Composites Communications 5 (2017) 40–45

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Composites Communications
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/coco

Compaction and bending variability measurements of a novel geometry 3D MARK

woven layer to layer interlock composite textile around a 90° curve plate
3.2 mm radius
Spiridon Koutsonas
Ulster University/NIACE (North Ireland Advanced Composites Engineering Centre), Faculty Computing and Engineering/NIACE Advanced Composites and Engineering,
Belfast, N.I., UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of this investigation is to measure compaction and bending variability of a novel composite 3D woven
Composites textile layer-to-layer interlock around a 90° curve plate geometry. To that, end with the use of an empirical
Textile power law the compaction behaviour of the novel weave geometry textile fitted. This way it is possible to
Compaction evaluate the max shear stress at 90° during bending. The preform thickness variation along the bending was
Variability
measured with the use of a Coordinate Measurement Machine. The overall methodology and data variability
90° bend 3.2 mm radius curve plate
measurements are useful for the manufacturing process of composites at macro-scale level as predictive data in
Resin Transfer Moulding flow analysis for a complex composite node with 90° bend moulder geometry.

1. Introduction orientation distribution as defined by Toll, Vf is the fiber volume frac-

tion, f 4 is an empirical carbon fiber material characteristic. The second
Compaction behaviour inside the mould cavity and corresponding term Vf0 is a parameter that needs adjustment but tends to be negligible
Vf determines the local fabric permeability and so is directly related to at realistic fibre volume fractions. So if Vf0 is is zero when the pressure
race-tracking and preform variability. In order to address preform is zero the Eq. (2) will become (2.1)
compaction a number of models by Chen et al. [1] have been proposed. 512 4
Robitaille and Gauvin [2–4] published studies of the compaction of P= Ef Vf
5π 4 (2.1)
textile reinforcements for composites manufacturing. The power law
Eq. (1), has been used as the base for unsaturated and saturated em- and so with organization of the Vf against the Pressure will be the (2.2)
pirical compaction models by Govignon et al. [5] in simulation of the 1 5π 4
Vf = P 512
reinforcement compaction and resin flow during the complete resin Ef 4 (2.2)
transferred moulding infusion process, and also by Bickerton and
Buntain [6], Correia [7], Endruweit and Long [8], Summerscales and which becames the Eq. (1).
Searle [9].
2. Methodology and materials
Vf = α c P β (1)
In Eq. (1) Vf is the fibre volume fraction, P is the pressure, α c and β Composite processing and modelling requires effective materials
are empirical material constants. The Eq. (1) implies that the fibre characterisation. Testing environments need to be representative of the
volume fraction is zero when the pressure is zero the equation may manufacturing method since the results will used in simulation tools. In
work if a limited range of Vf are considered. A more appropriate model this way, it is necessary to understand the main factors affecting the
is given by Toll and Manson [10] for elastic compression of a disperse material property and design a test routine that considers these factors.
planer fiber network Compaction characterisation for this study was conducted in a similar
fashion by Correia [7]. A purpose build machined test rig, (see Fig. 1a)
512 4
P= Ef (Vf − Vf 0) consisted of a matched top moving part and a lower fixed 50 mm in-
5π 4 (2)
ternal diameter circular fitting, which were fixed to a dual-column,
Where P is the applied pressure, E is the young’s modulus of the fiber Instron 5969 tester. For consistency and reflect to previous findings on

E-mail address: [email protected].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2017.06.004
Received 18 May 2017; Received in revised form 12 June 2017; Accepted 21 June 2017
2452-2139/ Crown Copyright © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Koutsonas Composites Communications 5 (2017) 40–45

Fig. 1. a) Instron 5969 model compaction testing rig, 1 b) Schematic of fabric compression test, 1 c) Reinforcement used for compaction tests 3D woven made off HTS40 F13, 1 d): Design
of the Sigmatex textile used for textile used for compaction and bending measurements. Image generated using Tex-Gen software. X-axis coincides with the weft direction and Y-axes
coincide with the warp direction of the fabric, 1 e) i) Shows a fabric which is woven and a fabric which is unwoven, 1 e) ii) Shows a fabric which has 2 layers with the upper portion
woven and lower portion unwoven, 1 e) iii) Shows the bound fabric where the upper portion is folded over to form a loop during the weaving process, 1 e) iv) Shows how the material
appears after weaving has recommenced with the upper portion longer in length than the lower portion 1 e) v) Shows how the structure could be formed to create a defined cross Section,
1 g) Compaction and fitting equation of the 3D woven layer to layer interlock textile.

