Control Systems ELEC3114

Mathematical Models
of Systems

Dr. Arash Khatamianfar

School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications

T2 2021
Content

• Transfer function Mainly from:

Nise Textbook
• Electric network systems Chapter 2
• Simple mechanical systems Sec. 2.4 – 2.8
• Translational and rotational
And Dorf Textbook
Chapter 2
Sec. 2.2, 2.5

Page 1
Transfer Function
• Most of the physical systems can be approximated and represented
by a set of linear time invariant (LTI) set of differential equations.
• Linear approximation is possible mostly around an operating/equilibrium
point or within a linear operating range.
𝑟(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡)
System
• Consider a dynamic system represented by an nth-order LTI
differential equation:
𝑟(𝑡): Input to the system
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑦(𝑡): Output/response of the system
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑚 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑚−1 𝑟 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

We can still easily

• Take the Laplace transform solve differential
• Assume zero initial conditions equations with
non-zero Initial
𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑅(𝑠) conditions by
properly taking
𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 them into account
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) when applying the
𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 Laplace transform.

Take the inverse

𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
⟹ 𝑦 𝑡 = ℒ −1 [𝑌 𝑠 ]= ℒ −1 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑅 𝑠
Laplace transform: 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎0
Page 2
Transfer Function (2)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠)
• Definition: The ratio of the output to the input of an LTI System
dynamic system in the Laplace/frequency domain is called
transfer function of that system denoted (usually) by 𝐺(𝑠). 𝑅(𝑠): Laplace transform of the input
𝑌(𝑠): Laplace transform of the output

𝑌 𝑠 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
=𝐺 𝑠 = You may also look at the transfer
𝑅 𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 function as a frequency-
dependent amplifier because
the output signal depends on the
magnitude/gain and the phase
• The output or response of the system 𝑌 𝑠 is the product of the of 𝐺 𝑠 at different frequencies
system transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 to its input signal 𝑅 𝑠 in the carried by the input signal.
Laplace domain (convolution property).
Initial conditions are assumed
𝑌 𝑠 =𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 to be zero when deriving the
transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 .
Non-zero initial conditions can be
If the input is the impulse signal, 𝑅 𝑠 = ℒ 𝛿 𝑡 = 1, the treated as extra inputs to the system
output is technically equal to the transfer function, i.e.,
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 × 1, that’s why 𝐺 𝑠 is also referred to as
impulse response of the system.
Page 3
Transfer Function (3)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠)
Some important definitions: System
• The denominator polynomial of 𝐺 𝑠 is called the
characteristic equation because the roots of the 𝑅(𝑠): Laplace transform of the input
denominator determine the character or behaviour of the 𝑌(𝑠): Laplace transform of the output
time response. 𝑌 𝑠 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
𝐺 𝑠 = =
• The roots of the denominator polynomial of 𝐺 𝑠 are 𝑅 𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0
called the poles of the system.
• If the input has a frequency component near a
pole of the system, the output will go to infinity,
• The roots of the numerator polynomial of 𝐺 𝑠 are 𝐺(𝑠) ≅ ∞ ⇒ 𝑌(𝑠) ⟶ ∞.
called the zeros of the system.
• If the input has a frequency component near the
a zero of the system, the output will go to zero,
• The order of the system is the order of its 𝐺(𝑠) ≅ 0 ⇒ 𝑌(𝑠) ⟶ 0.
characteristic equation (order of denominator
• At zero frequency (DC input signal), the output is
polynomial in 𝐺 𝑠 , 𝑛). simply the product of the DC gain to the input,
𝑌 0 = 𝐺 0 𝑅(0).
• The DC gain of the system is the magnitude of 𝐺 𝑠 at
zero frequency 𝐺 𝑠 ȁ𝑠→0 .
𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
• If the leading coefficient (the non-zero coefficient of 𝐺 𝑠 =
highest power of 𝑠) is equal to one, 𝐺 𝑠 is called a 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0
monic form transfer function. Monic form Page 4
Example 1
• If a system is described by the following differential equation, find the following:
• (Worked solutions of examples are given in lecture)
𝑦(𝑡)
ሷ + 4𝑦(𝑡)
ሶ + 3𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑟(𝑡)
• Transfer function 𝐺(𝑠),
• Zeros and poles,
• DC gain,
• Step response (i.e., if 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡) with 𝑦 0 = 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0 and 𝑦 0 = 1, 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0),
• Ramp response (i.e., if 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡)),
• Final value of the output 𝑦(∞) under step and ramp inputs.
Answers:
𝑦 𝑠 2
• =𝐺 𝑠 = (regardless of initial conditions),
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 2 +4𝑠+3
• Two poles at 𝑝1 = −1, 𝑝2 = −3, no zero,
2
• DC gain: ,
3
2 1
• 𝑦 𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (step response, 𝑦 0 = 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0)
3 3
2 1 1
• 𝑦 𝑡 = + 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (step response, 𝑦 0 = 1, 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0)
3 2 6
8 2 1
• 𝑦 𝑡 = − + 𝑡 + 1𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (ramp response, 𝑦 0 = 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0)
9 3 9
2
• 𝑦 ∞ ȁ𝑟 𝑡 =𝑢 𝑡 = , 𝑦 ∞ ȁ𝑟 𝑡 =𝑡𝑢 𝑡 = ∞ (can we use final value theorem?!)
3 Page 5
Practice Problem 1
• A relationship between the voltage across the capacitor 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) in a series RLC circuit and the input
voltage 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) is given by the following differential equation, find the following in terms of circuit
parameters (resistance 𝑅, capacitance 𝐶, and inductance 𝐿).
𝑑 2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
• Transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) in monic form,
• Zeros and poles,
• DC gain,
• Step response (i.e., if 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡) with 𝑣𝐶 0 = 𝑣𝐶ሶ 0 = 0 and 𝑅 = 𝐶 = 𝐿 = 1),
• Final value of the output 𝑣𝐶 (∞).

