to the computer’s native language: binary.

Binary number system: A numerical system wherein each digit stands for a power
of two. The binary system uses only two symbols, 0 and 1, to represent values.

In the decimal system, commonly used in most countries, each digit

represents a value of 10. For example, the number 103 would break down as
follows:

1 x 100 = 100

0 x 10 = 0

3x1=3
103 = 103

In the binary system, each digit position represents a value of 2. Because

computers use the binary system, powers of 2 play an important role. This is
why everything in computers seems to come in 8s (2 to the 3 rdpower), 64s (2
to the 6thpower), 128s (2 to the 7thpower), and 256s (2 to the 8thpower).
Therefore, in the binary system, the number 103 would break down as
follows:

1 x 64 = 64

1 x 32 = 32

0 x 16 = 0

0x8=0

1x4=4

1x2=2

1x1=1

1100111 = 103

The values in a binary system -- the 0s and 1s -- are called ‘binary digits’ or
bits.

Binary digit (bit):

A digit within the binary number system. A bit is the smallest unit of information
held in a computer?

The computer’s electronic circuits have only two states, on or off, and
therefore can only understand 0s and 1s, which may represent such
opposites as on or off, yes or no, or up or down. This is why all computers
use the binary system. In order to make the bits useful, they are combined
into ‘bytes’ of information.
Byte: A combination of bits that represent one character. A byte is usually
composed of 8 bits.

Computer programmers have developed codes for various bytes of

information, so that they may be read by different computer programs. For
example, one code might define the letter A as ‘11000001’ and the letter B
as 11000010’. The number 6 might be defined as ‘11110110’ and the
number 8 as ‘11111000’. When the person entering data strikes the A key
on the keyboard, the computer registers it as ‘11000001’. When he or she
enters the B, the computer reads it as ‘11000010’. Similarly, the number 6 is
understood by the computer as ‘11110110’ and the number 8 as ‘1111100’.
In this way, the computer can store words and numbers as binary digits and
then retrieve them and convert them back into words or numbers as
required.

As discussed earlier, this work of manipulating, storing and processing the

data takes place in the Central Processing Unit, the computer’s main
memory. The CPU consists of an arithmetic and logic unit, or ALU, a control
unit, and a set of registers.

•The arithmetic and logic unit is the portion of the CPU where arithmetic
and logical operations take place.

•The control unit is the part of the CPU that supervises the general
operations of the computer.

•The registers are devices that hold data inside the computer’s memory long
enough to execute a particular function, such as indexing, calculating,
sorting or otherwise manipulating data. They are the CPU’s own internal
memory.

Data travels from one part of the computer to another through a kind of
path known as a bus.

Bus: The channel or path that lets the parts of a compute communicates with
each other

. Similar to a school bus for school children, a computer data bus picks up a
load of data from one of the components on the main computer board and
then transfers the data to another component on the main computer board.
The main circuit board of a microcomputer is also known as the
motherboard. The motherboard is the principal board that has connectors
for attaching devices to the bus. Typically, it contains the CPU, memory and
basic controllers for the system. The data bus is really a series of electrical
circuits that connect the various electrical elements on the main board.

The data are input into the computer and processed in the CPU. They travel
along the bus to be stored in the computer’s memory. The amount of
memory available is described in bytes of information, referring to the
combination of bits representing characters. The higher the number of bytes
the more memory the computer has.

Today’s computers hold ‘megabytes’ or even ‘gigabytes’ of data. A

megabyte is a unit of one million bytes; a gigabyte is one billion bytes, and a
terabyte is one trillion bytes. If a computer has a memory of 64 megabytes,
then it can hold 64 million bytes of information.

Data can be stored so that it is readable again only using the software with
which it was created, or it can be stored in other formats, so that it may be
transferred or used by other software programs. There is a standard
character code used to store data so that it may be used by other software
programs; this code is called ASCII or American Standard Code for
Information Interchange. The ASCII code assigns a specific pattern of bits to
each character, as described above. Another code that may be found,
especially in IBM-brand mainframe computers, is EBCDIC, or Extended
Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. The important point to remember
about these codes is that their main value is to store information so that it is
readable by other computers. By using ASCII or EBCDIC, it is possible for
people to retrieve and use someone else’s data using a different type of
hardware or software. The main disadvantage of using ASCII or EBCDIC is
that the formatting or other special

WHAT IS COMPUTER MEMORY?

As defined earlier, memory refers to the temporary internal storage areas
within a computer.

The term memory is usually used as shorthand for ‘physical memory’, which
refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use
‘virtual memory’, which expands physical memory onto a hard drive.

The main type of memory and the most familiar to users is random access
memory (RAM). RAM is the same as main memory. A computer can both
write data into

RAM and read data from RAM.

