CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Importance of control and coordination

A living being does not live in isolation. It has to constantly interact with its external environment and
has to respond properly for its survival. For example; when a hungry lion spots a deer, the lion has to
quickly make a move so that it can have its food. On the other hand, the deer needs to quickly make a
move to run for its life. The responses which a living being makes in relation to external stimuli are
controlled and coordinated by a system; especially in complex animals.
Nervous System
The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues; called nervous tissue. The nerve cell or neuron is
the functional unit of the nervous system. It is the nervous system which is mainly responsible for control
and coordination in complex animals.
Neuron: Neuron is a highly specialized cell which is responsible for transmission of nerve impulses. The
neuron consists of the following parts:

a. Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped; with many hair-like
structures protruding out of the margin. These hair-like structures are called dendrites.
Dendrites receive the nerve impulses.
b. Axon: This is the tail of the neuron. It ends in several hair-like structures; called axon
terminals. The axon terminals relay nerve impulses.
c. Myelin Sheath: There is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin sheath. The
myelin sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulses from the surroundings.

Types of Neuron

a. Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.

b. Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
c. Association neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and motor
neuron.

Nervous System in Humans

The nervous system in humans can be divided into two main parts, viz. the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system can be further divided into the somatic nervous
system and the autonomous nervous system.
Central Nervous System: The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. The
brain controls all the functions in the human body. The spinal cord works as the relay channel for signals
between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.

 Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial
nerves and spinal nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The cranial nerves come out of
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the brain and go to the organs in the head region. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The
spinal nerves come out of the spinal cord and go to the organs which are below the head
region.
Autonomous Nervous System: The autonomous nervous system is composed of a chain of nerve ganglion
which runs along the spinal cord. It controls all the involuntary actions in the human body. The autonomous
nervous system can be divided into two parts:
Sympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system heightens the activity of an organ
as per the need. For example; during running, there is an increased demand for oxygen by the body. This is
fulfilled by an increased breathing rate and increased heart rate. The sympathetic nervous system works to
increase the breathing rate and the heart rate; in this case.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system slows the down the activity of
an organ and thus has a calming effect. During sleep, the breathing rate slows down and so does the heart rate.
This is facilitated by the parasympathetic nervous system. It can be said that the parasympathetic nervous
system helps in conservation of energy.
Human Brain
Human brain is a highly complex organ; which is mainly composed of the nervous tissue. The tissues are
highly folded to accommodate a larger surface area in less space. The brain is covered by a three layered
system of membranes; called meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the meninges. The CSF provides
cushion to the brain against mechanical shocks. Furthermore, the brain is housed inside the skull for optimum
protection. The human brain can be divided into three regions, viz. forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

Parts of Human Brain

Forebrain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
Midbrain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
Hindbrain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata.

Some main structures of the human brain are explained below.

Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part in the human brain. It is divided into two hemispheres; called
cerebral hemispheres.

Functions of cerebrum:

 The cerebrum controls the voluntary motor actions.

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 It is the site of sensory perceptions; like tactile and auditory perceptions.

 It is the seat of learning and memory.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus lies at the base of the cerebrum. It controls sleep and wake cycle
(circadian rhythm) of the body. It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.
Cerebellum: Cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole structure. It coordinates the
motor functions. When you are riding your bicycle; the perfect coordination between your pedaling and
steering control is achieved by the cerebellum.
Medulla: Medulla forms the brain stem; along with the pons. It lies at the base of the brain and continues
into the spinal cord. Medulla controls various involuntary functions; like hear beat, respiration, etc.

Reflex Action:
Reflex action is a special case of involuntary movement in voluntary organs. When a voluntary organ is in
the vicinity of a sudden danger, it is immediately pulled away from the danger to save itself. For example;
when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you move away your hand in a jerk. All of this happens in
flash and your hand is saved from the imminent injury. This is an example of reflex action.

Reflex Arc: The path through which nerves signals; involved in a reflex action; travel is called the reflex
arc. The following flow chart shows the flow of signal in a reflex arc.
Receptor ⇨ Sensory Neuron ⇨ Relay neuron ⇨ Motor neuron ⇨ Effector (muscle)
The receptor is the organ which comes in the danger zone. The sensory neurons pick signals from the
receptor and send them to the relay neuron. The relay neuron is present in the spinal cord. The spinal cord
sends signals to the effector via the motor neuron. The effector comes in action moves the receptor away
from the danger.
The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal cord and the signals involved in reflex action do not travel
up to the brain. This is important because sending signals to the brain would involve more time. Although
every action is ultimately controlled by the brain, the reflex action is mainly controlled at the level of
spinal cord.
Muscular Movements and Nervous Control: Muscle tissues have special filaments; called actin and
myosin. When a muscle receives a nerve signal; a series of events is triggered in the muscle. Calcium ions
enter the muscle cells. It results in actin and myosin filaments sliding towards each other and that is how a
muscle contracts. Contraction in a muscle brings movement in the related organ.
Endocrine System
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The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A ductless gland is called endocrine gland.
Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are produced in the endocrine
glands. Hormone is mainly composed of protein. Hormones assist the nervous system in control and
coordination. Nerves do not reach to every nook and corner of the body and hence hormones are needed to
affect control and coordination in those parts. Moreover, unlike nervous control; hormonal control is
somewhat slower.