Answers:
1
𝑉𝐶 𝑠
• =𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐿𝐶
𝑅 1 (regardless of initial conditions),
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

𝑅 4𝐿
• Two poles at 𝑝1,2 = −1 ± 1 − , no zero,
2𝐿 𝑅2 𝐶

• DC gain: 1,
3 3 3
• 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −0.5𝑡 (cos( 𝑡) + sin( 𝑡)) 𝑢(𝑡)
2 3 2
• 𝑣𝐶 ∞ ȁ𝑣𝑖 𝑡 =𝑢 𝑡 =1
Page 6
Why mathematical modelling!?
• Quantitative mathematical models are needed to understand Establish the control goals
and control complex systems.
• We need to analyse the relationship between the system Identify the variables to be controlled

variables to obtain a mathematical model.

Write the design requirements/
• The physical laws describing the behavior of systems usually specifications

provide a set of differential equations (mostly nonlinear). Establish the system configuration
(control system block diagram)
• If the equations can be linearized, then the Laplace transform
can be used to simplify the analysis and solution. Obtain a model
Obtain a model of
actuator,
theprocess,
of the
and the
process,
sensor
the the
actuator, and the sensor
• In practice, we need to make some assumptions to obtain a set Choose a controller and select key
of LTI models of the systems in mainly two forms: parameters to be adjusted

• Frequency domain known as Transfer Functions (using the Laplace Optimise the controller parameters and
transform). Otherwise analyse the performance

• Time domain known as State Variable or State Space models. If the performance meet the requirements/
specifications, finalise the design.

