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Research progress in the development of natural gas as fuel for road vehicles:
A bibliographic review (1991–2016)

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DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.041

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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 702–741

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Research progress in the development of natural gas as fuel for road

vehicles: A bibliographic review (1991–2016)
Muhammad Imran Khan a,n, Tabassam Yasmeen b,c, Muhammad Ijaz Khan d,
Muhammad Farooq e, Muhammad Wakeel f
a
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, UK
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan
d
Department of Mathematics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
e
Department of Mathematics, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan
f
State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Among all alternative fuels, compressed natural gas (CNG) has been considered as one the best solutions
Received 8 November 2015 for fossil fuel substitution because of its availability throughout the world, inherent clean burning,
Received in revised form economical as a fuel and adaptability to the gasoline and diesel engines.
19 August 2016
This bibliography reviews the potential of CNG as a transportation fuel. The added bibliography at the
Accepted 23 August 2016
end of this article contains 1102 references to papers, conference proceedings and theses/dissertations on
the subject that were published between 1991 and 2016. These references have been retrieved from 137
Keywords: scientific journals. The references are classified in the following categories: Regional Experience with
Vehicle CNG Vehicles; Economic Aspect of CNG Vehicles; CNG Engine's Design, Control and Performance;
CNG
Combustion and Fuel Injection Characteristics of CNG Engines; CNG/ Diesel Dual Fuel Operations; Hy-
Emission
drogen Enriched CNG Vehicles; Environmental Aspect of CNG Vehicles; Safety Aspect of CNG Vehicles.
Natural gas
Transportation & 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
2. Regional experience with CNG vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
3. Economic aspect of CNG vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
4. CNG engine's design, control, and performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
5. Combustion and fuel injection characteristics of CNG engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
6. CNG/diesel dual fuel operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
7. Hydrogen enriched CNG vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
8. Environmental aspect of CNG vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
9. Safety aspect of CNG vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
9.1. Concluding remarks and future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Annexure-A. (Journal's List) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Annexure-B. (Bibliography). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.I. Khan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.041
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.I. Khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 702–741 703

1. Introduction Beijing (China), New York (USA), Brussels (Belgium), São Paulo
(Brazil), Salvador (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).
The yield of scientific articles is generally rising fast and pro-
fessionals are no longer able to be fully abreast with all pertinent
information. The rising specialization in various scientific arenas 3. Economic aspect of CNG vehicles
has triggered the dissemination of subject-oriented journals and
conference proceedings focused to specialist audiences. The One of the major advantages of CNG is that it offers a cheap
scholars have now more options for sharing the results of their source of energy. As the world continues to run with expensive
scientific work, but on the other hand exploring the relevant in- fuels such as and gasoline and diesel, the low-cost CNG offers a
formation may be a laborious and time-consuming process. glimmer of hope. Although emission reduction using natural gas
Moreover, sometimes the researchers are not willing to devote was the main focus of CNG application as a transportation fuel,
time to exploring the relevant information. It has been pointed out especially in metropolitan regions, in recent days, with a sharp rise
that in the field of engineering, informal knowledge channels are in oil prices, the increasingly considerable cost benefit of using
most frequently used for getting information [1]. natural gas has become a real major consideration for many new
With increasing government restriction of tailpipe emissions users. In most countries, natural gas is much cheaper than per
from vehicles powered by internal combustion engines and equivalent gallon of diesel and gasoline, even after accounting for
growing concern over the use and exhaustion of fossil fuel, alter- the costs linked with compression and even considering its lower
native fuels has gained popularity [2,3]. Natural gas has a widely thermal efficiency against diesel and gasoline, there are significant
used alternative fuel for a variety of reasons including ready economic benefits of using CNG as a transportation fuel. Gasoline
availability and its low cost and low emissions potential relative to and diesel must be passed through the complex refining process,
conventional fuel and its applicability in convention diesel and while natural gas needs very less processing from field to the
gasoline engines [4]. Natural gas is scattered in many regions of vehicle engine. It is also less prone to price fluctuations and as
the world so that it can stable supply. Therefore natural gas has compared to its resources are more evenly distributed around the
been subjected widely as a kind of clean alternative fuel for en- world.
gines [5–7]. One of the important factors for comparing the economic as-
The bibliography provided at Annexure-B contains 1102 refer- pect of automotive technology is the associated maintenance cost.
ences to journal's papers, conference proceedings and theses/dis- Although a review of the literature found no previous empirical
sertations on the subject that were published between 1991 and work that has examined the issue of maintenance cost competi-
2016. These references have been retrieved from 137 scientific tiveness of latest NGV or diesel technologies based on total life-
journals listed at Annexure-A. cycle costs. However, there are few studies which examined the
The bibliography is divided into the following parts and operating cost associated with natural gas vehicles. Based on
concerns: limited studies and research on comparative operating costs, evi-
dence supports both cost increases, cost decreases costs are
■ Regional Experience with CNG Vehicles equivalent [9–14].
■ Economic Aspect of CNG Vehicles However the association of high cost with the development of
■ CNG Engine's Design, Control and Performance refueling infrastructure (pipelines and filling stations for CNG ve-
■ Combustion and Fuel Injection Characteristics of CNG Engines hicles) remains the most significant barrier to the adaptation of
■ CNG/ Diesel Dual Fuel Operations CNG as an alternative fuel but with sufficient visibility on demand,
■ Hydrogen Enriched CNG Vehicles supportive economics, and government incentives these barriers
■ Environmental Aspect of CNG Vehicles appear surmountable. Nearly all of the countries where CNG in-
■ Safety Aspect of CNG Vehicles frastructure has been developed; incentive programs offered to
investors such as loans, subsidies, exemptions from import duties
It is difficult for the authors to recap the wide topics of this and the lowering or elimination of import tariffs on machinery,
article in a form of the state-of-the-art review article; therefore a equipment, and kits (price-supplier); and exemption from sales
bibliography is presented here. Hope, this bibliography will save taxes for the construction and operation of refueling stations. Once
time for researchers looking for information pertinent with the subsidies for fueling stations and NGV customers run out, the
subjects listed below, not having access to large databases or not expected profitability of new CNG filling facilities is no longer at-
willing to spend time on uncertain information retrieval. tractive enough. In e.g. Canada, reducing investments in fueling
stations caused the collapse of the whole NGV sector [15]. Costs of
installing CNG infrastructure can vary significant depending on
2. Regional experience with CNG vehicles size, capacity and the way natural gas is dispensed (fast-fill, time-
fill). Consequently, costs can vary widely from project to project
The word is turning towards substitute to gasoline and petro- and country to country. As the land is a significant component in
leum-based energy that is taking an upward trend in terms of building a CNG station so the cost depends on the decision to build
price. Across the globe, various countries have experienced that the station on a new site, or incorporate CNG fueling at an existing
CNG is good for the consumer and friendly to the environment site such as an existing diesel fuel station. Worldwide the average
while pushing the country into more independent state [8]. An costs identified in various studies to construct a CNG station ran-
increasing number of countries across the globe are jumping on ged between $600,000 and $1,000,000 per station excluding land
the bandwagon to make use of CNG, due to its various benefits. cost. In Pakistan the country having the highest number of CNG
This section of the bibliography covered the case studies of station after China, the average cost of constructing a CNG station
various countries and cities regarding their experience for using is comparatively much low and amounting to 150,000 US $. Ta-
the CNG as a transportation fuel. The case studies of the countries ble 1 provides estimates of total costs to construct a CNG station in
and cities listed: UK, USA, Pakistan, China, Japan, Germany, Ar- Pakistan.
gentina, Switzerland, Brazil, Qatar, Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, In addition to short-term economics, there are several socio-
Sweden, Algeria, Nigeria, Ireland, Milan, Tokyo (Japan), Dhaka economic aspects associated with the development of natural gas
(Bangladesh), Delhi (India), Santiago (Chile), Madrid (Spain), as vehicular fuel. One of the significant impacts of the NGVs will be
704 M.I. Khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 702–741

Table 1 volumetric efficiency, power loss in CNG is 10% when compared to

The estimated cost of standard size CNG gasoline.
refueling station in Pakistan in 2012.
Topics included: effects of natural gas compositions on the
Items Cost (US $) performance of CNG engine; comparative experimental perfor-
mance evaluation of CNG engines; assessment and effect of com-
Building - civil works 1,783,217 pression ratio on performance; evaluation of CNG engines under
Compressor 5,354,895
lean burn conditions; performance of turbocharged CNG SI en-
Cooling Plant 1,148,601
Dryers and filters 358,741
gines; performance of a partially stratified charge CNG engines;
Dispensers 463,951 development of electronic control unit for dual-fuel Engines; op-
Pressure meters 243,357 timization of control parameters for CNG engines; fuel manage-
Storage cylinders 581,119 ment system for CNG vehicles; A/F ratio calculation for a SI CNG
Gas Security 1,888,112
engines; fluid-dynamic and numerical simulation of CNG injection
Preliminary Expenses 800,000
Total Labor Cost 2,708,678 system; advances in waste heat recovery systems for CNG engines;
Miscellaneous Materials 469,406 integrated powertrain control for NGVs; oxidation catalysts for
Total 15,000,077 NGVs.