Every time a user turns on his or her computer, a set of operating

instructions is copied from the hard disk into RAM.

These instructions, which help control basic computer functions, remain in

RAM until the computer is turned off.
Most RAM is volatile, which means that it requires a steady flow of
electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the power is turned off,
whatever data was in RAM disappears.

The contents of RAM are necessary for the computer to process data.

The results of the processing are kept temporarily in RAM until they are
needed again or until they are saved onto the hard disk or other storage
device.

Today the storage capacity of RAM is measured in megabytes (MB).

PCs (microcomputers) typically have between 16 and 64 MB of RAM, which

means they can hold between 16 and 64 million bytes of data (a standard A4
page of text typically holds about 2,000 bytes or characters of text).

Other types of memory include

•ROM (read only memory): unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile and only
permits the user to read data.

Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that

holds instructions for starting up the computer.

PROM (programmable read-only memory): a PROM is a memory chip on

which you can store a program.

Once the PROM has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use it to store
something else.

Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.

•EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory): an EPROM is a special

type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
•EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): an
EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an
electrical charge

HOW ARE DATA STORED?

It is very important to distinguish between memory, which refers to the
circuitry that has a direct link to the computer processor, and the storage,
which refers to media such as disks that are not directly linked to the
processor. Remember, a storage device is anything that is used to store
computer data. Floppy disks, hard disks, optical disks,

CDs and magnetic tapes are all types of storage device.

Physical storage refers to how data are actually kept on the storage disk. The
most commonly used medium for storage is magnetic storage. With
magnetic storage the computer stores data on disks and tape by
magnetizing selected particles of an oxide-based surface coating. The
particles retain their magnetic orientation until that orientation is changed.
Thus magnetic disks and tapes are modifiable storage media.

The two most popular types of magnetic storage media are hard disks and
diskettes.

Magnetic tape provides a third type of magnetic storage, and optical disk is a
new storage medium. Following is a discussion of each; the definitions
included earlier are repeated.

Hard drive or hard disk storage provides faster access to files than a diskette.

Hard drive: The storage area within the computer itself, where megabytes of
space are available to store bits of information. Also known as a hard disk.
A hard disk platter is a flat, rigid disk made of aluminum or glass and coated
with a magnetic oxide. A hard disk consists of one or more platters and their
read-write heads. A read-write head is the device that reads the data from
the disk platter into the computer. It also records (or ‘writes’) data onto the
platters. Hard disk platters in microcomputers are typically 3½ inches (about
10 centimeters) in diameter: the same size as the circular Mylar disk in a
diskette. However, the storage capacity of a hard disk far exceeds that of a
floppy disk. Also, the access time of a hard disk is significantly faster than a
diskette. Unlike diskettes, which begin to rotate when one requests data,
hard disks are continually in motion, so there is no delay as the disk spins up
to speed. Like diskettes, hard disks provide random access to files by
positioning the read-write head over the sector that contains the requested
data. Diskette.

A small, removable, flexible Mylar plastic disk covered with a thin layer of a
magnet sable substance, onto which digital data can be recorded and stored. Also
known as a floppy disk.

Diskettes get another name – floppy disk – from the thin Mylar disk. If one
cuts open the disk casing (not recommended because the disk will be
ruined) one would see that the Mylar disk inside is thin and “floppy”.
Diskettes are also called floppies.

Although today’s microcomputers typically use 3½ inch (about 10

centimeter) disks, you may still find 5¼ inch (about 15 centimetre) disks that
were popular many years ago. Finding a disk drive to read 5¼ inch disks may
be very difficult.

Diskettes are generally used for transporting or shipping data files or for
making duplicate copies of data files for back-up purposes. The storage
capacity of a diskette varies but is considerably smaller than that of a hard
drive.
Since the 1960s, magnetic tape has been a popular form of mainframe
computer storage.

Magnetic tape: A continuous plastic strip covered with magnetic oxide; the tape is
divided into parallel tracks onto which data may be recorded by selectively
Magnetizing parts of the surface, or spots, in each of the tracks. The data can then
be stored and reused.

When IBM introduced its first microcomputer in 1981, the legacy of tape
storage continued in the form of a cassette tape drive, similar to those used
for audio recording and playback. Using tape as a primary storage device,
however, instead of a hard disk is slow and inconvenient because tape
requires sequential access rather than random access.

Sequential access means that data is stored and read as a sequence of bytes
along the length of the tape. To find a file stored on a microcomputer tape
storage device, one has to advance the tape to the appropriate location of
the file, and then wait for the computer to slowly read each byte until it
finds the beginning of the file. Like an audio cassette, for example, a user
must go through the tape in sequence to find the part he or she wants.