Page 7
Electrical Network Systems
• This section is mostly a revision of analyzing electric circuits in frequency
domain using the Laplace transform.
• Nothing quite new from what you have learned in ELEC1111 and ELEC2134
courses):
Impedance Admittance
Electric Voltage – Current Current – Voltage 𝑉 𝑠 𝐼 𝑠
component Relation relation 𝑍 𝑠 = 𝑌 𝑠 =
𝐼 𝑠 𝑉 𝑠
iC (t) C
1 𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝐶 1
𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = න 𝑖𝐶 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑖𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑍𝐶 = 𝑌𝐶 = 𝐶𝑠
+ vC (t) − 𝐶 0 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠
iR (t) R
𝑣𝑅 𝑡 1
𝑣𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑍𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑌𝑅 = =𝐺
+ vR (t) − 𝑅 𝑅
iL (t) L
𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 𝑡 1
𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑍𝐿 = 𝐿𝑠 𝑌𝐿 =
+ vL (t) − 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0 𝐿𝑠

• Recall that you can use either mesh or nodal analysis, voltage or current division, or
source transformation to find the transfer function relating the output of an electric
circuit to its input source.
• You can always solve the electric circuits in the Laplace domain and then use the
Page 8
inverse Laplace transform to find its solution.
Example 2
• Find the transfer function of the following circuits.
• (Worked solutions of examples will be given either in lecture or uploaded later )

𝑉2 𝑠
𝐺1 𝑠 = =?
𝑉1 𝑠

𝑉 𝑠
is(t) 𝐺2 𝑠 = =?
𝐼𝑠 𝑠

Answers:
1
𝑉2 𝑠 1
• 𝐺1 𝑠 = = = 𝑅𝐶
1
𝑉1 𝑠 𝑅𝐶𝑠+1 𝑠+
𝑅𝐶
1
𝑉 𝑠 𝑅𝐿𝑠 𝑠
• 𝐺2 𝑠 = = = 𝐶
1 1
𝐼𝑠 𝑠 𝑅𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 +𝐿𝑠+𝑅 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 Page 9
Practice problem 2
𝐼2 𝑠
• Find the transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = in the circuit below.
𝑉 𝑠
• (Worked solutions of examples will be given either in lecture or uploaded)

Answers:
𝐼2 𝑠 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2
• 𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑉 𝑠 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 +(𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶+𝐿)𝑠+𝑅1

%% MATLAB Solution
syms s R1 R2 L C V I1 I2 % Construct symbolic objects for frequency
% variable 's', and 'R1', 'R2', 'L', 'c', and 'V'.
% Form Ax=B (mesh equations).
A = [(R1+L*s) -L*s % Form A.
-L*s (L*s+R2+(1/(C*s)))]
B = [V; 0] % Form B.
x = inv(A)*B; % Use matrix inversion to solve for x.
pretty(x)
I2 = x(2); % Extract I2(s) from x.
I2 = simplify(I2); % Reduce complexity of I2(s).
G=I2/V; % Form transfer function, G(s) = I2(s)/V(s).
'G(s)' % Display label.
Page 10
pretty(G)
Practice problem 3
𝑉1 𝑠 𝑉2 𝑠
• Find the transfer functions 𝐺1 𝑠 = and 𝐺2 𝑠 = in the following
𝑅 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠
circuit.

is(t)

Answers:
𝑉1 𝑠 𝑅2 (𝐶2 𝐿𝑅1 𝑠 2 +𝐿𝑠+𝑅1 )
• 𝐺1 𝑠 = =
𝐼𝑠 𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐿 𝑠 3 +𝐿 𝑅1 𝐶2 +𝑅2 𝐶1 +𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + 𝐿+𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠+𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑉2 𝑠 𝐿𝑅2 𝑠
• 𝐺2 𝑠 = =
𝐼𝑠 𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐿 𝑠 3 +𝐿 𝑅1 𝐶2 +𝑅2 𝐶1 +𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + 𝐿+𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠+𝑅1 +𝑅2
Page 11
Electrical Network Systems – Op Amp Circuits
• Op Amps are active circuits that can be used to implement
transfer functions (unlike RLC circuits which are passive
circuits).
• In particular, they can be used to implement:
• A simple gain (amplification of a signal) Operating Conditions for an ideal Op amp:
• 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 0
• Differentiation
• High input impedance, 𝑍𝑖 = ∞ (ideal),
• Integration
• Low output impedance, 𝑍𝑜 = 0 (ideal),
• Addition and subtraction
• High constant gain amplification, 𝐴 = ∞ (ideal),
• Combination of aforementioned systems
• Under negative feedback: 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 ,
• Comparator
• In open-loop configuration 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
• Noise reducing amplifiers (in the feedback path as part of
sensors such as differential amplifiers)