the opportunities for local businesses. These opportunities in- 5. Combustion and fuel injection characteristics of CNG
clude new construction jobs associated with building new sta- engines
tions and supply infrastructure; employment associated with
retrofits of existing engines and jobs related to manufacturing or The natural gas used in natural gas vehicles is the same natural
supplying parts and equipment needed to expand the industry. In gas that is used in domestic sector for cooking and heats. CNG is
Pakistan, the 2nd largest user of CNG, the NGVs sector of the produced by compressing the conventional natural gas (which is
country has attracted more than one billion US $ investment have mainly composed of methane –CH4) to less than 1% of the volume
created more than 121,000 cumulative (direct and indirect) job it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and
opportunities [8]. Moreover, as the prices of natural gas com- distributed in a rigid container at a pressure of 200–248 bar
pared to gasoline or diesel fuel is significantly less and stable in (2900–3600 psi), usually in cylindrical shapes metallic cylinder.
most of NGVs user countries so it enhances the buying capacity of Table 2 represents the comparison between the physiochemical
customers. properties of CNG to that of diesel and gasoline.
The most observable social advantage associated with operat- The combustion properties of natural gas are significantly dif-
ing vehicles with CNG pertains to the environmental advantage of ferent from regular fuel i.e. diesel and gasoline. Natural gas can
natural gas. As previously discussed in Section 8, compared to oil, burn cleaner than gasoline. This is due main to more favorable
natural gas releases lower levels of carbon dioxide, sulfur, nitrogen thermodynamic properties of the mixture, lowered peak cylinder
oxides, and ash. By emitting fewer harmful chemicals into the air, temperatures reducing engine heat losses and reduced pumping
natural gas can help alleviate different environmental problems. losses through reduced throttling. As compared to diesel and ga-
Compared to oil, natural gas releases lower levels of carbon di- soline, CNG has a longer ignition delay time due to low flame
oxide, sulfur, nitrogen oxides, and ash. By emitting fewer harmful propagation speed. CNG has lower flame propagation speed as
chemicals into the air, natural gas can help alleviate different en- compared to conventional liquid fuels, such as gasoline and diesel
vironmental problems. Secondly, since natural gas combustion [16]. This lower flame propagation speed reduces the engine brake
produces a lower level of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, it horsepower by 5–10%.
will contribute significantly less to smog formation and acid rain, The following topics are handled: combustion concepts for
preventing damages to crops, wildlife, and humans’ respiratory mono-fuel, bi-fuel and dual fuel operation of natural gas in IC
systems. engines; Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), Pre-
Topics handled in this section: comparative economics of CNG; mixed Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI), Reactivity Controlled
cost-effectiveness evaluation of diesel vs. CNG for buses; com- Compression Ignition (RCCI); numerical simulation of CNG com-
mercializing CNG as a fuel; potential of CNG transport; policy bustion; Effect of EGR on CNG combustion; kinetic models of CNG
development for marketing CNG; CNG vehicles energy consump- combustion; the influence of fuel composition on the combustion;
tion life-cycle analyses; empirical analysis on the adoption of CNG; Different injection strategies; Sequential Port Injection, direct in-
global opportunities for CNG as a transportation fuel; fuel con- jection with homogeneous mixture, direct injection with stratified
sumption of CNG vehicles. mixture, partially-stratified natural gas injection; electronically

Table 2
4. CNG engine's design, control, and performance Physiochemical properties of CNG vs Gasoline & Diesel.

The octane number of natural gas is ranging from 120 to 130. Properties CNG Gasoline Diesel

Due to this high value of octane number, CNG has a higher knock Octane/Cetane number 120–130 85–95 45–55
resistance than gasoline which enables the use of higher com- Molar mass (kg/mol) 17.3 109 204
pression ratio and thus higher engine efficiency. The performance Stoichemetric (A/F)s mass 17.2 14.7 14.6
of CNG-fueled engine highly depended on the engine design and Stoichemetric mixture density (kg/m3) 1.25 1.42 1.46
L.H.V. (MJ/kg) 47.5 43.5 42.7
type i.e. mono-fuel, bi-fuel or dual fuel. However, the major per-
L.H.V. of stoichemetric mixture (MJ/kg) 2.62 2.85 2.75
formance draws back with natural gas vehicles is the 15–20% loss Combustion Energy (MJ/m3) 24.6 42.7 36
in brake horsepower of the engine. The major attributes for this Flammability limit in air (vol% in air) 4.3–15.2 1.4–7.6 1–6
power losses low flame propagation and lost in volumetric effi- Flame propagation speed (m/sec) 0.41 0.5 –
ciency. Due to the low densities, gaseous fuels occupy 4–15 of Adiabatic Flame Temp. °C 1890 2150 2054
Auto-ignition Temp. °C 540 258 316
intake passage volume resulting in significant reduction of volu- Wobbe Index (MJ/m3) 51–58 – –
metric efficiency when compared to liquid fuels. With its low
 M.I. Khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 702–741 705

controlled gas injection system; spark ignited direct injection 8. Environmental aspect of CNG vehicles
(SIDI); spark plug fuel injector (SPFI) System;.
Exhaust gas emissions from transportation industries have
become one of the most prominent environment and social-eco-
6. CNG/diesel dual fuel operations nomic issue. The industry is moving toward alternative fuel due to
several reasons including climate change from an increase of
Diesel engines were traditionally preferred due to its lower greenhouse gas emissions, the increase of health problems in
running cost and better torque characteristics; however, during polluted cities and the political and social instability related to oil
the past decade, stringent emissions norms have mandated the supply and price. CNG is identified as a leading candidate for the
use of several advanced combustion and after-treatment technol- green transportation fuel among other alternative fuels. The main
ogies, which in turn have made the diesel engine power train constituent of CNG is methane, the simplest alkane with only one
expensive and complex. In recent years, a concern over the carbon atom and consequently no carbon-to-carbon bonds. The
emissions of a greenhouse gas like CO2 and particulate matter PM simple chemical structure of methane makes it an inherently clean
has further posed an additional challenge to the development of burning fuel. When used as motor fuels, this results in low parti-
diesel engines. One way to overcome these problems is by em- culate (PM) emissions and low toxicity of the exhaust gasses.
ploying dual fuel technology in which part of diesel fuel is sup- However, the nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions of an engine are
plemented by natural gas which is fumigated in the intake first and foremost determined by the combustion scheme and
manifold. possible exhaust gas after- treatment. Tables 3,4 summarizes the
Existing diesel engines may be converted readily to operate major worldwide experiential studies conducted to evaluate the
primarily on CNG, using diesel as a spark plug to achieve ignition. comparative emission performance of NGVs.
Due to the high ignition temperature of natural gas, it needs very Topics handled in this section: experimental comparative
high compression ratio for auto ignition i.e. about 38:1. Owing to emission analysis of CNG in bi-fuel engines, impact of CNG on air
this, it should be ignited with another fuel (diesel)—pilot injection. quality; comparative life-cycle emissions analysis of CNG; regu-
The substitution rates vary depending on the engine load. A lated and unregulated exhaust emissions from CNG vehicles;
maximum substitution rate up to 90% can be obtained with the physical properties of the particle emissions from a CNG vehicles;
currently available dual-fuel engines. Substitution rate affects both evaluating carbon emissions reduction by use of CNG; on-road
engine performance and emission. When required the system al- measurement of regulated pollutants from diesel and CNG ve-
lows the engine to run on 100% diesel. The use of diesel fuel allows hicles; real-time NOx measurements from CNG and diesel transit
buses; Influence of CNG compositions on the regulated emissions;
the retention of the diesel compression ratio and its efficiency
well-to-wheels of CNG fuel; environmental benefits of CNG buses;
while the natural gas contributes to fuel economy and is re-
comparative ultrafine particle emissions from diesel and CNG
sponsible for lowering emissions. The peak combustion tempera-
buses.
ture reduces which reduces NOx emission. Drastic reduction in PM
Tables 3,4 summarize the major worldwide experiential studies
emission has been observed when the engine operates under dual
conducted to evaluate the comparative emission performance of
fuel mode.
NGVs.
Topic handled in this section: performance of a diesel/CNG
dual-fuel engine; effect of engine parameters on the performance
of dual-fuel engines; performance characteristics of a turbo-
9. Safety aspect of CNG vehicles
charged dual fuel engines; combustion simulation of dual fuel
engines; knock characteristics of dual-fuel combustion; NOx re-
Safety of CNG vehicle is a very important aspect. In terms of
duction from a dual-fuel engines; numerical study of the pollution
handling, CNG is much safer than gasoline in many respects [43].
formation in dual-fuel engine; after treatment system for dual-fuel
The physical properties of natural gas offer some safety advantages
operation; emission characteristic of dual-fuel engine; effects of
over gasoline and diesel fuel. For example, at the atmospheric
natural gas percentage on performance of dual-fuel engine.
condition, the natural gas has an auto-ignition temperature of
540 °C in contrast to 258 °C and 316 °C for gasoline and diesel
respectively. This high auto-ignition temperature of natural gas
7. Hydrogen enriched CNG vehicles hinders the possibility of ignition in an open environment. Simi-
larly as compared to diesel/gasoline natural has a narrow flamm-
As discussed 5–10% power loss occurs in CNG-fueled engines ability range i.e. 4.3–15.2% by volume in air, which lowers the
due to the low flame propagation speed of natural gas. One ef- chance of accidental fire of the fuel. Moreover due to gaseous fuel
fective method to address the problem of slow flame propagation and being lighter than air, CNG will dissipate into the air rapidly,
speed of the natural gas is to mix the CNG with the fuel having fast whereas diesel and gasoline will pool on the ground, increasing
burning speed e.g. hydrogen. Hydrogen (H2) is considered as the the risk of fire. Natural gas is also non-toxic and will not con-
best additive for CNG due to its fast flame propagation speed (265– taminate groundwater if leaked.
325 cm/s), much better lean-burn ability and small quenching Topics included in this section: safety issues associated with
distance. This gives the potentiality to develop engines with better the CNG vehicles; risk assessment of CNG buses; CNG cylinders
performance and lower environmental impact [17]. As hydrogen is failure causes; safety features implementation in CNG vehicles;
a carbon-free fuel, the reduction in CO2 emissions is a direct modeling of CNG vehicles refueling; FEA analysis of CNG cylinders;
function of H2 content in the blend. risk analysis of CNG cylinders; health monitoring of CNG cylinders;
Topic listed in this section: kinetic modeling HCNG engine; gas leakage analysis around CNG buses; behavior of a CNG tank
combustion analysis of SI HCNG engine; CO2 emissions from HCNG during fire.
engine; numerical evaluation of HCNG engine performance;
emission characteristics of HCNG engine; effect of H2 addition to 9.1. Concluding remarks and future directions
duel-fuel engine; effect of H2 addition on CNG HCCI combustion,
effect of compression ratio on HCNG engine performance; life The available literature shows that CNG has seen some sig-
cycle greenhouse emissions from HCNG engine. nificant success in terms of adoption as a transport fuel in various
706 M.I. Khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 702–741