Microcomputer users quickly abandoned tape storage for the convenience

and speed of random access disk drives. Recently, however, tape storage for
microcomputers has experienced a revival, not as a principal storage device
but for making backup copies of the data stored on hard disks. The data on
magnetic storage can be easily destroyed, erased, or otherwise lost.
Protecting the data on the hard disk is of particular concern to users
because it contains so much data, which could be difficult and time
consuming to reconstruct. This is why backups are so important.

Back up: To copy a computer file or collection of files to a second medium, usually
on a diskette or magnetic tape, so that the data are safe in case the original file is
damaged or lost. Backups are usually copied to storage devices that can be
removed from the computer and kept separately from the original.
A tape backup is a copy of the data from a hard disk, stored on magnetic
tape and used to recover lost data. A tape backup is relatively inexpensive
and can rescue an organization from the overwhelming task of trying to
reconstruct lost data.

Backing up electronic data is critical to protecting it from loss or damage.

For more information on backing up data and protecting information, see

Automating Records Services and Emergency Planning for Records and Archives
Services.

The most popular types of tape drives for microcomputers also use tape
cartridges, but there are several tape specifications and cartridge sizes. A
tape cartridge is a removable magnetic tape module similar to a sound or
video cassette tape. Quarter inch tape, called QIC, is a tape cartridge that
contains ¼ inch (approximately ½

Centimeter) wide tape. Depending on tape length, QIC tape capacities range
from 340 MB to 2 gigabytes. Digital audio tape, called DAT, was originally an
audio recording format, but is now also used for data storage. The 4mm
wide DAT tape format storage capacity ranges from 2 gigabytes to 12
gigabytes.

In addition to magnetic storage, there is also optical storage.

Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser technology to
read and write data on a disk. Also known as a laser disk.

With optical storage, data is burned into the storage medium using beams of
laser light. The burns form patterns of small pits in the disk surface to
represent data. The pits on optical media are permanent, so the data cannot
be changed. Optical media are very durable, but they do not provide the
flexibility of magnetic media for changing the data once they are stored

There are three types of optical disks.

•CD-ROM’s are the most popular type of optical storage. CD-ROM stands
for Compact Disc Read Only Memory. A computer CD-ROM disk, like its
audio counterpart, contains data that has been stamped on the disk surface as
a series of pits. To read the data on a CD-ROM an optical read head
distinguishes the patterns of pits that represent bytes. CD-ROM disks provide
tremendous storage capacity. CD-ROMs usually come with data already
written onto them. These days most applications software is provided on CD-
ROM.
•It is now possible for computer users to write data to an optical disk. These
are known as WORM disks, which stand for ‘Write Once Read Many’. A
single CD holds up to 680 megabytes, equivalent to over 300,000 pages of
text in character format, and these disks are quite durable. These CDs are
known as CD re-recordable (CD-R). There are other types of WORM disks,
although there is no standard for these.
•There is a third type of optical disk which can be erased and use to rewrite
new information. These are sometimes known as EO (erasable optical) disks
and
CD-RW (CD rewritable).
Magneto-optical disks combine magnetic disk and CD-ROM technologies.
Like magnetic media they can read and written to and like floppy disks they
are removable.
They can store over 200 MB of data, and speed of access to this data is faster
than a floppy but slower than a hard drive. There is no universal standard for
these yet.
CD-ROMs and magnet-optical disks are very useful for storing images.
These take up much more storage space than data in character format, such as
in word-processed files

THE IMPORTANCE OF DOCUMENTATION

The computer hardware, software and peripherals will be accompanied by
documentation, which explains how the various systems or programs operate.
Documentation:
Information needed to develop, use or maintain computer hardware and software
and to permit access and retrieval of the data.
Although documentation usually comes in the form of printed manuals, guide
books, it may also come in electronic form, such as in ‘help screens’
contained within the computer software or documentation in data dictionaries
and so on. Often, documentation is created when a specific computer
application is used. For example, if a government office creates a data base of
employees in order to administer payroll, documentation may be created
describing how the database was established, what it is to be used for and
what data fields have been created. This documentation can be critical to
understanding the database system, particularly if it is being managed in an
archival environment long after the creators of the system have left.
Documentation should always be retained.
Disposing of documentation can cause problems in the future, particularly if
you have to reload software from the beginning. Documentation can also
contain licenses for the legitimate use of the software. Therefore it is critical
to protect documentation and ensure it is readily available.

PROTECTING AGAINST VIRUSES

Virus: A computer program that is planted in one computer and then transferred,
hidden in useful information, to one or more other computers with the intention of
corrupting or wiping out information in the recipient computer.