Endocrine gland Location Hormones Produced Functions

Growth hormone (GH), thyroid GH stimulates growth, TSH stimulates

Pituitary gland
At the base stimulating hormone (TSH), functioning of thyroid gland, FSH
(Also known as the
of brain Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the follicles during
master gland)
(FSH) ovulation.

Controls general metabolism and

Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine
growth in the body.

Prepares the body for emergency

Above
Adrenal gland Adrenalin situations and hence is also called
kidneys
‘Fight and flight’ hormone.

Near
Pancreas Insulin Controls blood sugar level
stomach

Sperm production, development of

Testis (male) In scrotum Testosterone secondary sexual characters during
puberty.

Egg production, development of

Ovary (female) Near uterus Oestrogen secondary sexual characters during
puberty.

Coordination in Plants:
Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system. Plants use chemical means for control and
coordination. Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in plants.
Movements in plants can be divided into two main types, viz. tropic movement and nastic movement.
Tropic Movement:
The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the stimulus are called tropic movements.
Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of a plant part in a particular direction. There are four
types of tropic movements, viz. geotropic, phototropic, hydrotropic and thigmotropic.

a. Geotropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to the gravity is called geotropic
movement. Roots usually show positive geotropic movement, i.e. they grow in the direction
of the gravity. Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.
b. Phototropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to light is called phototropic
movement. Stems usually show positive phototropic movement, while roots usually show
negative phototropic movement. If a plant is kept in a container in which no sunlight reaches
and a hole in the container allows some sunlight; the stem finally grows in the direction of
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the sunlight. This happens because of a higher rate of cell division in the part of stem which
is away from the sunlight. As a result, the stem bends towards the light. The heightened rate
of cell division is attained by increased secretion of the plant hormone auxin in the part which
is away from sunlight.
c. Hydrotropic Movement: When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards the nearest
source of water. This shows a positive hydrotrophic movement.
d. Thigmotropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to touch is called
thigmotropic movement. Such movements are seen in tendrils of climbers. The tendril grows
in a way so as it can coil around a support. The differential rate of cell division in different
parts of the tendril happens due to action of auxin.
Nastic Movement:
The movements which do not depend on the direction from the stimulus acts are called nastic movement.
For example; when someone touches the leaves of mimosa, the leaves droop. The drooping is independent
of the direction from which the leaves are touched. Such movements usually happen because of changing
water balance in the cells. When leaves of mimosa are touched, the cells in the leaves lose water and
become flaccid; resulting in drooping of leaves.
Some Plant Hormones: Auxin, gibberellins and cytokinin promote growth in plant parts. Abscissic acid
inhibits growth in a particular plant part.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWER

1. Label the parts (a), (b), (c) and (d) and show the direction of flow of electrical signals in the following
figure.
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Answer: 1. Sensory neuron2. Spinal cord3. Motor neuron4. Effector

2. Name the plant hormones responsible for the following

a. Elongation of cells
Answer: Auxin
b. Growth of stem
Answer: Giberellin
c. Promotion of cell division
Answer: Cytokinin
d. Falling of senescent leaves
Answer: Abscissic acid

3. Label the endocrine glands in the given figure.

Answer:

a. Pineal gland
b. Pituitary gland
c. Thyroid gland
d. Thymus

4. In the given figures, (a), (b) and (c), which appears more accurate and why?

Answer: Figure (a) appears more accurate because it is showing positive geotropic movement
in roots and negative geotropic movement in stem.

5. Match the terms of Column (A) with those of Column (B)

Answer:
Column A Column B
Olfactory receptors Nose

Thermo receptors Skin

Gustatoreceptors Tongue

Photoreceptors Eye

6. Label the parts of a neuron in the given figure.

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Answer:

a. Dendrites
b. Cyton
c. Axon
d. Axon terminals

7. What is a tropic movement? Explain with an example.

Answer: Tropic Movement: The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the
stimulus are called tropic movements. Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of a plant
part in a particular direction. For example; the shoot usually grows in the direction of sunlight.
This is called positive phototropic movement.

8. What will happen if intake of iodine in our diet is low?

Answer: Iodine is an important constituent of thyroxine. Thyroxine governs the rate of general
metabolism in the body. Lack of iodine in the diet can hamper general metabolism; which can
lead to many complications. Moreover, deficiency of iodine also leads to a condition which is
known as goiter. This manifests in the form of a permanent swelling in the neck.

9. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

Answer: Transmission of nerve impulses between two neurons takes place at through the
synapse. The axon terminal of a neuron releases specialized chemicals; called neurotransmitters.
These chemicals travel through the synapse and reach the dendrites of the next neuron. The nerve
impulses travel along with the neurotransmitters.

10. Answer the following:

a. Which hormone is responsible for the changes noticed in females at puberty?

Answer: Oestrogen

b. Dwarfism results due to deficiency of which hormone?

Answer: Growth hormone

c. Blood sugar level rises due to deficiency of which hormone?

Answer: Insulin

d. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of which hormone?

Answer: Thyroxine

11. Answer the following:

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a. Name the endocrine gland associated with brain?

Answer: Pineal Gland

b. Which gland secretes digestive enzymes as well as hormones?

Answer: Pancreas

c. Name the endocrine gland associated with kidneys?

Answer: Adrenal Gland

d.Which endocrine gland is present in males but not in females?

Answer: Testis