Table 3
Emission summary of major worldwide experiential studies.

S.N. Study Study Test Method Vehicle Fuel Emission Factor (g/km)
Year
Type Disp. (cc) After CO2 CO NOx NMHC
treatment

1 Kelly et al.[18] 1996 Real world operation, Ded, CNG Van – – CNG 352 2.35 0.34 0.11
Washington DC, USA Gasoline Van – – Gasoline 416 3.64 0.49 0.18
2 Heidinger et al. 1996 Real world operation, Bi-Fuel Car 1968 TWC CNG – 1.79 0.26 1.4
[19] Vienna, Austria Gasoline – 2.41 0.41 0.31
3 Coroller et al 1998 CBD Cycle, Paris 3 CNG bus 9500 Nil CNG – 6 12.2 6.23
[20] 4 Diesel Bus 9800 Nil Diesel – 2.85 25.1 1.2
4 Clark et al.[21] 1999 Lab, USA 3 CNG Bus 6500 OC CNG – 1.9 5.4 –
3 Diesel Bus 5900 OC Diesel – 1.5 13.2 –
5 Frailey et al.[22] 2000 CBD cycle, USA 3 CNG Bus 5880 – CNG – 0.4 8.9 –
3 Diesel Bus 5880 – Diesel – 2.4 21 –
6 Chandler et al. 2000 CBD cycle, Hartford 13 CNG bus 5900 OC CNG 460 0.40 3.37 0.30
[23] 3 Diesel Bus 5900 – Diesel 495 1.61 6.65 0.31
7 Ayala et al.[24] 2002 CBD cycle, Los Angeles 3 CNG Bus 8500 Nil CNG – 6.84 11.81 7.40
2 Diesel Bus 8500 Nil Diesel – 0.84 18.77 0.05
NYBC 3 CNG Bus 8500 Nil CNG – 19.08 12.09 16.84
2 Diesel Bus 8500 Nil Diesel – 4.47 31.70 0.13
8 NREL Emission 2002 CBD cycle Washington 5 CNG bus 8300 OC CNG – 0.187 8.46 4.53
Tests[25] 4 Diesel Bus 8500 OC Diesel – 1.7 18 3.2
9 Lanni et al.[26] 2003 CBD cycle, New York 3 CNG Bus 8500 – CNG 1472 11.09 11.09 11.12
2 Diesel Bus 8500 DPF Diesel 1787 14.82 14.82 0.04
10 Pischinger et al. 2003 Dynamometer, Germany Bi-fuel car 1800 – CNG – 0.27 0.125 0.20
[27] 1800 – Gasoline – 0.70 0.130 0.27
11 Ullman et al. 2003 Dynamometer 1 CNG bus – Nil CNG – 7.7 26.1 15
[28] 2 Diesel Bus – DPF Diesel – 2.8 22.7 0.6
12 Nylund et al. 2004 OCTA, Finland 2 CNG Bus – OC CNG – – 7 –
[29] 1 Diesel Bus – OC Diesel – – 8 –
13 Ristovski et al 2004 Dynamometer, Australia Bi-Fuel Car 4000 None CNG 361 1.12 0.67 –
[30] Gasoline 561 28 0.94 –
14 Melendez et al. 2005 CBD cycle Washington 7 CNG bus 8300 OC CNG 1370 0.215 9.62 4.35
[31] 5 Diesel Bus 8500 OC Diesel 2034 0.174 12.8 2.92
15 Jayaratne et al. 2009 Real world operation, Ded, CNG Bus – TWC CNG 671 – 12 –
[32] Queensland, Australia Diesel Bus – None Diesel 834 – 10.5 –
16 Fontaras et al 2012 Real world operation, Dual-Fuel Bus 9500 DOC Diesel-CNG 2430 7.43 32.3 0.21
[33] Milan, Italy Ded, CNG Bus 7790 TWC CNG 3660 15.8 4.38 2.19
Ded, CNG Bus 7790 – CNG 2300 1.66 3.91 0.55
Ded, CNG Bus 6900 – CNG 3120 1.01 13.6 6.99
17 Hallquist[34] 2013 Road 7 CNG bus – Nil CNG – o3 21 o 4
28 Diesel Bus – DPF Diesel – 4.33 6.66 o 4
18 Guo J et al.[35] 2014 Real world operation, Euro-V, 4 Ded CNG 8400 OC, SCR CNG 894 5.72 3.42 7.9
Beijing, China Bus & 3 Diesel Bus
8400 OC Diesel 709 1.99 4.3 0.03
19 Arvind et al[36] 2015 UDDS Cycle, Los Angeles, US-EPA 2010, Ded 8900 TWC CNG – 4.72 0.358 0.0186
USA CNG Bus & Diesel
Bus
12,400 DPF Diesel – 2.82 3.42 0.0727
12,800 DPF, SCR
1 Diesel – 0.134 1.230 0.0006
12,800 DPF, SCR
2 Diesel – 0.0248 3.80 0.0093
11,900 DPF, SCR
3 Diesel – 0.0311 5.83 0.0434
20 Aslam et al.[37] 2005 Dynamometer, Malaysia Bi-Fuel Car 1468 TWC CNG 8.4 1.2 (vol%) 2000 ppm 300 ppm
(vol%)
Gasoline 12.8 9.2 (vol%) 875 ppm 1000 ppm
(vol%)
21 Geok et al.[38] 2009 Dynamometer, Malaysia Bi-Fuel Car 1468 None CNG 10.2 2 (vol%) – 110 ppm
(vol%)
Gasoline 12.8 3 (vol%) – 380 ppm
(vol%)
22 Jahirul et al[39] 2010 Dynamometer, Malaysia Bi-Fuel Car 1594 None CNG 7.82 5.4 (vol%) 619 ppm 313 ppm
(vol%)
Gasoline 11.68 10.5 (vol%) 442 ppm 419 ppm
(vol%)

countries around the world. Although worldwide, the environ- hurdle facing the NGVs right now is the price of oil, which has
mental benefits of CNG vehicle technologies are well established, halved in price in the last year. The questions the industry needs to
but according to the latest studies, putting together the short confront are firstly, how long we will have relatively lower oil
lifetime of methane and a high estimate for fugitive methane prices and what impact this will have on the development of
emissions can result in lifecycle emissions for CNG vehicles ex- NGVs. In the prevailing low oil prices, securing a return on in-
ceeding those of modern diesel engine technology equipped with vestment is pivotal to the success of NGVs and at present, this may
exhaust emission filter. Until this issue is settled, the environ- be a challenge. Governmental incentives, such as those offered in
mental benefits of natural gas vehicles are uncertain. Similarly, a most of the countries may help.
 M.I. Khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 702–741 707

Table 4
Particle mass emission factor (PMEF) from comparative studies of diesel and CNG buses.