Viruses are extremely common. Many different types of viruses exist,

ranging from ones that prevent you from opening up word-processed
documents through to ones that destroy the entire contents of a hard drive.
Viruses can be caught in several ways, for example by exchanging floppy
disks, via electronic mail messages and through downloading documents
from the Web. Networks make it much easier for viruses to move around.
Once a virus gets into an organization’s computer system it can spread very
quickly. New viruses appear each week, so it is essential that users have up-
to-date anti-virus software to combat this problem.

If users have software that is unlicensed it could mean that it is ‘pirate’ or

‘bootleg’ software. This is software that has been illegally copied. Software
of this nature sometimes contains viruses that can be extremely damaging to
computers.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. In your own words, explain what a computer is.
2. Describe four different types of computers.
3. Briefly explain how a computer works.
4. What is hardware?
5. What is software?
6. What is the central processing unit of a computer? Why is it so important
to the operation of the computer?
7. Describe at least four different applications, or uses, of computers.
8. What is a binary number system?
9. What is a bit?
10. What is a byte?
11. What is the meaning of computer ‘memory’?
12. What is RAM?
13. What is a storage device?
14. What is a diskette?
15. What is a hard drive?
16. What is a database?
17. What are the key differences between a diskette and a hard drive?
18. What is magnetic tape and how is it different from a hard drive?
19. Explain the concept of backing up files
20. What is an optical disk?
21. What is documentation and why is it so important?
22. How can viruses damage computers?

COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS
This lesson examines three computer environments: mainframe computing,
networks (such as Intranets), and the Internet. It introduces key concepts
related to how mainframes, networks and the Internet work.
Please remember, this lesson is not intended to provide a comprehensive
explanation of the technical details of mainframe computing, networks and
the Internet.
Information is provided in order to introduce you to key concepts and provide
an overview of these computing environments.
MAINFRAME COMPUTING
Mainframe computing developed at a time when computational power was an
expensive and scarce resource. In order to use the expensive computer
technologies efficiently, organizations had to share their resources. Many of
computerized applications, such as invoicing, purchasing, payroll, accounting
and so on, involved
If the original reasons for the mainframe computing model were cost and
scarcity of resources, the current reasons for sharing computer power are
•security: the protection of data from outside or unauthorized access
•integrity: the guarantee that the data is not corrupted and that repeatability is
achievable using the same applications and data
•system availability: centralized facilities can be operated by teams in shifts
24 hours a day, maximizing the investment in IT equipment and allowing
large data processing activities to be carried out efficiently
•data sharing: data input or created in one part of the organisation becomes
available to other parts
•applications: many modern applications, such as personnel management
systems, require access to a shared pool of resources.
Today, mainframe computing is no longer an expensive resource; sharing is
still a cost-effective means of providing computational power. Recent studies
have shown that on a per-user basis, mainframe computing provides the least
expensive form of computing.

A mainframe environment involves not just the hardware. The security,

integrity and availability of the mainframe system can only be achieved if the
computer centre is staffed by people with the necessary skills, operated
according to a set of practices and managed with the discipline (that is, the
processes and procedures) that ensures the appropriate levels of security,
integrity and availability. This is the ‘mainframe environment’.

In a mainframe environment, many people share access to a mainframe computer.

A large central processor is kept in a purpose-built computer centre staffed by

personnel responsible for maintaining it. Individuals in the organization
access the mainframe computer through terminals on their desktops in order
to share common organizational resources, such as software programs or
electronic data. As we use the term today, a mainframe is actually identified
more by the ‘environment’ in which the mainframe is operated. In other
words, the physical environment: the controlled temperature and humidity
and the physical security of having the mainframe behind locked doors.

Mainframe computers are used as tools to support a given ‘business’

application such as
•processing applications for licenses
•processing government payroll information
•processing financial accounts
•processing environmental resource information.

In all of these applications, the common denominator is the work process and
the rules for undertaking the process. Everyone is undertaking a part of the
whole work process and everyone must complete his or her work in
accordance with the procedures required to make sure the job is done
satisfactorily and the data are complete and consistent.

For example, if ten people are responsible for managing government payroll,
each will have a separate responsibility. They will all have access to the same
database through the mainframe computer, and each person must complete
his or her task adequately before the ‘job’ can be considered complete.
The automation of a given work process, such as processing government
payroll information, is often viewed as an information system.
Information system: The combination of information, technology, processes and
people brought together to support a given business objective.

The mainframe is the data and application repository for most organizations.
It is also the hub for most online business activities. It is believed that
mainframes still house
90 per cent of the data major organizations rely on to conduct their business.
Despite claims that mainframe technology is dying out, sales of mainframe
hardware and software remain steady. The term ‘mainframe’ has always had
the image of being something large in size. Yet, however big the early ‘room-
filling’ mainframes were, today’s modern versions are no bigger than the size
of a household refrigerator. The level of mainframe sophistication has grown
over the more than thirty years of its evolution; organizations still recognize
its advantages in terms of performance, reliability and security.