layer effects, reinforcement samples were press-cut into 50 mm discs nAF

Vf =
and loaded into the lower fixed plate sample fitting cavity, see Fig. 1a). ρH (3.1)
Dry samples of the novel architecture 3D woven fabric were compacted
Where n is the number of layers, AF the aerial weight of the fabric, ρ is
at a rate of 1 kN/s, from zero to 10 kN static load capacity. An auto-
the density of the carbon fibres, H the thickness of the laminate.
ranging load cell used to measure force as shows Fig. 1b).
With the combination of (1) and (3):
To enable the determination of absolute distance (specimen height
H) between the upper moving plate and the lower fixed plate cavity of Hfabricthickness = αP −β (4)
the rig during testing, a linear displacement transducer was used in
order to calculate the fibre volume fraction at each state of compression In Eq. (4) the preform thickness H is related to a given compaction
m 1
according to Eq. (3) Endruweit [8]. pressure P, where α = ρA α and β are empirical material constants. The
c

m instrumentation and materials tested presented in Fig. 1 the material

Vf = properties in Table 1a) and b).
ρAH (3)
3D woven HTS40 F13 (Fig. 1c) made from carbon fibres known as
where m is the specimen mass, A is the specimen area, and ρ is the Toxo Tenax® HTS40 F13. These are commercial high strength aerospace
density of the carbon fibres. The Eq. (3) is an adaptation of the more grade carbon fibres 12k for yarn in warp, weft and binder as shows
complete Eq. (3.1) in CRAG method 1000 for the measurement of the Fig. 1d). The textile is one layer composed of eight weft yarns with
engineering properties of fibre reinforced plastics, royal aerospace es- measured thickness of (5.85 ± 0.05) mm made of HTS40 F13 carbon
tablishment technical report 88012, February 1988 as presented by fibres with carbon fibres density ρ=1760 kg/m³. The aerial mass was
Curtis [11]. calculated as the ratio of mass density, m, over surface area, A, and it

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S. Koutsonas Composites Communications 5 (2017) 40–45

Table 1 this invention is to weave a structure where one surface is woven with
a): Textiles with properties used in compaction tests, b): Compaction tests power law at least 2 threads in both warp and weft directions and the other surface
fitting according to Eq. (3), (c): Measured hmin thickness of 3D woven for HTS40 F13
consists of 2 different areas, one woven with interlacing threads and
fabric in warp, (d): Measured hmin thickness of 3D woven for HTS40 F13 fabric in weft
direction. one which consists of both woven and unwoven threads. When the
fabric which is woven forming the longer surface is at the required
1 a) length, the woven material is advanced to the point where the other
unwoven section begins. The unwoven section is then re-woven. The
Textile type Textile commercial name Manufacturer Aerial mass (kg/m2)
weaving of all layers continues from the point where both areas of
3D- woven HTS40 F13 Sigmatex Ltd 2.284 (4-layers) woven fabric ends to form a continuous fabric with a loop.
There are many applications requiring structural rigidity where this
1 b) type of material can be used as a stiffener and where an angle is re-
quired in a 3D structure. By controlling the shape of the loop during
Preform Layers H height (mm) subsequent processing with resin infusion moulding, further structural
(-0.073) integrity can be achieved.
3D- woven angle interlock fabric 4-layers 2.6051P
3D woven fabric properties and measured thickness around 90°
bend presented on Appendix A Table 1a).