Page 12
Popular Op Amp Feedback Circuits
Integrator 𝑍2 (𝑠)
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝑍2 𝑠
𝑍1 (𝑠) =−
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑍1 𝑠
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)

𝑍2 (𝑠)
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝑍2 𝑠
1 𝑍1 (𝑠) =1+
1 𝑡 ℒ 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 − 𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑍1 𝑠
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = − න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑅𝐶 0 𝑖 ՞ 𝑉𝑖 𝑠
=
𝑠 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)

Differentiator 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑠
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)

𝑑𝑣𝑖 ℒ 𝑉𝑜 𝑠
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 ՞ 𝑉𝑖 𝑠
= −𝑅𝐶𝑠

Page 13
Example 3
𝑉𝑜 𝑠
• Find the transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = in the circuit below (analog PID Controller).
𝑉𝑖 𝑠
• (Worked solutions of examples will be given either in lecture or uploaded later )

Answers:
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 +𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠+1
• 𝐺 𝑠 = =−
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝑠 2 +45.95𝑠+22.55
• 𝐺 𝑠 = = −1.232( )
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑠
Page 14
Practice problem 4
𝑉𝐿 𝑠
• Find the transfer functions 𝐺 𝑠 = in the following circuit.
𝑉 𝑠

Answers:
𝑉𝐿 𝑠 𝑠 2 +2𝑠+1
• 𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑉 𝑠 𝑠 2 +5𝑠+2

Page 15
Translational Mechanical Systems
• We have shown that electrical networks can be modelled by a
transfer function, 𝐺(𝑠), that algebraically relates the Laplace
transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input.
• Now we will do the same for mechanical systems, first focusing
𝐾 is spring constant.
on translational mechanical systems.
• Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have three passive
and linear components:
• Spring (energy–storage element) with spring constant 𝐾 in N/m
(newtons/meter).
• Mass (energy–storage element) with mass 𝑀 in kg (kilograms =
Newton-seconds2/meter).
𝑀 is mass.
• Viscous damper (energy–dissipating element) with coefficient of
viscous friction 𝑓𝑣 in N. s/m (Newton-seconds/meter).
• The input to translational mechanical systems is Force 𝑓(𝑡) in N
(Newtons), and the output is displacement 𝑥 𝑡 in m (meters).
• The mechanical elements are analogous to electrical elements, but we ignore
this analogy in this course (you can check the textbook for more information).

𝑓𝑣 is coefficient of
viscous friction. Page 16
Translational Mechanical Systems (2)
• Force-velocity and force-displacement relationships in
mechanical systems are shown in the table below:

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑋(𝑠)

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠)

Page 17
Translational Mechanical Systems (3)
• For simple mechanical systems, we need one differential equation to describe
its behaviour and find a transfer function for the system known as its
equation of motion.
• We can assume the positive direction of motion to be rightward (like the
direction of current in an electrical loop which is arbitrary).
• Assuming the positive direction of motion, we first draw a free-body diagram: A mass 𝑀 is a body
• Place on the body all forces that act on the body either in the direction of motion or in a mechanical
opposite to it. system which is acted
• Next, we use Newton’s second law to form a differential equation of on by external forces.
motion by summing all the forces and setting the sum equal to zero.
• Finally, assuming zero initial conditions, we take the Laplace transform of
the differential equation, separate the variables, and arrive at the transfer
function.

Page 18
Transfer Function – One Equation of Motion
• Let’s begin with a simple example:
• Find the transfer function, 𝑋 𝑠 /𝐹(𝑠) for the spring-mass system with damper:

• Draw the free-body diagram by placing on the mass all the forces felt by the mass:

• The external force 𝑓(𝑡) is in the same direction as the displacement 𝑥(𝑡) (which is mostly the
case), thus all other forces act to oppose the rightward motionto. Hence, the spring, viscous
damper, and the force due to inertia point to the left ('resistances' to the applied force).