NETWORK COMPUTING
A network computing environment is one in which an organization has linked
together personal computers that have been connected into a network.

There are a number of types of computer networks.

Local area network:
A computer network located within a relatively limited area such as a building,
agency or university campus. Also known as a LAN.
Wide area network (WAN): A computer network that covers a large
geographical area.
There are estimated 25 million computers connected to local area networks
worlds wide. The purpose of networking personal computers and even
mainframes together is to permit employees in the organization to
•communicate with one another as well as others outside the organization,
normally through the use of electronic messages
•access information and services supported on the World Wide Web
•share documents and data
•support various work processes in the organization based on the automation
of specific tasks.

A network environment can range in sophistication from very simple to very

complex.
Some networks are used to support simple electronic mail communication. In
other networks, employees may be able to share documents with each other
and carry out the work of their work groups, project teams, etc. by
exchanging electronic documents through e-mail. The most sophisticated
organizations may have automated entire work processes. For instance, draft
documents such as responses to letters sent to senior officials, are sent
through various approval levels (such as action officer to manager to director
to senior official) without ever being printed onto paper (except perhaps the
final version, which needs to be signed by the senior official)

A computer network can be simple and limited to a small

Number of computers or complex, linking a large number of
Computers.
A computer that is not connected to a network is referred to as a stand-alone
computer. When a computer is physically connected to a local area network,
using a cable or other communications channel, the computer becomes a
workstation on the network. Each device on the network including
workstations, servers, and printers is referred to as a node.

Node: A processing location on a network.

A workstation normally has all of the usual resources found in the personal
computing environment (hard drive, software, data and printer). However,
users of workstations will also have access to network resources, which
typically include application software, storage space for data files, and
printers other than those on the local workstation. On a network, the network
server typically provides the applications software and storage space for data
files.
Network server: A computer that is connected to the network and that ‘serves’ or
distributes resources to network users.

Networks use different kinds of servers to carry out specialized functions. For
example, a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing
files.

File server: A computer that serves or distributes application programs and data
files to workstations within a computer network. The hard drive of the file server is
shared by the workstations on the network.

Any user on the network can store files on the server. Other types of servers
include a print server to manage one or more printers and a database server to
process database queries.

Most network users will need to understand file servers because this is where
they will store their files on the network.
A typical local area network uses a powerful PC as a file server. However, a
minicomputer or mainframe computer can also be a file server. File servers
fall into three categories dedicated, non-dedicated and application servers.
A dedicated file server is devoted only to the task of delivering programs and
data files to workstations. A dedicated file server does not process data or run
programs for the workstations. Instead, programs run using the memory and
processor of the workstation.

In some cases, a network computer performs a dual role as both file server
and workstation. When a non-dedicated file server is used, the computer
workstation functions like a normal workstation, but other workstations can
access programs and data files from the hard disk of the user’s computer
workstation.
An application server is a computer that runs applications software and runs
the results of processing to workstations as requested. An application server
makes it possible to use the processing power of both the server and the
workstation. Use of an application server splits processing between the
workstation client and the network server. The method is also referred to as
client/server architecture.
Some networks include a host computer, usually a minicomputer or
mainframe attached with terminals. A terminal has a keyboard and screen but
does not have a local storage device and does no processing on its own.
When a terminal is connected to a host computer, all processing takes place
on the host.

The software on a local area network typically includes many of the same
applications one might use in a personal computing environment, such as
word processing, spreadsheet, and database management and so on. As the
use of networks increase, however, organizations have begun to demand
software that facilitates the flow and sharing of documents. This software
includes groupware and workflow software.

Groupware: Applications software that supports collaborative work between

groups of users by Managing schedules, sharing documents and Undertaking
intergroup communications.

Essentially, groupware manages a pool of documents and allows users to

access those documents simultaneously. A key feature of groupware is
document version management which maintains all revisions within a
document when more than one group member revises a document.

Workflow software: Software that automates the process of electronically routing

documents from one person to another in a specified sequence and time.

Workflow software facilitates a process or a series of steps. Workflow is

based on a ‘process-centered model’ as opposed to groupware’s ‘information-
centered model’.
With workflow software, the focus is on a series of steps. With groupware
software, the documents are the focus.

Peer-to-peer network: A type of network in which each workstation has equivalent

capabilities and responsibilities.

