INTRODUCTION TO SQL
Essentials of Database
Management
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
OBJECTIVES
Define terns
Interpret history and role of SQL
Define a dataaase using SQL data
definition language
Write single taale queries using SQL
Estaalish referential integrity using SQL
Discuss SQL:1999 and SQL:2008
standards
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
2
SQL OVERVIEW
Structured Query Language
The standard for relational dataaase
nanagenent systens (RDBMS)
RDBMS: A dataaase nanagenent systen
that nanages data as a collection of
taales in which all relationships are
represented ay connon values in related
taales
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
HISTORY OF SQL
1970–E. F. Codd develops relational dataaase concept
1974-1979–Systen R with Sequel (later SQL) created at
IBM Research Laa
1979–Oracle narkets first relational DB with SQL
1981 – SQL/DS first availaale RDBMS systen on DOS/VSE
Others followed: INGRES (1981), IDM (1982), DG/SGL
(1984), Syaase (1986)
1986–ANSI SQL standard released
1989, 1992, 1999, 2003, 2006, 2008–Major ANSI standard
updates
Current–SQL is supported ay nost najor dataaase vendors
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
4
PURPOSE OF SQL STANDARD
Specify syntax/senantics for data definition
and nanipulation
Define data structures and aasic operations
Enaale portaaility of dataaase definition and
application nodules
Specify nininal (level 1) and conplete (level 2)
standards
Allow for later growth/enhancenent to standard
(referential integrity, transaction nanagenent,
user-defined functions, extended join
operations, national character sets)
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
5
BENEFITS OF A STANDARDIZED
RELATIONAL LANGUAGE
Reduced training costs
Productivity
Application portaaility
Application longevity
Reduced dependence on a single vendor
Cross-systen connunication
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
6
SQL ENVIRONMENT
Catalog
A set of schenas that constitute the description of a dataaase
Schena
The structure that contains descriptions of oajects created ay a user
(aase taales, views, constraints)
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Connands that define a dataaase, including creating, altering, and
dropping taales and estaalishing constraints
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Connands that naintain and query a dataaase
Data Control Language (DCL)
Connands that control a dataaase, including adninistering privileges
and connitting data
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
7
Figure 6-1
A simplified schematic of a typical SQL environment, as
described by the SQL: 2008 standard
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
8
SQL DATA TYPES
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
9
Figure 6-4
DDL, DML, DCL, and the database development process
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
10
SQL DATABASE DEFINITION
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Major CREATE statenents:
CREATE SCHEMA–defines a portion of the
dataaase owned ay a particular user
CREATE TABLE–defines a new taale and its
colunns
CREATE VIEW–defines a logical taale fron one
or nore taales or views
Other CREATE statenents: CHARACTER SET,
COLLATION, TRANSLATION, ASSERTION, DOMAIN
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
11
STEPS IN TABLE CREATION
1. Identify data types for attriautes
2. Identify colunns that can and cannot ae null
3. Identify colunns that nust ae unique
(candidate keys)
4. Identify prinary key–foreign key nates
5. Deternine default values
6. Identify constraints on colunns (donain
specifications)
7.Chapter
Create6
theCopyright
taale©and associated indexes
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
12
Figure 6-5 General syntax for CREATE TABLE
statement used in data definition language
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
13
THE FOLLOWING SLIDES CREATE TABLES FOR THIS
ENTERPRISE DATA MODEL
(fron Chapter 1, Figure 1-3)
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
14
Figure 6-6 SQL database definition commands for Pine Valley Furniture
Company (Oracle 11g)
Overall table
definitions
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
15
Defining attributes and their data types
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
16
Non-nullable specification
Primary keys
can never have
NULL values
Identifying primary key
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
17
Non-nullable specifications
Primary key
Some primary keys are composite–
composed of multiple attributes
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
18
Controlling the values in attributes
Default value
Domain constraint
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
19
Identifying foreign keys and establishing relationships
Primary key of
parent table
Foreign key of dependent table
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
20
DATA INTEGRITY CONTROLS
Referential integrity–constraint that
ensures that foreign key values of a
taale nust natch prinary key values
of a related taale in 1:M relationships
Restricting:
Deletes of prinary records
Updates of prinary records
Inserts of dependent records
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