• Using Newton’s Second Law, the sum of all forces to the left should be
equal to the sum of all forces to the right (like KCL in electric circuits).

𝑀𝑥ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑥ሶ 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡) Laplace ⟹ 𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)

Solve for 𝑋 𝑠 /𝐹(𝑠) 𝑋 𝑠 1

⟹ =𝐺 𝑠 =
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾
Page 19
Translational Mechanical Systems (4)
• For simple mechanical systems with one direction of displacement
only, we can directly find the transfer function by applying Newton’s
second law directly on mechanical impedances (analogous to
electrical impedances).

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑋(𝑠)
Mechanical
Impedances
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) 𝐹 𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑍𝑀 (𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)
𝑍𝑀 (𝑠) =
𝑋 𝑠
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠)

[Sum of impedances] 𝑋 𝑠 = [Sum of applied/external forces]

Page 20
Translational Mechanical Systems (5)
• Many mechanical systems are similar to multiple-loop and
multiple-node electrical networks, where more than one Note: Linearly independent motion
simultaneous differential equation is required to describe the does not imply that the motions are
system. not coupled. In general these
motions are coupled.
• The number of equations of motion is equal to the number of
linearly independent motions. For example, in a two-loop electrical
network, each loop current depends on the
• To identify the number of linearly independent point of motions, other loop current, but if we open-circuit just
we need to identify what is known as the number of degrees of one of the loops, the other current can still
freedom. exist if there is a voltage source in that loop.
As another example, motion in one robotic
• Each mass represents one point of motion. arm joint will affect the position of another
joint if all the other joints are freely left to
move.
A point of motion in a system is one
degree of freedom if and only if it can still
move under the influence of an applied
force when all other points of motion are
held still.

Page 21
Translational Mechanical Systems (6)
• After finding the linearly independent points of motion, do the following to
find a set of simultaneous equations of motion:

• Draw the free-body diagram for each independent point of motion.

• Hold other points of motion still and find the forces acting on the body due only
to its own motion.
• Hold the body still and activate/move the other points of motion one at a time.
• Place on the original body the forces created by the adjacent motion.
• Use the Principle of Superposition on each body and apply Newton’s second
law to sum all the forces and set them to zero.

Later, we formulate these steps to directly find each equation

of motion for each linearly independent point of motion,
without the need to draw the free-body diagrams.

Page 22
Transfer Function – Two Degrees of Freedom
• Let’s work with a two degrees of freedom (2 DOF) system.
• Find the transfer function, 𝑋2 𝑠 /𝐹(𝑠) for the system below:
• The system has two degrees of freedom, since
each mass can be moved in the horizontal
direction while the other is held still (two
simultaneous equations of motion).

• For the point of motion at 𝑥1 which moves body mass 𝑀1 , there are two
sets of forces acting on it:
1. The forces on 𝑀1 due to its own motion.
2. The forces on 𝑀1 due to the motion of 𝑀2 transmitted to 𝑀1 through the system.

Free body diagram

for 𝑀1 :

Hold 𝑀2 still and move 𝑀1 to the Hold 𝑀1 still and move Combine all the forces on 𝑀1
right. Draw all the forces on 𝑀1 . 𝑀2 to the right. Draw via superposition.
all the forces on 𝑀1 .
Add all the forces on 𝑀1 : 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋2 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠
Page 23
Transfer Function – Two Degrees of Freedom (2)
• Repeat finding all the forces on 𝑀2 in a similar fashion:
• For the point of motion at 𝑥2 which moves body mass 𝑀2 , there are
two sets of forces acting on it:
1. The forces on 𝑀2 due to its own motion.
2. The forces on 𝑀2 due to the motion of 𝑀1 transmitted to 𝑀2 through the
system.