Peer-to-peer networks simply link a number of PCs together with no network

server.
This is a cheaper way of networking, and while files and printers can be
shared the wider advantages of having a network server are lost.
The main advantage of a computer network is that all the users can share
resources, rather than have users each maintain his or her own resources. It is
not necessary to purchase multiple copies of software; instead a license can
be purchased to use the software within the network which allows everyone
to use the program at the same time.
When a computer network is used, finding, retrieving, and storing files on a
network is not very different from the process used on a stand-alone
computer. However, when using a network, security is much more of an
issue. Information is now accessible to a wide group of people, and sensitive
or personal information needs to be protected.
An internal network that belongs to an organization and is accessible only by
that organization’s members is often referred to as an Intranet.

Intranet: An internal computer network that belongs to an organization and is

accessible only by that organization’s members.

THE INTERNET
The Internet evolved over the past thirty years from a fledging experiment
with four computers into a vast information network that connects millions of
microcomputers, minicomputers and mainframe computers. As of 1998, the
Internet had more than 100 million users worldwide, and that number is
growing rapidly. The Internet is decentralized by design and, remarkably, this
anarchy by design works well.

Internet: A collection of local, regional and national computer networks that are
linked together to exchange data and distribute processing tasks.

There are a variety of ways to access the Internet, the most common being
through an
Internet Service Provider (ISP). An ISP is a company that charges an ongoing
fee for providing Internet access to businesses, organizations and individuals.
The ISP provides the user with the necessary communications software (such
as e-mail) and user account. The user supplies a modem that connects the
computer to the user’s phone line. The user’s computer dials the ISP
computer and establishes a connection over the phone line. Once connected
the ISP routes data between the user’s computer and the Internet. Most ISPs
offer dial-up Internet connections and electronic mail access, along with
additional services. Some ISPs offer direct access to the Internet without the
use of proprietary software.

The Internet connects millions of people through a collection of computer

networks.

A connection that uses a phone line to establish a temporary connection to the

Internet is referred to as a dial-up connection. When the user’s computer
hangs up, the connection is broken. A phone line provides a very narrow pipe
for transmitting data. Its typical capacity is only 28.8 thousand bits per
second (bps). Using a phone line, the time to transfer the contents of a 680
megabyte CD-ROM would be over 53 hours.
More rapid digital data transmission is now available from some telecoms
providers in various parts of the world.

The World Wide Web was created in 1990 as an easy-to-use source of

information.
World Wide Web: A computer network system that allows users to browse through
information available on computers round the world.

The World Wide Web opened the Internet to millions of people interested in
finding information. There are over one million Web sites around the world
and the number is growing very quickly. The World Wide Web consists of
documents called Web pages that contain information on a particular topic. A
Web page might also contain one or more links that point to other Web
pages.
Link:
A reference to another document in an environment like the World Wide Web, that
users can go to directly by clicking on the on-screen reference with the computer’s
mouse.
Links make it easy to follow a thread of related information, even if the pages
are stored on computers located in different countries. Every Web page is
stored as an HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) document.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML):One of the main standards that
controls how the World Wide Web works; it is an SGML document type definition
that determines how Web pages are formatted and displayed and thus enables
information to be exchanged on the World Wide Web.

Standardized General Mark-up Language (SGML):A met language

that can be applied to documents in order to maintain their structure and context.
An HTML document contains special instructions called HTML tags
that tell a Web browser how to display the text, graphics, and background of
a Web page.
Web browsers are used to view Web pages, transfer files between computers,
access commercial information services, send e-mail, and interact with other
Internet users.

Web browser: A software application that enables a user to locate and viewpages
on a Web site. Also known as a browser.

To request a Web page the user either types in the URL (Uniform Resource
Locator) address or uses a ‘mouse’ to click on a Web page link.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL): The global address of documents and

other resources on the World Wide Web. URLs can point to executable files that
can be fetched using FTP (file transfer protocol, ftp ://) or a
Web page that can be retrieved using HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol, http ://).

After the http://, the next segment of the address is the server name. The
server is the computer and software that make the data available. A Web
server, for instance, is a computer that uses Web server software to transmit
Web pages over the Internet.
Most Web servers have domain names prefixed with WWW. By entering the
Web server name, one accesses the site’s home page.

Home page: The main page of a Website. Typically, the home page serves as
an index or table of contents to other documents stored at the site (that is, the
address).
Website: A location on the World Wide Web.
A home page is similar to the title page and table of contents in a book. It
identifies the site and contains links to other pages at the site. The following
is an example of a home page belonging to the ICA, viewed using a particular
type of browser software called Microsoft Explorer

The Web browser is the gateway to commercial information services as well

as the free sites on the Internet. A commercial information service provides
access to computer-based information for a fee. In 1997, approximately 17
million people subscribed to the top four commercial information services:
America On-Line, CompuServe, Microsoft Network and Prodigy.
The server sends the data for the Web page over the Internet to the computer.
The data includes two things: the information the user wants to view and a set
of instructions that tells the browser how to display it. The instructions
include specifications for the color of the background, the size of the text, and
the placement of the graphics. Additional instructions tell the browser what to
do when the user clicks on a link. The browser’s menu and tool bars help
users navigate the Web as they follow the links. The Back and Forward
buttons trace and retrace the users’ path through the links being followed
from one Web page to another. The browser stores and can display a list of
the pages being visited during each session. The browser can also store a list
of favorite sites, often called bookmarks, to permit the user to jump directly
to the site they wish to see instead of having to enter its URL every time.
Users can find information on the Web by using a search engine.
There are a number of Web sites that provide search facilities, and the
Internet Service Provider will links to these sites.