was found to be: 5.30 kg/m². The fibre volume fraction calculated from 3. Compaction results and discussion
Eq. (2). The 3D interlock weave used on this research is woven in
multiple layers and the multiple layers are woven such that a loop is After HTS40 F13 preform characterisation was completed the re-
formed in the fabric. The loop of the structure is such that the distance sults of compaction tests data collected to a PC, to which the Instron
between the upper fabric surface and lower fabric surface is different. 5969 model tester was connected. The empirical power law then fitted
The woven structure has areas that have all layers joined and areas that and the pressure (bar) against fabric thickness (mm) plotted 4-layers.
are not joined which are then able to form loops. The results presented on Appendix A Table 1c), d) (nesting considered
During the standard weaving process, the fabric is drawn away from negligible due to binder of 3D woven geometry).
the loom by a set of rollers. This process is continuous and the fabric Nesting of plies was not considered as previous studies by Robitaille,
that is produced is of a defined length. The preferred embodiment of and Gauvin [2–4], Govignon et al. [5], Bickerton, et al. [6] had

Fig. 2. a) CAD design of ACTS aluminium metallic insert generic node length in mm upper view, 2 b) ACTS generic node strut members A to F, 2 c) CAD node model with the assigned
struck twenty-three 90° zones, 2 d) CMM test on the aluminium insert rectangular base with 90° curve plates used as zero (reference) firstly for the data acquisition probe and secondly
with the 3D woven textile, red arrow shows the 90° curve plate extracted from the random number generator for CMM measurements. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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S. Koutsonas Composites Communications 5 (2017) 40–45

installed on a desktop which was connected with the CMM machine was
used for the surface topology of the fabric. The probe was firstly
scanned the aluminium base node without the fabric and created a
reference CAD file. Secondly the aluminium node scanned again with
the 3D woven interlock fabric and a second CAD file was generated. The
distance of the two CAD files gave the CCM measurements of the novel
geometry 3D woven layer to layer interlock composite textile around a
90° curve plate 3.2 mm radius as shows Fig. 3a) and b).

6. Procedure

With the use of the above-mentioned instrumentation, the bending

behaviour of the textile in Table 1 was tested. Firstly, the node divided
to struck members A, B, C D, E, F secondly to each one of the generic
node struck shown in Fig. 2c), d), a sub group of 90° zones was assigned
as follows: node member A - (zones 1, 2, 3, 4), node member B - (zones
5, 6, 7, 8), node member C – ( zones 9, 10, 11, 12), node member D -
(zones 13, 14, 15, 16), node member E - (zones 17, 18, 19) and node
member F - (20, 21, 22, 23) thereafter with the use of a random number
generator (Appendix B) randomly a 90° zone number indicated and
subsequently scanned with CMM. On this case the struck member node
C top right lower part was extracted as shows red arrow Fig. 2c) and
measured with CMM. In order to define the 3D coordinate system of
reference and after 5 samples in warp and 5 samples in weft of the novel
3D woven textile measured at the same reference position.
All measurements conduct with the 3D woven textile mentioned in
Fig. 1a)-d) (4-layers ACTS fabric). The output data file collected on a PC
to which the CMM machine was connected.

6.1. CMM results

Bending tests results are presented in following Fig. 3(a) to (b)