S.N Study Study Year Vehicles Test Method Fuel After treatment PMEF (g/km)

1 Wang et al.[40] 1997 Over 300 buses CBD transient cycle Diesel – 20
CNG – 1
2 Coroller et al[20] 1998 4 Diesel & 3 CNG buses CBD Cycle, Paris Diesel – 0.35
CNG – 0.04
3 Clark et al.[21] 1999 3 Diesel & 3 CNG buses CBD transient cycle Diesel OC 0.24
CNG OC 0.025
4 Frailey M. et al.[22] 2000 3 Diesel & 3 CNG buses CBD transient cycle Diesel – 0.38
CNG – 0.012
5 Chandler K. et al.[23] 2000 3 Diesel & 13 CNG buses CBD cycle, Hartford Diesel – 0.02
CNG OC 0.01
6 Ahlvik P. et al.[41] 2000 Diesel & 3 CNG buses CBD transient cycle Diesel None 0.16
Diesel OC 0.112
Diesel DPF 0.011
CNG None 0.017
CNG OC 0.012
7 NREL Emission Tests[25] 2002 4 Diesel & 5 CNG buses CBD cycle Washington Diesel OC 0.62
CNG OC 0.093
8 Ayala et al.[24] 2002 2 Diesel & 3 CNG buses CBD cycle, Los Angeles Diesel None 74.02
CNG None 22.81
NYBC Diesel None 392.17
CNG None 60.35
9 Lanni T. et al.[26] 2003 2 Diesel & 3 CNG buses CBD cycle, New York Diesel DPF 0.0267
CNG None 0.0197
10 Ullman TL. et al.[28] 2003 2 school buses CHSVC transient cycle Diesel None 0.115
Diesel PT 0.006
CNG None 0.033
11 Nylund N. et al.[29] 2004 2 Diesel & 3 CNG buses BSC & OCC transient cycle Diesel None 0.17
Diesel OC 0.12
Diesel PT 0.02
CNG None 0.02
CNG OC 0.01
12 Melendez M. et al.[31] 2005 5 Diesel & 7 CNG buses CBD cycle Washington Diesel OC 0.0081
CNG OC 0.0054
13 Kado N. et al.[42] 2005 2 Diesel & 3 CNG buses 3 transient cycles Diesel OC 0.056–0.074
Diesel PT 0.002–0.010
CNG None 0.014–0.058
1 steady state at 55 m/h @ 60% power Diesel OC 0.014
Diesel PT 0.002
CNG None 0.014
14 Jayaratne E. et al.[32] 2008 Diesel & dedicated CNG buses CBD Cycle, Queensland, Australia CNG TWC 0.163
Diesel None 96.5
15 Gua J et al.[35] 2014 Euro V- 3 Diesel & 4 dedicated CNG buses Real world operation, Beijing, China CNG OC, SCR 0.307
Diesel OC 1.09
16 Arvind et al[36] 2015 US-EPA 2010, Ded. CNG and Deisel Bus UDDS Cylce, Los Angeles, USA CNG TWC 1.68
Diesel DPF 2.367
Diesel DPF, SCR
1 6.03
Diesel DPF, SCR
2 4.58

Acknowledgment 12. American Journal of environmental sciences

13. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
The bibliography presented is by no means complete but it 14. Aerosol Science and Technology
gives various comprehensive aspects of Compressed Natural Gas 15. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental
(CNG) as a transportation fuel. The authors wish to apologize for 16. Corporate Environmental Strategy
the unintentional omissions of missing references. 17. Chinese Journal of Catalysis
18. Catalysis Today
19. Chemistry and technology of fuels and oils
Annexure-A. (Journal's List) 20. Control Engineering Practice
21. Computers & Fluids
1. Advances in Mechanical Engineering 22. Ecological Economics
2. Alexandria Engineering Journal 23. Energy Policy
3. Applied Mechanics and Materials 24. Engineering Failure Analysis
4. Applied Thermal Engineering 25. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
5. Applied Energy 26. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology
6. Applied Acoustics 27. Energy Systems
7. Atmospheric Environment 28. Energy for Sustainable Development
8. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 29. Energy conversion and Management
9. Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal 30. Energy Sources
10. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences 31. European Journal of Scientific Research
11. Atmospheric Pollution Research 32. Environmental Development
708 M.I. Khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 702–741

33. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy 93. Journal of Combustion