Search engine: A program that searches documents for specified keywords

and returns a list of documents where the keywords were found

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What is a computing environment?
2. What is a mainframe environment?
3. Explain the concept of an information system.
4. What is a personal computing environment?
5. What is a network computing environment?
6. Why might a network computing environment be a valuable way for
someone to work within an organization?
7.What four things does a network allow an employee to do?
8.What is a local area network?
9.What is a wide area network?
10.What is a network server?
11. What is an Intranet?
12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a computer network?
13. What is the Internet?
14. What is an Internet Service Provider?
15. What is the World Wide Web?
16. What is a URL?

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
An application software includes programs that user’s access to carry out
work. This lesson examines two applications that may be of particular use to
the student: databases and electronic mail (‘e-mail’). It introduces key
concepts related to how databases and e-mail work.

DATABASES
Databases are a collection of information stored on one or several computers.

Database: A structured assembly of logically related data designed to meet various

applications but managed independently of them.

More specifically, a database is a self-describing collection of integrated

records. A database is self-describing in that it contains, in addition to the
user’s source data, a description of its own structure (such as in a data
dictionary). It is the data dictionary that makes data independence possible
(for example, the database management system maps the data fields into
records and handles other similar transformation).

A database is a collection of information stored on computers.

In the mid-1960s, large organizations began to apply the power of mainframe
database technology to administrative functions. As the term ‘computer’
implies, originally most administrative uses of computers were to process
figures rather than text. These were usually activities involving high volumes
of numerical calculations, where the workflow was highly predictable and
routine. Typical examples include payroll, accounts administration or
personnel data. These database applications were primarily organization-wide
transaction processing systems.
The limitations of file processing prevented the easy integration of data.
Database held the promise of solving these problems so large organizations
began to develop organizational databases. Companies centralized their
operational data, such as purchase orders, inventory and accounting data in
these databases; these database applications were primarily organization-
wide, transaction processing systems.
Originally, database processing was developed for use in the mainframe
environment.
However, in the late 1970s to early 1980s, database technology began to
move from mainframes to PCs. As a result, database management systems
gradually became more powerful and easier to use. By the mid to late-1980s,
PCs were beginning to be linked together with the aid of networking, which
enabled computers to send data to one another at previously unimaginable
rates. In time, users wanted to share their databases as well; this led to the
development of multi-user database applications on local area networks
(LANs).

Databases were originally developed using mainframe computers but are now
common on personal computers and in networked environments.

Following is a brief description of the concept of databases. In order to

understand databases, it is important to begin with the data field.
Data field:
A space allocated for a particular item of information. In a database, fields are the
smallest units of information you can access.
A data field contains a single piece of information (first name, family name,
ministry, employee number, salary and so on). A collection of data fields
comprise a record as, in this example, an employee record.
A complete set of information in a database; records are composed of fields, each
of which contains one item of information.

Data structure: A scheme for organizing related pieces of information.

The basic types of structures include: files, lists, arrays, records, trees, tables.
Each of these basic structures has many variations and allows different operations
to be performed on the data.
There are three basic database models.
•Hierarchical databases exhibit a branching structure, with information
arranged into sets and sub-sets; getting to a particular piece of data may
require going through several vertically ordered files. An example is the
process involved in finding a distant cousin on a family tree.
•Network databases offer many more direct connections between files, but,
similar to hierarchies, the links are predefined and are difficult to change or
adjust.
•Object-oriented database slink self contained entities (or objects) together.
Objects can be text, a picture, a piece of film or any item that can be
individually selected and manipulated. This kind of database is particularly
useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information, but they are not
designed for structured numerical analysis.
The limitations found with these types of databases explain why most
organizations have turned to relational databases. Relational databases not
only accommodate multiple views but allow new links to be forged as needs
arise. Relational databases are powerful because they require few
assumptions about how data is related or how it will be extracted from the
database. As a result, the same database can be viewed in many different
ways.