where the gap between the fabric and the upper mould hgap is plotted
against the angle φ along the curved plate bend.
Fig. 3. a): Measured fabric thickness variation on bending with HTS40 F13 3D woven
samples warp 4-layers preform, 3 b): Measured fabric thickness variation on bending with 7. CMM results discussion
HTS40 F13 3D woven samples weft 4-layers preform.
Preform thickness measured variations Fig. 3a) – b) were used to
suggested this to be negligible, for two neighbouring layers of the same generate tables with hmin fabric thickness on the 90° bend with ap-
plain woven fabric. This way, it is possible to evaluate the preform proximation up to ± 0.1 mm (show in Appendix A Table 11c)–A d)).
thickness at any pressure value i.e. max shear stress at 90° during Al data compaction variability was collected for use subsequently on
bending. a 90° bend moulder thickness of 2.75 mm. So if preform thickness inside
mould is 2.75mm on the bend angle was measured to be lower in all
4. Bending tested fabrics. Therefore, the hmin fabric thickness on bend Appendix A
Table 1c)–A d) revealed the gap height (hgap) variation on the bend.
When a fibrous preform bends around a radius it is compacted ra- Preform measured fabric thickness variability on bend presented in
dially at the bend part due to in-plain tension caused by friction be- Fig. 3a)–b) Section 6.1 may be considered for fitting with a model in
tween the compacted preform and the tool as discussed by Dong [12]. order to predict the gap height and so racetrack and variability with
In order to measure the bending behaviour the aluminium moulder simulations flow modelling on RTM process.
insert 3D base with a 90° curved plate and 3.2mm radius designed and In this investigation:
constructed as shows Fig. 2.
• The compaction behaviour of a novel 3D woven textile was mea-
5. Coordinate measuring machine tests sured and fitted with an empirical law
• Bending variability measurements around a 90° curve plate geo-
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) Mitutoyo Crysta-Apex S metry 3.2 mm radius was effectuated
model s900 is a 3D device for measuring the physical geometrical • Generated tables with h thickness on the 90° bend from the
min
characteristics of an object. The above CCM machine has a guaranteed samples of the tested preform.
resolution of 0.0001 mm according the specifications o the manu- • These data may be used for the manufacturing process of a generic
facturer [13]. MPP-300Q Scanning Probe ultra-high-accuracy and per- node RTM process with the composite textile geometry.
formance multi-function Mitutoyo probe used for the measurements.
The internal scales provide a resolution of 0.01 μm in all axes and air 8. Conclusion
bearings guarantee best directionality. Measuring force is so low (a
minimum of 0.03 N) that even elastic work-pieces such as resins, etc., CMM experimental contact technique used in order to investigate
can be measured without damage or distortion. An MPP-300Q Scanning the compaction and bending variability behaviour of a novel 3D woven
probe attached to the third moving axis of this machine defines mea- composite textile around a 90° curve plate 3.2 mm radius on a 2.75 mm
surements. The CAT 1000S freeform surface evaluation program of moulder thickness. CMM data analysis may be used for generating a

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S. Koutsonas Composites Communications 5 (2017) 40–45

model that describes the bending around a 90° curve plate and so as UK collaborative research through Advanced Composites Truss
input to simulations of resin flow for analysis of race-tracking varia- Structures (ACTS) project with industrial partners Airbus, Bentley
bility and void formation that may arise during the manufacturing Motors Ltd, Composites Integration Ltd, Network Rail, NP-Aerospace,
process of RTM with the composite node presented in Fig. 2. Pipex, QinetiQ, Tony Gee, Sigmatex, Oxford Brooks University, and The
University of Nottingham. Sincere thanks are extended to my supervisor
Acknowledgement of this project, Prof. Andrew Long. JEC Composites award was given for
the manufacture of the 3D woven preform by Sigmatex, which studied
The work reported in this article was carried out under the Innovate on the analysis presented in this article as part of ACTS project.

Appendix A

CMM measured 3D woven fabric properties and measured thickness around 90° bend.
All CMM experimental results with the tested fabric are presented as shown in Table 1(c)-A(d).

1 c)

Sample Num. hmin fabric thickness on bend(mm)

Sample 1 2
Sample 2 2.2
Sample 3 2.2
Sample 4 2.1
Sample 5 2.2
Sample 6 2.1
Sample 7 2.1

1 d)

Sample Num. hmin fabric thickness on bend(mm)

Sample 1 2.3
Sample 2 2.4
Sample 3 2
Sample 4 2.6
Sample 5 2.2
Sample 6 2.3

Appendix B

Random numbers generator (C-prog.).

#include < stdio.h > .
#include < stdlib.h > .
#include < math.h > .
int GetRand(int min, int max);.
int main(void).
{.
int i, rgap;.
for (i = 0; i < 23; i++).
{.
rgap = GetRand(1,7);.
printf (“Gap case %d/n”, rgap);.
}.
return(0);.
}.
int GetRand(int min, int max).
{.
static int Init = 0;.
int rgapc;.
if (Init == 0).
{.
/*.
* As Init is static, it will remember it’s value between.
* function calls. We only want srand() run once, so this.
* is a simple way to ensure that happens.

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S. Koutsonas Composites Communications 5 (2017) 40–45

*/.
srand(time(NULL));.
Init = 1;.
}.
/*.
* Formula:
* rand() % N < - To get a number between 0 - N-1.
* Then add the result to min, giving you.
* a random number between min - max.
*/.
rgapc = (rand() % (max - min + 1) + min);.
return (rgapc);.
}.

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