34. Environmental Science & Policy 94. Mathematical and Computer Modeling
35. Energy 95. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation
36. Energy & fuels 96. Mechanical Engineering
37. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization & Environmental 97. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials
Effects 98. Natural Gas Industry
38. Environment and Behavior. 99. Numerical Heat Transfer – Part A
39. Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering in China 100. Lubrication Science
40. Fuel 101. Oil & gas science and technology
41. IOSR Journal of Engineering 102. Proceedings of the IMechE, Part O: Journal of Risk and
42. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy Reliability
43. Indian Journal of Science and Technology 103. Proceedings of the IMechE, Part D: Journal of Automobile
44. International Journal of Emerging Technology & Advanced Engineering
Engineering 104. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute
45. Iranian Journal of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering 105. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science
46. International Journal of Environmental Research 106. Progress in Solid State Chemistry
47. International Journal of Ambient Energy 107. Pakistan Journal of Engineering & Applied Sciences
48. International Journal of Crashworthiness 108. Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
49. International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical 109. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies
Engineering 110. Power Engineering
50. International Journal of automotive technology 111. Resource and Energy Economics
51. Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 112. Risk Analysis
52. International Journal of Engine Research 113. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
53. International Journal of environmental studies 114. Reinforced Plastics
54. International Journal of green energy 115. Renewable Energy
55. International Journal of Engineering, Transactions B: 116. SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants
Applications 117. SAE International Journal of Engines
56. International Journal of Power & Energy Systems 118. SAE International Journal of Alternative Powertrains
57. International Journal of Engineering 119. Separation and Purification Technology
58. International Journal of Vehicle Design 120. Studies on Russian Economic Development
59. International Journal of Control and Automation 121. Sustainability: Science, Practice, and Policy
60. Journal of Luoyang Institute of Technology 122. Science China Technological Sciences
61. Journal of KONES Powertrain and Transport 123. Science of the Total Environment
62. Journal of Energy & Environment 124. Safety Science
63. Journal of Visualization 125. Thermal Science
64. Journal of Energy 126. The Review of Economics and Statistics
65. Journal of the Energy Institute 127. Transaction of ASME, Journal Engine & Gas Turbines Power
66. Journal of Natural Gas Chemistry 128. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice
67. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 129. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
68. Journal of hazardous materials 130. The Journal of Defense Modeling & Simulation: Applications,
69. Journal of Cleaner Production Methodology, Technology
70. Journal of Energy Chemistry 131. Transactions of CSICE
71. Journal of Industrial Research 132. Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Machinery
72. JSAE Review 133. Transactions of the Korean Society of Mechanical Engineers B
73. Journal of University of Shanghai for Science &Technology 134. Transport
74. Journal of Power Sources, 135. Transport Policy
75. Journal of engineering for gas turbines and power 136. The Annals of Regional Science
76. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences & 137. Yantai Normal University Journal (Natural Science)
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204. Kalam MA, Kazi SN, Jayed MH. Power boosting of a modified formulations in automotive CNG engines. Lubrication Science,
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205. Firouzgan A. An experimental assessment of compression ratio luation of Engine Performance and Combustion in Natural Gas
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206. Ebrahimi R, Mercier M. Experimental study of performance of 223. Alzuwayer, B., Abdelhamid, M., Pisu, P., Giovenco, P., & Venho-
spark ignition engine with gasoline and natural gas. Interna- vens, P. (2014). Modeling and Simulation of a Series Hybrid
tional Journal of Engineering, Transactions B: Applications CNG Vehicle. SAE International Journal of Alternative Power-
2011; 24(1): 65–74. trains, 3(2014-01-1802), 20-29.
207. Kato T, Saeki K, Nishide H, Yamada T. Development of CNG 224. Midhun, V. S., Karthikeyan, S., Krishnan, S., Tyagi, A. A., Rairikar,
fueled engine with lean burn for small size commercial van, S. D., Kavathekar, K. P., ... & Marathe, N. V. (2013). Development
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226. Boretti, A. (2013). Advances in Waste Heat Recovery Systems 243. De Mattos, G. B., Lopes, L. C. R., Villani, A. D. P. G., Silva, T. C.,
for Gas Engines (No. 2013-01-2433). SAE Technical Paper. Gouvêia, J. P., Moreira, L. P., & De Senne, A. (2008). Numerical
227. Cavanna, F., Sgatti, S., Lambertini, L., Sensi, F., Garagnani, N., & modeling of a high-pressure type 2 cylinder for storing natural
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pose Diagnostic Strategies for Gas Vehicles (No. 2009-24-0125). 244. Borghi, M., Franzoni, F., & Milani, M. (2007). Tailoring Simplified
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228. Pipitone, E., Cagnes, F., & Beccari, A. (2008). Performance Pre- Controlled Single Stage Injectors (No. 2007-01-0022). SAE
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2008-36-0058). SAE Technical Paper. 245. Ohtsubo, H., Yamauchi, K., Nakazono, T., Yamane, K., & Kawa-
229. de Carvalho, R. N., Villela, A. C. S., & de Melo, T. C. C. (2008). saki, K. (2007). Influence of compression ratio on performance
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230. Tona, P., Venturi, S., & Tilagone, R. (2008). Integrated power- nical Paper.
train control for a mild-hybrid urban vehicle with a downsized 246. Franzoni, F., Milani, M., Montorsi, L., & Borghi, M. (2007). The
turbo-charged CNG engine (No. 2008-01-0081). SAE Technical Preliminary Design of a Direct Actuation for CNG Pressure
Paper. Regulator Low-Pressure Stage Control (No. 2007-24-0069). SAE
231. Kalam, M. A., Masjuki, H. H., Redzuan, M., Mahlia, T. M. I., Fuad, Technical Paper.
M. A., Mohibah, M., Yusoff, A. (2009). Development and test of a 247. Da Costa, P., Salaün, M., Djéga-Mariadassou, G., Da Costa, S., &
new catalytic converter for natural gas fueled engine. Sadhana, Brecq, G. (2007). Comparative study of natural gas vehicles
34(3), 467-481. commercial catalysts in monolithic form (No. 2007-01-0039).
232. Burger, P. R. B., Baêta, J. G. C., & Valle, R. M. (2008). Performance SAE Technical Paper.
Study of a Multifuel Engine Operating Simultaneously with 248. Thien, U., Schaerfl, A., Rudolf, M., Quissek, F., Eichlseder, H., &
CNG and Ethanol in Various Proportions (No. 2008-36-0284). Bernt, A. (2007). Engine and New Fuel Management System for
SAE Technical Paper. CNG Powered Vehicles(No. 2007-26-027). SAE Technical Paper/
233. Cachon, L., & Pucher, E. (2011). Real-World Performance of a 249. Watanabe, O., Nakajima, S., Goto, H., & Matsunaga, T. (2007).
CNG Heavy Duty Articulated Truck. SAE International Journal of Development of CNG engine with variable valve timing elec-
Fuels and Lubricants, 4(2011-24-0192), 318-327. tronic control (No. 2007-01-3615). SAE Technical Paper.
234. Araki, M., Kishimoto, H, Nakajima, K, Maehara, M, Shiga, S, 250. Anand, G., Ravi, M. R., & Subrahmanyam, J. P. (2005). A Pre-
Nakamura, H., & Obokata, T. (2008). A CNG Two Stroke Cycle SI dictive Model for Natural Gas and Comparative Study with
Engine Using Intermittent Low Pressure Fuel Injection from Gasoline Fuel for a Spark Ignition Engine (No. 2005-26-035).
Scavenging Ports (No. 2008-28-0004). SAE Technical Paper. SAE Technical Paper.
235. Williams, S., Hu, L. R., Nakazono, T., Ohtsubo, H., & Uchida, M. 251. Amorim, R. J., Valle, R. M., Baeta, J. G. C., Barros, J. E. M., & De
(2008). Oxidation Catalysts for Natural Gas Engine operating Carvalho, R. D. B. (2005). Spark Ignition Engine Performance
under HCCI or SI conditions. SAE International Journal of Fuels Using Several Alcohol Concentrations in Gasoline and CNG (No.
and Lubricants, 1(2008-01-0807), 326-337. 2005-01-4138). SAE Technical Paper.
236. Bertoldi, D., Deschamps, C. J., & Oliveira, A. A. (2008). A two- 252. Maji, S., Sharma, P. B., & Babu, M. G. (2005). Experimental In-
dimensional numerical model for a port-injected natural gas vestigations on Performance and Emission Characteristics of
internal combustion engine (No. 2008-36-0364). SAE Technical CNG in a Spark Ignition Engine(No. 2005-26-344). SAE Tech-
Paper. nical Paper.
237. Kumar, M. V., Mavi, M. S., Lakshminarayanan, P. A., JeevanDass, 253. Ando, K., Manabe, A., & Yasuda, A. (2005). Hardfaced valve and
G., & Gopal, G. (2008). Thermodynamic Simulation of Turbo- P/M valve seat system for CNG and LPG fuel engines (No. 2005-
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2510). SAE Technical Paper. 254. Mistry, C. S. (2005). Comparative assessment on performance
238. Iyer, R. C., Vaggar, M., Seetharam, T. R., & Channiwala, S. A. of multi cylinder engine using CNG, LPG and Petrol as a fuel
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higher compression ratio and piston crown geometry on the 255. Andreassi, L., Cordiner, S., Mulone, V., Reynolds, C., & Evans, R.
performance of compressed natural gas engines(No. 2008-01- L. (2005). A mixed numerical-experimental analysis for the
1762). SAE Technical Paper. development of a partially stratified compressed natural gas