Relational database:
A database that spreads information across different tables while maintaining links
between them.
A relational database stores facts in tables called relations. The only
requirement is that the information must be capable of being laid out in rows
and columns (similar to a list of names, addresses and phone numbers). An
example from a university might help to illustrate the concept. In a very
simplified view of a university database, each facet of the university’s
administration would be represented by a table containing information within
the remit of a single department. The admissions office, for instance, keeps
track of students by ID number, name and major field of study. The personnel
office keeps records of the department, rank, names, and social identity
numbers of the teaching staff, and so on. The following figure shows
examples of relational tables.

A relational database stores information across different tables and connects them
with links in the computer.

Database management software is used to create and manipulate databases.

Data access software is usually used to search databases. The data access
software understands the structure and details of the database which means
the user simply has to enter his or her search specifications, using either a
menu, a keyword search engine, a query language or a natural language
(among others).

Menu: A collection of onscreen choices given to the user to help him or her
interact with a computer system.

Database menus are similar to those used in most software. They are typically
arranged as a hierarchy so that after the user makes a choice at the first level
of the menu, a second series of choices appears.
Keyword searching permits access to databases through the use of keywords.

Keyword search engine:A program that allows a user to search a

database by an index entry that identifies a specific record or document.
Keyword search engines are especially popular for searching the many
documents stored in a free form database such as the World Wide Web. To
use a keyword search engine, the user types in a word and the search engine
locates areas in the database where the word or related information can be
found.
When information in a database needs to be accessed quickly, it is usually
stored as a structured database. However, the structure in structured databases
can cause a problem for users who might not know the format for the records
in a database. One way to help users search structured databases is by
providing a ‘query by example’ user interface based on the use of a query
language.
Query language:
A set of command words that can be used to direct a computer to create databases,
locate information, sort records and change the data in those records.

One query language is called SQL (structured query language). The use of
query language is based on knowledge of the command word and the
grammar or syntax that will let one construct valid query sentences. For
example, the SQL command word for finding records is SELECT.
WHERE is used to specify that only certain rows of the table are displayed.
For example, SELECT employee ID no from employee statistics table
WHERE position = ‘Manager’.
In more sophisticated systems, queries can also be formulated in a natural
language such as Standard English, French, or Japanese. In order to use the
natural language, the user is not required to learn a query language. Queries
can be straightforward such as: ‘What records of World War Two are
available in the archival institution’? This form of searching is still under
development although examples of its use are spreading rapidly.

Users can ask questions of the database using a variety of query languages, which
formulate questions so that the computer can perform operations and provide
results.

COMMUNICATING BY COMPUTER
Communicating via e-mail is rapidly becoming as important as telephone and
fax communication and forms an important component of any office
automation system.
Electronic mail (e-mail):
A way of sending messages between people anywhere within an organization or in
the world using a computer that can communicate with another computer through a
computer network.

The message or document can be viewed on a computer screen and printed out.
E-mail is handled by a variety of software programs such as Microsoft
Outlook
Express, Eudora, elm, pine and so on. The message originator creates a
message file in the e-mail software editor. When complete, the message is
posted to a message transport system that assumes the responsibility for
delivering that message to its recipient(s) ‘mailbox’.
To receive and read the message, the recipient runs a software program that
retrieves incoming messages, allowing the messages to be filed, listed,
forwarded or replied to.
Generally a single user-interface program is used to send and receive
messages both locally and worldwide. Users do not need to have the same e-
mail software program as the person they are corresponding with. The e-mail
itself may consist of simply a message or may carry with it attachments
containing files created in a variety of software applications, for example
word processed documents or spreadsheets.

Electronic mail is a method for communicating messages electronically using

computer networks.
The ability to send email depends on having an Internet Service Provider and
a modem, or being linked into a larger university, government or company
network.
Being linked into a larger network requires a user to have a network card in
the computer and access to network cabling. There are various networking
standards.
One of the most common is ‘Ethernet’.

Ethernet:
A local area network (LAN) protocol that supports data transfer.

Open networks allow users to send e-mail internally, to colleagues in the

same organization, and externally via the Internet. Some organizations have
private Networks that allow staff to send e-mail all over the world, but not
outside the Organization. Network administrators or Internet Service
Providers will give users an email address. This is usually in the formatxxx@
Yyy.zzz. The first part of the address before the @ sign is the individual
user’s name or identifier. The second part of the address is split into at least
two parts (sometimes more), each part divided by a full stop or period.
This part of the address indicates which company or university the user
works for, or which ISP they are using, or even which country they are based
in.
U
NDERSTANDING
C
OMPUTERS
52

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What is a database?
2. What is a data field?
3. What is a database record?
4. Explain the value of storing information in a database.
5. What is a relational database?
6. What is the concept of query language?
7. What is electronic mail?
8. Briefly explain how electronic mail works