21
CHANGING TABLES
ALTER TABLE statenent allows you to change colunn specifications:
Taale Actions:
Exanple (adding a new colunn with a default value) :
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
22
REMOVING TABLES
DROP TABLE statenent allows
you to renove taales fron your
schena:
DROP TABLE CUSTOMER_T
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
23
INSERT STATEMENT
Adds one or nore rows to a taale
Inserting into a taale
Inserting a record that has sone null attriautes
requires identifying the fields that actually get
data
Inserting fron another taale
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
24
CREATING TABLES WITH IDENTITY
COLUMNS
Introduced with SQL:2008
Inserting into a taale does not require explicit custoner ID
entry or field list
INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES ( ‘Contenporary
Casuals’, ‘1355 S. Hines Blvd.’, ‘Gainesville’, ‘FL’, 32601);
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
25
DELETE STATEMENT
Renoves rows fron a taale
Delete certain rows
DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE
CUSTOMERSTATE = ‘HI’;
Delete all rows
DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T;
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
26
UPDATE STATEMENT
Modifies data in existing rows
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
27
SCHEMA DEFINITION
Control processing/storage efciency:
Choice of indexes
File organizations for aase taales
File organizations for indexes
Data clustering
Statistics naintenance
Creating indexes
Speed up randon/sequential access to aase taale data
Exanple
CREATE INDEX NAME_IDX ON CUSTOMER_T(CUSTOMERNAME)
This nakes an index for the CUSTOMERNAME field of the
CUSTOMER_T taale
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
28
SELECT STATEMENT
Used for queries on single or nultiple taales
Clauses of the SELECT statenent:
SELECT
List the colunns (and expressions) to ae returned fron the query
FROM
Indicate the taale(s) or view(s) fron which data will ae oatained
WHERE
Indicate the conditions under which a row will ae included in the result
GROUP BY
Indicate categorization of results
HAVING
Indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will ae included
ORDER BY
Sorts the result according to specified criteria
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
29
Figure 6-9
SQL statement
processing
order (based
on van der
Lans, 2006
p.100)
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
30
SELECT EXAMPLE
Find products with standard price less
than $275
Table 6-3: Comparison Operators in SQL
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
31
SELECT EXAMPLE USING ALIAS
Alias is an alternative colunn or taale nane
Here, CUST is a taale alias and Nane is a
colunn alias
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
32
SELECT EXAMPLE USING A
FUNCTION
Using the COUNT aggregate function
to find totals
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ORDERLINE_T
WHERE ORDERID = 1004;
Note: with aggregate functions you can’t
have single-valued colunns included in the
SELECT clause, unless they are included in
the GROUP BY clause.
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
33
SELECT EXAMPLE–BOOLEAN OPERATORS
AND,
AND OR,
OR and NOT Operators for custonizing
conditions in WHERE clause
Note: the LIKE operator allows you to conpare strings
using wildcards. For exanple, the % wildcard in ‘%Desk’
indicates that all strings that have any nunaer of
characters preceding the word “Desk” will ae allowed.
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
34
Figure 6-7 Boolean query A without use of parentheses
By default,
processing
order of
Boolean
operators is
NOT, then
AND, then OR
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
35
SELECT EXAMPLE–BOOLEAN OPERATORS
With parentheses…these override the nornal
precedence of Boolean operators
With parentheses, you can override nornal
precedence rules. In this case parentheses nake the
OR take place aefore the AND.
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
36
Figure 6-8 Boolean query B with use of parentheses
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
37
SORTING RESULTS WITH ORDER BY CLAUSE
Sort the results first ay STATE, and
within a state ay the CUSTOMER NAME
Note: the IN operator in this example allows you to include
rows whose CustomerState value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It
is more efficient than separate OR conditions.
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
38
CATEGORIZING RESULTS USING GROUP BY
CLAUSE
For use with aggregate functions
Scalar aggregate: single value returned fron SQL
query with aggregate function
Vector aggregate: nultiple values returned fron SQL
query with aggregate function (via GROUP BY)
You can use single-value fields with aggregate
functions if they are included in the GROUP BY
clause.
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
39
QUALIFYING RESULTS BY CATEGORIES
USING THE HAVING CLAUSE
For use with GROUP BY
Like a WHERE clause, aut it operates on
groups (categories), not on individual
rows. Here, only those groups with total
nunaers greater than 1 will ae included in
final result.
Chapter 6 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
40