239. Arsie, I., Criscuolo, I., De Simio, L., & Iannaccone, S. (2011). engine (No. 2005-24-029). SAE Technical Paper
Optimization of control parameters for a heavy-duty CNG en- 256. Sako, T., Morimoto, S. S., Fujimoto, H., Okada, R., & Iida, N.
gine via co-simulation analysis(No. 2011-01-0704). SAE Tech- (2005). A study on supercharged HCCI natural gas engines (No.
nical Paper. 2005-32-0021). SAE Technical Paper.
240. Saraf, R. R., Thipse, S. S., & Saxena, P. K. (2008). Comparative 257. Olfert, J. S., & Checkel, M. D. (2005). A Fuel Quality Sensor for
Performance Analysis of Single Cylinder Automobile Engine by Fuel Cell Vehicles, Natural Gas Vehicles, and Variable Gaseous
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Paper. 258. Kawasaki, K., Takegoshi, A., Yamane, K., Ohtsubo, H., Nakazono,
241. Kurniawan, W. H., Abdullah, S., Nopiah, Z. M., & Sopian, K. T., & Yamauchi, K. (2005). An Experimental Study on the Im-
(2007). The Development of Artificial Neural Network for Pre- provement of Engine Performance and Exhaust Emissions from
diction of Performance and Emissions in a Compressed Natural Small-scale PCCI Engines Fueled by Natural Gas (No. 2005-01-
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SAE Technical Paper. 259. da Silveira, B. H., Benvenuti, L. H., Werninghaus, E., Coelho, E. P.,
242. Kurniawan, W. H., Abdullah, S., Nopiah, Z. M., & Sopian, K. Silva, C. D., de Oliveira, F. R., & Silva, J. C. S. (2004). Development
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260. Mattarelli, E., & Patroncini, P. (2004). Comparison between a 279. Hatakeyama, S., Sekiya, Y., Murayama, T., Nakai, S., Sako, T., &
Natural Gas and a Diesel engine for small industrial vehicles Tsunemoto, H. (2001). A Study on In-Cylinder Injection of Low
(No. 2004-01-0615). SAE Technical Paper. Pressure Natural Gas for Performance Improvement of Small
261. Kalam, M. A., Masjuki, H. H., Maleque, M. A., Amalina, M. A., Sized Two-Stroke SI Engines (No. 2001-01-1959). SAE Technical
Abdesselam, H., & Mahlia, T. I. (2004). Air-fuel ratio calculation Paper.
for a natural gas fueled spark ignition Engine (No. 2004-01- 280. Fiveland, S. B., Agama, R., Christensen, M., Johansson, B., Hilt-
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262. McTaggart-Cowan, G. P., Bushe, W. K., Rogak, S. N., Hill, P. G., & mulated results detailing the sensitivity of natural gas HCCI
Munshi, S. R. (2004). The effects of varying EGR test conditions engines to fuel composition (No. 2001-01-3609). SAE Technical
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high EGR levels (No. 2004-01-2955). SAE Technical Paper. 281. Franke, A., Einewall, P., Johansson, B., & Reinmann, R. (2001).
263. McMillian, M., Richardson, S., Woodruff, S. D., & McIntyre, D. Employing an ionization sensor for combustion diagnostics in a
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Paper. 282. Goto, Y., & Sato, Y. (2001). Combustion Improvement and Ex-
264. Lanni, T., Frank, B. P., Tang, S., Rosenblatt, D., & Lowell, D. haust Emissions_Characteristics in a Direct Injection Natural
(2003). Performance and emissions evaluation of compressed Gas Engine by Throttling and Exhaust Gas Recirculation (No.
natural gas and clean diesel buses at New York City's Me- 2001-01-0737). SAE Technical Paper.
tropolitan Transit Authority (No. 2003-01-0300). SAE Technical 283. Olsson, J. O., Tunestål, P., Johansson, B., Fiveland, S., Agama, R.,
Paper. Willi, M., & Assanis, D. N. (2002). Compression ratio influence
265. Sera, M. A., Bakar, R. A., & Leong, S. K. (2003). CNG engine on maximum load of a natural gas fueled HCCI engine (No.
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266. Kawamura, H., & Akama, M. (2003). Development of an adia- sign of Light Commercial Vehicle with CNG Engine Systems
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267. Yoshida, Y., Oguchi, M., & Sugiyama, G. (2003). Measuring Two-Wheeled Vehicle with Electronically Controlled Gas In-
Method of Fuel Consumption for Natural Gas Vehicles (No. jection System (No. 2005-32-0034). SAE Technical Paper.
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268. Kumarappa, S., & PrabhuKumar, G. P. (2004). Experimental in- control to optimize the efficiency of compression ignition en-
vestigation on a CNG operated Stratified Scavenged Two Stroke gines using diesel oil and natural gas (No. 2006-01-2903). SAE
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Technical Paper. 287. Umierski, M., & Wilhelm, M. (2003). Engine Concepts for CNG
269. Murakami, A., Toda, T., & Matsuki, M. (2002). Engine Control Application (No. 2003-26-0040). SAE Technical Paper.
System for a Natural Gas Vehicle (No. 2002-21-0032). SAE 288. Iyengar, K. S., Kulkarni, D. S., Chopra, N. C., Palkar, A., Thipse, S.
Technical Paper. S., Rairikar, S. D., ... & Marathe, N. V. (2007). Development of BS-
270. Dyntar, D., Onder, C., & Guzzella, L. (2002). Modeling and III CNG Engine for a Light Commercial Vehicle (No. 2007-26-
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Paper. 289. Tona, P., Moulin, P., Venturi, S., & Tilagone, R. (2007). AMT
271. Olsson, J. O., Tunestål, P., Johansson, B., Fiveland, S., Agama, R., control for a mild-hybrid urban vehicle with a downsized tur-
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2002-01-0111). SAE Technical Paper. 290. Dahlstrom, J., Tunestal, P., & Johansson, B. (2013). Reducing the
272. Hiltner, J., Fiveland, S., Agama, R., & Willi, M. (2002). System Cycle-Cycle Variability of a Natural Gas Engine Using Con-
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Paper. 291. Midhun, V. S., Karthikeyan, S., Krishnan, S., Tyagi, A. A., Rairikar,
273. Czerwinski, J., & Comte, P. (2001). Influences of gas quality on a S. D., Kavathekar, K. P., ... & Marathe, N. V. (2013). Development
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274. Walkowicz, K., Stephens, D., & Stork, K. (2001). The DOE/NREL 26-0009). SAE Technical Paper’
Next Generation Natural Gas Vehicle Program-An Overview 292. Sachdeva, A., & Mansuri, S. (2013). Reduction of Pulsation Noise
(No. 2001-01-2068). SAE Technical Paper. in CNG Vehicles (No. 2013-26-0098). SAE Technical Paper.
275. Beroun, S., & Martins, J. (2001). The development of gas (CNG, 293. Maxey, C., Kalaskar, V., Kang, D., & Boehman, A. (2013). Impact
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Technical Paper 294. Demuynck, J., De Paepe, M., Sileghem, L., Vancoillie, J., Verhelst,
276. Kubesh, J. T. (2001). Development of a throttleless natural gas S., & Chana, K. (2012). Applying design of experiments to de-
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277. Belchior, C. R., Barcellos, W. M., Pimentel, V. S. D. B., & Pereira, P. motored SI engine. SAE International Journal of Engines, 5
P. (2001). Analysis of Vehicles Converted From Gasoline to CNG (2012-01-1209), 1286–1299.
Using Conversion Devises (Kits) (No. 2001-01-3883). SAE 295. Vavra, J., Takats, M., Klir, V., & Skarohlid, M. (2012). Influence of
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278. Stanglmaier, R. H., Ryan, T. W., & Souder, J. S. (2001). HCCI engine performance (No. 2012-01-1647). SAE Technical Paper.
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Catalyst System Performance on Engines Fueled with Low- of a NG engine. International Journal of Automotive Technol-
Pressure Natural Gas (No. 2012-01-1730). SAE Technical Paper. ogy, 16(5), 721-731.
297. Baratta, M., Rapetto, N., Spessa, E., Fuerhapter, A., & Philipp, H. 315. Roy, S., Das, A. K., & Banerjee, R. (2014). Application of Grey–
(2012). Numerical and experimental analysis of mixture for- Taguchi based multi-objective optimization strategy to cali-
mation and performance in a direct injection CNG engine (No. brate the PM–NHC–BSFC trade-off characteristics of a CRDI
2012-01-0401). SAE Technical Paper. assisted CNG dual-fuel engine. Journal of Natural Gas Science
298. Kaiadi, M., Tunestål, P., & Johansson, B. (2011). Reducing and Engineering, 21, 524-531.
Throttle Losses Using Variable Geometry Turbine (VGT) in a 316. Baratta, M., & Rapetto, N. (2014). Fluid-dynamic and numerical
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motive Engineers. 317. Paul, A., Panua, R. S., Debroy, D., & Bose, P. K. (2014). Effect of
299. El-Din, H. A., Elkelawy, M., & Yu-Sheng, Z. (2010). HCCI engines compressed natural gas dual fuel operation with diesel and
combustion of CNG fuel with DME and H 2 additives (No. 2010- Pongamia pinnata methyl ester (PPME) as pilot fuels on per-
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300. Feist, M. D., Landau, M., & Harte, E. (2010). The effect of fuel ignition) engine. Energy, 68, 495-509.
composition on performance and emissions of a variety of 318. Ishida, A., Nishimura, A., Uranishi, M., Kihara, R., Nakamura, A.,
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Lubricants, 3(2010-01-1476), 100-117. ural gas engine for medium-duty trucks: exhaust emission
301. Garg, M., & Ravikrishna, R. (2010). CFD Modeling of In-Cylinder reduction against base diesel engine. JSAE review, 22(2), 237-
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302. Shanmugam, P., Anbukarasu, A. S., Babu, Y. R., Harne, V., Rair- of a Spark Plug Fuel Injector (SPFI) for Compressed Natural Gas
ikar, S. D., Kavathekar, K. P., ... & Marathe, N. V. (2009). Devel- Direct Injection in a 4-Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine”, Pro-
opment of a 2-Stroke CNG Engine for 3-Wheeler Vehicle for the ceeding of the 2nd Regional Conference on Vehicle Engineering
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303. Douailler, B., Ravet, F., Delpech, V., Soleri, D., Reveille, B., & 253-258.
Kumar, R. (2011). Direct injection of CNG on high compression 320. Shamekhi, A., Khatibzadeh, N., Shamekhi, A.H., Performance
ratio spark ignition engine: numerical and experimental in- and Emissions Characteristics Investigation of a Bi-Fuel SI En-
vestigation (No. 2011-01-0923). SAE Technical Paper’ gine Fueled by CNG and Gasoline, Proceedings of ASME, In-