Free body diagram

for 𝑀2 :

Hold 𝑀1 still and move 𝑀2 to the Hold 𝑀2 still and move Combine all the forces on
right. Draw all the forces on 𝑀2 . 𝑀1 to the right. Draw all 𝑀2 via Superposition.
the forces on 𝑀2 .

Add all the forces on 𝑀2 : 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 = 0

Page 24
Transfer Function – Two Degrees of Freedom (3)
• The set of equations of motion in the Laplace
domain are given as below:

𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋2 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠

𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 = 0

• The transfer function, 𝑋2 𝑠 /𝐹(𝑠) 𝑋2 𝑠 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2

can be obtained via either =
elimination or Cramer’s Rule: 𝐹 𝑠 Δ

𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2

where Δ=
− 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3

Quite a nightmare to find this determinant analytically!!! (We use software to

do it after substituting the parameters with numerical values.)

Page 25
Translational Mechanical Systems VII
• We notice that there is a relationship between the
coefficients of 𝑋1 𝑠 and 𝑋2 𝑠 and impedances connected
to the point of motion 𝑥1 , point of motion 𝑥2 , and anything in
between these two (by inspection!).

𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋2 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠

𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 = 0

• Thus, we can simply formulate the equations of motion via the following rule:

Sum of Sum of
Sum of
At point of impedances impedances
𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑋2 𝑠 = applied
motion 𝑥1 : connected to in between
forces at 𝑥1
the motion at 𝑥1 𝑥1 and 𝑥2

Sum of Sum of
Sum of
At point of impedances impedances
𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝑋1 𝑠 = applied
motion 𝑥2 : connected to in between
forces at 𝑥2
the motion at 𝑥2 𝑥1 and 𝑥2
Page 26
Example 4
• Find the equations of motion for the mechanical system below.
• (Worked solutions of examples will be given either in lecture or uploaded later )

Answers:
• 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝐾2 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋3 (𝑠) = 0
• 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝐾2 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠𝑋3 (𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)
• 𝑀3 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠 𝑋3 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠𝑋2 𝑠 = 0

Page 27
Practice problem 3
𝑋2 𝑠
• Find the transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = for the following system.
𝐹 𝑠

Answers:
𝑋2 𝑠 3𝑠+1
• 𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐹 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 3 +7𝑠 2 +5𝑠+1)

Page 28
Rotational Mechanical Systems
• Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as
translational mechanical systems, except that torque 𝑇(𝑡) in N. m
(newton-meters) replaces force 𝐹 and angular displacement 𝜃
in rad (radians) replaces translational displacement 𝑥.
• The mechanical components for rotational systems are the 𝐾 is spring constant.
same as those for translational systems, except that the
components undergo rotation instead of translation.
• Also, notice that the term associated with the mass is replaced by
rotational inertia.
• The components are given as below:
• Torsion Spring (energy–storage element) with spring constant 𝐾 in 𝐽 is inertia.
N. m/rad (Newtons-meters/radian).
• Inertia (energy–storage element) with moment of inertia 𝐽 in kg. m2 or
N. m. s2 /rad (kilograms-meters2 = newton-meters-seconds2/radian).
• Viscous damper (energy–dissipating element) with coefficient of
viscous friction 𝐷 in N. m. s/rad (newton-meters-seconds/radian).

𝑓𝑣 is coefficient of
viscous friction. Page 29
Rotational Mechanical Systems II
• Torque-angular velocity and torque-angular displacement relationships in
mechanical systems are shown in the table below:

𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐾𝜃(𝑠)

𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝜃(𝑠)

𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐽𝑠 2 𝜃(𝑠)