304. Shinde, B. J., Adsure, S. S., Katkar, S. K., & Dhoble, A. S. (2009). ternal Combustion Engine Division, Paper No. ICES2006-1387
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305. Agarwal, S., Singh, J., & Kulshrestha, G. (2009). Development of fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine
Bi-fuel CNG Engine based passenger vehicle and Field Trials performance and emissions. Progress in Energy and Combus-
study in Indian condition (No. 2009-28-0019). SAE Technical tion Science 2011; 37: 89-112.
Paper 322. Kubota, H., Fujita, H., Okawa, T. and Mizutani, A., 2000. Devel-
306. Pipitone, E., & Beccari, S. (2009). Performances improvement of opment of oxygen sensor for compressed natural gas engine.
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2009-24-0058). SAE Technical Paper. 323. Meyer, R.C., Cole, J.J., Kienzle, E. and Wells, A.D., 1991. Devel-
307. Geok, H. H., Mohamad, T. I., Abdullah, S., Ali, Y., & Shamsudeen, opment of a CNG Engine (No. 910881). SAE Technical Paper.
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308. Abou-Arab, T. W., Mohamed, H. S., & Tayea, D. A. (2009). 325. Usmen, R.K., Subramanian, S., McCabe, R.W. and Kudla, R.J.,
Thermo-Mechanical (Vibration & Noise) Performance of CNG 1993. Design Considerations for Natural Gas Vehicle Catalytic
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Paper. 326. Smith, D.H. and Gettel, L.E., 1993. A Compressed Natural Gas
309. Tadesse, G., & Aziz, A. R. A. (2009). Effect of Boost Pressure on Mass Flow Driven Heavy Duty Electronic Engine Management
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Engine for Performance and Exhaust Emission with Diesel, Bio 328. Varde, K.S. and Bohr, T., 1993. MHC and Other Conversions In A
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311. De Simio, L., Gambino, M., & Iannaccone, S. (2009). A Study of 329. Buehler, F., Pachame, R. and Majic, D., 1991. Compressed Natural
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312. Davy, M., Evans, R. L., & Mezo, A. (2009). The ultra lean burn 330. Ishii, M., Ishizawa, S., Inada, E., Idoguchi, R. and Sekiba, T., 1994.
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449. Wohlgemuth, S., Meiland, L., Wachtmeister, G., & Fledersbacher, 466. Kim, J., Kim, E., Han, J., & Han, H. S. (2013). Pt/Pd Bimetallic
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450. Masurier, J. B., Foucher, F., Dayma, G., & Dagaut, P. (2014). Effect ECU Calibration Approach to Implement Improved CNG In-
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451. Kalam, M. A., Masjuki, H. H., Maleque, M. A., Amalina, M. A., 468. Bircann, R., Kazour, Y., Dauer, K., Fujita, M., Wells, A., Kabasin, D.
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452. Reynolds, C. C. O., Evans, R. L., Andreassi, L., Cordiner, S., & of Combustion by Multi-Ignition in Natural Gas Engines," SAE
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(No. 2005-01-0247). SAE Technical Paper. 470. Yoshimoto, Y., Kinoshita, E., Luge, S., & Ohmura, T. (2012).
453. Dyntar, D., & Guzzella, L. (2004). Optimal control for bouncing Combustion characteristics of a dual fuel diesel engine with
suppression of CNG injectors. Journal of dynamic systems, natural gas (lower limit of cetane number for ignition of the
measurement, and control, 126(1), 47-53. fuel). SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 5(2012-
454. Srinivasan, K. K., Krishnan, S. R., & Midkiff, K. C. (2006). Im- 01-1690), 1165–1173.
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455. Mehrnoosh, D., Asghar, H. A., & Asghar, M. A. (2012). Thermo- 472. Atibeh, P. A., Dennis, P. A., Orbaiz, P. J., Brear, M. J., & Watson, H.
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475. Blank, D. A. (2011). Combustion Control Chemical-Kinetics P., & Pereira, P. P. (2007). Thermodynamic modeling of com-
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476. Bounaceur, R., Herbinet, O., Fournet, R., Glaude, P. A., Battin- flexible fuel engine (No. 2007-24-0035). SAE Technical Paper.
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477. Hu, C., & Hou, S. (2010). Investigations on Combustion Process 495. Krishnan, S. R., Srinivasan, K. K., & Midkiff, K. C. (2007). Phe-
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478. Kalam, M. A., Masjuki, H. H., Mahlia, T. M. I., Fuad, M. A., Halim, Technical Paper.
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479. Brown, B. S., Rogak, S. N., & Munshi, S. (2009). Multiple injec- compression ignition engine-expanding the operating range
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bricants, 2(2009-01-1954), 953-965. 497. Middleton, A., Neumann, B., & Khatri, D. S. (2007). Natural Gas
480. Shiina, R, Suzuki, H, Araki, M, Nakamura, H, Shiga, S, Kishimoto, Injection System for Buses and Trucks-Potential to Achieve
H. (2009). Application of Scavenging-Port Injection of CNG to a Future Performance and Emission Norms (No. 2007-26-026).
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481. Iffa, E. D., & Aziz, A. R. A. (2009). Variable Density Distribution opment of a CNG injection engine compliant to Euro-IV norms
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482. Handford, D. I., & Checkel, M. D. (2009). Extending the load 499. Felice, L., Pastrello, C., Lemmermann, W., & Volpato, O. (2007).
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Paper 500. Kim, J. M., Han, S. B., & Raine, R. R. (2005). Combustion stability
483. Boretti, A. A., & Watson, H. C. (2009). The lean burn direct-in- of natural gas engine operating at idle (No. 2005-01-3446). SAE
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2790). SAE Technical Paper. 501. Araki, M., Dong, H., Obokata, T., Shiga, S., Ishima, T., & Aoki, K.
484. Middleton, A., Neumann, B., & Khatri, D. S. (2008). Develop- (2005). Characteristics of CNG direct injection with auto-igni-
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485. Ma, F., Liu, H., Wang, Y., Wang, J., Ding, S., & Zhao, S. (2008). A combustion and performance characteristics of a turbocharged
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486. Khatri, D. S., & Rungta, P. (2008). Development and Evaluation reduced kinetic schemes for SI engines fueled with compressed
of a Multipoint Gas Injection System for a Passenger Car (No. natural gas (No. 2005-01-1123). SAE Technical Paper.
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487. Papagiannakis, R. G., Hountalas, D. T., Rakopoulos, C. D., & Ra- Kono, M. (2005). Basic Aspect of Combustion of CNG Incylinder
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488. Merkisz, J., Bajerlein, M., Kozak, W., & Markowski, J. (2008). The and a three way catalyst (No. 2005-01-0250). SAE Technical
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489. Noran, N. K., Naveenchandran, P., & Aziz, A. R. A. (2011). Com- ternational Conference on Automotive and Fuel Technology (p.
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490. Obiols, J., Soleri, D., Dioc, N., & Moreau, M. (2011). Potential of lysis of combustion parameters and their relation to operating
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491. Kurniawan, W., Abdullah, S., Nopiah, Z., & Sopian, K. (2007). engines (No. 2003-01-1935). SAE Technical Paper.
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511. Czerwinski, J., Comte, P., & Zimmerli, Y. (2003). Investigations of natural gas reformate supported by DME supplement (No.
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512. Kawabata, Y., & Mori, D. (2004). Combustion diagnostics & T., & Yamauchi, K. (2006). Combustion improvement and con-
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515. Jun, D., Ishii, K., & Iida, N. (2003). Combustion analysis of nat- 533. Sen, A. K., Zheng, J., & Huang, Z. (2011). Dynamics of cycle-to-
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516. Kusaka, J., Tsuzuki, K. I., Daisho, Y., & Saito, T. (2002). A nu- Development and testing of a detailed kinetic mechanism of
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517. Harrington, J., Munshi, S., Nedelcu, C., Ouellette, P., Thompson, injection dual-fuel diesel–natural gas engine. Energy, 33(2),
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518. Caillol, C., Delorme, T., Denis, P., Berardi, G., & Porterie, B. hydrogen blends combined with EGR. Frontiers of Energy and
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SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 1(2008-01- parameter alterations in a direct injected, pilot ignited, heavy
0322), 155-161. duty natural gas engine with EGR at various operating condi-
915. Choi, B., Jeong, J., & Lee, C. (2007). Effect of TiO2 on the Re- tions (No. 2005-01-1733). SAE Technical Paper.
duction Performance of NOx Storage and Reduction Catalysts 933. Pelkmans, L., Van Poppel, M., De Keukeleere, D., Gambino, M., &
for Lean-burn Natural Gas Vehicle (No. 2007-01-1916). SAE Iannaccone, S. (2001). Influencing Parameters of the Exhaust
Technical Paper. Gas Emissions of a Stoichiometric Natural Gas Bus in Real Use
916. Chiu, J. P., Taylor, J. D., Tai, C., Reppert, T., & Christensen, L. (No. 2001-24-0038). SAE Technical Paper.
(2007). US 2010 Emissions Capable Camless Heavy-Duty On- 934. Catania, A. E., D'Ambrosio, S., Mittica, A., & Spessa, E. (2001).
Highway Natural Gas Engine (No. 2007-01-1930). SAE Techni- Experimental investigation of fuel consumption and exhaust
cal Paper. emissions of a 16V pent-roof engine fueled by gasoline and
917. Prieur, A., & Tilagone, R. (2007). A detailed Well to Wheel CNG (No. 2001-01-1191). SAE Technical Paper.
Analysis of CNG compared to diesel oil and gasoline for the 935. Stodart, A., Aitchison, I., & Lapetz, J. (2001). Emissions Perfor-
French and the European markets(No. 2007-01-0037). SAE mance of Bi-fuel CNG and Bi-fuel LPG Passenger Cars Using
Technical Paper. Sequential Multi-point Injection Systems (No. 2001-01-1195).
918. Hu, L. R., & Williams, S. (2007). Sulfur Poisoning and Re- SAE Technical Paper.