Page 30
Rotational Mechanical Systems (3)
• The concept of degrees of freedom carries over to rotational systems,
except that we test a point of motion by rotating it while holding still all
other points of motion.
• The number of points of motion that can be rotated while all others are
held still equals the number of equations of motion required to
describe the system (linearly independent points of motions or DOF).
• Writing the equations of motion for rotational systems is similar to
writing them for translational systems.
• The only difference is that the free-body diagram consists of torques
rather than forces (inertia is the body here). Positive direction of angular
• The rigid body has rotational inertia. This forms a rotational motion is counter clockwise (CCW)
impedance proportional to the angular acceleration of the body. (unless otherwise mentioned).
• In the textbook, whichever direction is
• First, we rotate a body while holding all other points still and place on its
given, you can consider that direction as
free-body diagram all torques due to the body’s own motion.
positive.
• Then, holding the body still, we rotate adjacent points of motion one at a
time and add the torques due to the adjacent motion to the free-body
diagram.
• Repeat the process for each point of motion.
• Finally, add all the torques on that particular body and set equal to zero to
form equations of motion (superposition). Page 31
Transfer Function – Two Degrees of Freedom
• Let’s work with a 2 DOF system. J1 J2
• Find the transfer function, 𝜃2 𝑠 /𝑇(𝑠) for the rotational system. The rod is
supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque
is applied at the left, and the displacement is measured at the right.

• Torsion is modelled with a spring in between two inertias. Each

rigid body can be rotated while the other is held still (2 DOF).
• At the point of motion 𝜃1 (inertia 𝐽1 ), there are two sets of torques
acting on it:
1. The torques on 𝐽1 due to its own rotation.
2. The torques on 𝐽1 due to the rotation of 𝐽2 transmitted to 𝐽1 through the system.

Free body diagram

for 𝐽1 :

Hold 𝐽2 still and rotate 𝐽1 in the Hold 𝐽1 still and rotate 𝐽2 in

same direction as 𝜃1 . Draw all the same direction as 𝜃1 . Combine all the torques on 𝐽1
the torques on 𝐽1 . Draw all the torques on 𝐽1 . via superposition.
Add all the torques on 𝐽1 : (𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾) 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇 𝑠
Page 32
Transfer Function – Two Degrees of Freedom (2)
• Repeat finding all the torques on 𝐽2 in a similar fashion: J1 J2
• At the point of motion 𝜃2 (inertia 𝐽1 ), there are two sets of torques
acting on it:
1. The torques on 𝐽2 due to its own rotation.
2. The torques on 𝐽2 due to the rotation of 𝐽1 transmitted to 𝐽2 through the
system.

Free body diagram

for 𝐽2 :

Hold 𝐽1 still and rotate 𝐽2 in Hold 𝐽2 still and rotate 𝐽1 in Combine all the torques on
the same direction as 𝜃2 . the same direction as 𝜃2 . 𝐽2 via superposition.
Draw all the torques on 𝐽2 . Draw all the torques on 𝐽2 .

Add all the torques on 𝐽2 : (𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾) 𝜃2 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃1 𝑠 = 0

Page 33
Transfer Function – Two Degrees of Freedom III
• The set of equations of motion in Laplace domain are given as below:

𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇 𝑠

𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃1 𝑠 = 0

• The transfer function, 𝑋2 𝑠 /𝐹(𝑠) can be obtained either

via elimination or Cramer’s Rule: 𝜃 𝑠 𝐾 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 −𝐾
2
= where Δ=
𝑇 𝑠 Δ −𝐾 𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾
• By inspection:

Sum of Sum of
Sum of
At point of impedances impedances
𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝜃2 𝑠 = applied
motion 𝜃1 : connected to in between
torques at 𝜃1
the motion at 𝜃1 𝜃1 and 𝜃2

Sum of Sum of
Sum of
At point of impedances impedances
𝜃2 𝑠 − 𝜃1 𝑠 = applied
motion 𝜃2 : connected to in between
torques at 𝜃2
the motion at 𝜃2 𝜃1 and 𝜃2
Page 34
Example 5
• Find the equations of motion for the mechanical system below.
• (Worked solutions of examples will be given either in lecture or uploaded later )

Answers:
• 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇 𝑠
• 𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐷2 𝑠𝜃3 𝑠 = 0
• 𝐽3 𝑠 2 + (𝐷2 + 𝐷3 )𝑠 𝜃3 𝑠 − 𝐷2 𝑠𝜃2 𝑠 = 0

Page 35
Questions?

Page 36