generation of Pd Catalyst under Simulated Emission Conditions 936. Louis, J. J. J. (2001). Well-to-wheel energy use and greenhouse
of Natural Gas Engine (No. 2007-01-4037). SAE Technical Paper. gas emissions for various vehicle technologies (No. 2001-01-
919. Ha, D., Park, J., Yeom, J., Ha, J., & Chung, S. (2007). Study on 1343). SAE Technical Paper.
Combustion and Emission Characteristics of CNG Fueled RI- 937. Gambino, M., Iannaccone, S., Battistelli, C. L., Crebelli, R., Iami-
Engine (No. 2007-01-3621). SAE Technical Paper. celi, A. L., & Baldassarri, L. T. (2001). Exhaust emission toxicity
920. Dalhuijsen, W., Bosma, H., Merts, M., & Buning, L. (2007). In- evaluation for heavy duty diesel and natural gas engines. Part I:
ternal Combustion Engine Vehicle: Emissions and Performance regulated and unregulated emissions with diesel fuel and a
Using Blends of Natural Gas and Hydrogen (No. 2007-32-0072). blend of diesel fuel and biodiesel (No. 2001-24-0044). SAE
SAE Technical Paper. Technical Paper.
921. Cachón, L., & Pucher, E. (2007). Fuel consumption simulation 938. Tonegawa, Y., Oguchi, M., Tsuchiya, K., Sasaki, S., Ohashi, T., &
model of a CNG vehicle based on real-world emission mea- Goto, Y. (2006). Evaluation of Regulated Materials and Ultra
surement (No. 2007-24-0114). SAE Technical Paper. Fine Particle Emission from Trial Production of Heavy-Duty
922. Schreiber, D., Forss, A. M., Mohr, M., & Dimopoulos, P. (2007). CNG Engine (No. 2006-01-3397). SAE Technical Paper.
Particle characterization of modern CNG, gasoline and diesel 939. McTaggart-Cowan, G. P., Rogak, S. N., Hill, P. G., Bushe, W. K., &
passenger cars (No. 2007-24-0123). SAE Technical Paper. Munshi, S. R. (2006). The Effects of Reingested Particles on
923. Pucher, E., & Mueller, J. (2005). Real-life Emission Measurement Emissions from a Heavy-Duty Direct Injection of Natural Gas
of Light Duty Trucks with CNG, Diesel and Gasoline Engines Engine (No. 2006-01-3411). SAE Technical Paper.
(No. 2005-01-3445). SAE Technical Paper. 940. Bach, C., Lämmle, C., Bill, R., Soltic, P., Dyntar, D., Janner, P., ... &
924. Tilagone, R., Venturi, S., & Monnier, G. (2005). Natural gas-an Baronick, J. D. (2004). Clean Engine Vehicle A Natural Gas
environmentally friendly fuel for urban vehicles: the smart Driven Euro-4/SULEV with 30% Reduced CO2-Emissions (No.
demonstrator approach (No. 2005-01-2186). SAE Technical 2004-01-0645). SAE Technical paper.
Paper. 941. Chiu, J. P., Wegrzyn, J., & Murphy, K. E. (2004). Low emissions
925. Tilagone, R., Venturi, S., & Monnier, G. (2006). Natural gas-an class 8 heavy-duty on-highway natural gas and gasoline engine
environmentally friendly fuel for urban vehicles: the smart (No. 2004-01-2982). SAE Technical Paper.
demonstrator approach. Oil & gas science and technology, 61 942. Goudie, D., Dunn, M., Munshi, S. R., Lyford-Pike, E., Wright, J.,
(1), 155-164. Duggal, V., & Frailey, M. (2004). Development of a compression
926. Bose, R. K., & Sundar, S. (2005). Emissions test results from ignition heavy duty pilot-ignited natural gas fueled engine for
diesel buses, with and without oxidation-catalyst and re- low NOx emissions (No. 2004-01-2954). SAE Technical Paper.
generating particle-trap, and CNG buses with three-way cata- 943. Maji, S., Sharma, P. B., & Babu, M. K. G. (2004). A Comparative
lyst in India (No. 2005-01-0477). SAE Technical Paper. Study of Performance and Emission Characteristics of CNG and
927. Bargende, M. (2005). A Downsized, Turbocharged Natural Gas Gasoline on a Single Cylinder SI Engine (No. 2004-28-0038).
SI Engine-Including Hybridization-For Minimized CO₂ Emis- SAE Technical Paper.
sions (No. 2005-24-026). SAE Technical Paper. 944. Jun, D., & Iida, N. (2004). A study of high combustion efficiency
928. Jones, H. L., McTaggart-Cowan, G. P., Rogak, S. N., Bushe, W. K., and low CO emission in a natural gas HCCI engine (No. 2004-
Munshi, S. R., & Buchholz, B. A. (2005). Source apportionment 01-1974). SAE Technical Paper.
of particulate matter from a diesel pilot-ignited natural gas 945. Richardson, S., McMillian, M. H., Woodruff, S. D., & McIntyre, D.
fueled heavy duty DI engine (No. 2005-01-2149). SAE Technical (2004). Misfire, knock and NOx mapping of a laser spark ig-
Paper. nited single cylinder lean burn natural gas engine (No. 2004-
929. Swartz, M. M., Tissera, C. A., Tatli, E., Vellaisamy, R., Clark, N., 01-1853). SAE Technical Paper.
Thompson, G. J., & Atkinson, R. J. (2005). Nitric oxide conver- 946. Ayala, A., Gebel, M. E., Okamoto, R. A., Rieger, P. L., Kado, N. Y.,
sion in a spark ignited natural gas engine (No. 2005-01-0234). Cotter, C., & Verma, N. (2003). Oxidation catalyst effect on CNG
SAE Technical Paper. transit bus emissions(No. 2003-01-1900). SAE Technical Paper.
930. Hill, P. G., & McTaggart-Cowan, G. P. (2005). Nitrogen oxide 947. Walkowicz, K., Wayne, S., Nine, R., Campbell, K., & Wiedemeier,
production in a diesel engine fueled by natural gas (No. 2005- G. (2003). Chassis Dynamometer Emission Measurements from
01-1727). SAE Technical Paper. Refuse Trucks Using Dual-Fuel™ Natural Gas Engines (No.
931. Tissera, C. A., Swartz, M. M., Tatli, E., Vellaisamy, R., Clark, N., 2003-01-3366). SAE Technical Paper.
Thompson, G. J., & Atkinson, R. J. (2005). NOx Decomposition in 948. Ullman, T. L., Smith, L. R., Anthony, J. W., Slodowske, W. J.,
Natural Gas, Diesel and Gasoline Engines for Selective NOx Trestrail, B., Cook, A. L., ... & Clark, C. R. (2003). Comparison of
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exhaust emissions, including toxic air contaminants, from 963. Subramanian, K. A., Mathad, V. C., Vijay, V. K., Subbarao, P. M. V.
school buses in compressed natural gas, low emitting diesel, (2013). Comparative evaluation of emission and fuel economy
and conventional diesel engine configurations (No. 2003-01- of an automotive spark ignition vehicle fueled with methane
1381). SAE Technical Paper. enriched biogas and CNG using chassis dynamometer. Applied
949. Jensen, T. K., & Schramm, J. (2003). The role of post flame Energy, 105, 17-29.
oxidation on the UHC emission for combustion of natural gas 964. Hagos, F. Y., Aziz, A. R. A., & Sulaiman, S. A. (2014). Syngas (H 2/
and hydrogen containing fuels (No. 2003-01-1775). SAE Tech- CO) in a spark-ignition direct-injection engine. Part 1: Com-
nical Paper. bustion, performance and emissions comparison with CNG.
950. Lev-On, M., Letavec, C., Uihlein, J., Alleman, T. L., Lawson, D. R., International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,39(31), 17884-17895.
Vertin, K., ... & Hallstrom, K. (2002). Chemical speciation of 965. Turrio-Baldassarri, L., Battistelli, C. L., Conti, L., Crebelli, R., De
exhaust emissions from trucks and buses fueled on ultra-low Berardis, B., Iamiceli, A. L., ... & Iannaccone, S. (2006). Evaluation
sulfur diesel and CNG (No. 2002-01-0432). SAE Technical Paper. of emission toxicity of urban bus engines: Compressed natural
951. Kamel, M., Lyford-Pike, E., Frailey, M., Bolin, M., Clark, N., Nine, gas and comparison with liquid fuels. Science of the Total En-
R., & Wayne, S. (2002). An emission and performance com- vironment, 355(1), 64-77.
parison of the natural gas Cummins Westport Inc. C-Gas Plus 966. Hussain, M., Deorsola, F. A., Russo, N., Fino, D., & Pirone, R.
versus diesel in heavy-duty trucks (No. 2002-01-2737). SAE (2015). Abatement of CH 4 emitted by CNG vehicles using Pd-
Technical Paper. SBA-15 and Pd-KIT-6 catalysts. Fuel, 149, 2-7.
952. Lyford-Pike, E. J. (2003). An emission and performance com- 967. Nanaki, E. A., Koroneos, C. J., Xydis, G. A., & Rovas, D. (2014).
parison of the natural gas C-gas plus engine in heavy-duty Comparative environmental assessment of Athens urban buses
trucks. A Subcontractor Report (contract no. DE-AC36-99- —Diesel, CNG and biofuel powered. Transport Policy, 35, 311-
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US department of Energy, NREL/SR-540-32863. 968. Chuayboon, S., Prasertsan, S., Theppaya, T., Maliwan, K., &
953. Ricklin, P. U., Kazakov, A., Dryer, F. L., Kong, S. C., & Reitz, R. D. Prasertsan, P. (2014). Effects of CH 4, H 2 and CO 2 Mixtures on
(2002). The effects of NOx addition on the auto ignition be- SI Gas Engine. Energy Procedia, 52, 659-665.
havior of natural gas under HCCI conditions (No. 2002-01- 969. Karavalakis, G., Hajbabaei, M., Durbin, T. D., Johnson, K. C.,
1746). SAE Technical Paper. Zheng, Z., & Miller, W. J. (2013). The effect of natural gas
954. Ayala, A., Kado, N. Y., Okamoto, R. A., Holmén, B. A., Kuzmicky, P. composition on the regulated emissions, gaseous toxic pollu-
A., Kobayashi, R., & Stiglitz, K. E. (2002). Diesel and CNG heavy- tants, and ultrafine particle number emissions from a refuse
duty transit bus emissions over multiple driving schedules: hauler vehicle. Energy, 50, 280-291.
Regulated pollutants and project overview (No. 2002-01-1722). 970. Ejaz S, Chekaroa, Ahmad I, Nasir M, Ashraf A, Lim CW. Pollution
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955. Valle, R. M., Rodrigues, V. F., & Silva, J. E. (2002). Performance vironmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 2009; 28:323-332.
and Emission Analysis of the Otto Cycle Engine Converted to Bi- 971. Ristovski, Z., Morawska, L., Thomas, S., Hitchins, J., Greenaway,
Fuel Gasoline and Natural Gas (Vng) (No. 2002-01-3543). SAE C. and Gilbert, D., 1999. Submicron particle emissions from
Technical Paper compressed natural gas engines. Journal of Aerosol Science, 30,
956. Hong, S., Assanis, D., & Wooldridge, M. (2002). Multi-dimen- pp. S529-S530.
sional modeling of NO and soot emissions with detailed 972. Lampert, J.K., Kazi, M.S. and Farrauto, R.J., 1997. Palladium cat-
chemistry and mixing in a direct injection natural gas engine alyst performance for methane emissions abatement from lean
(No. 2002-01-1112). SAE Technical Paper. burn natural gas vehicles. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental,
957. Rink, M., Eigenberger, G., Nieken, U., & Tuttlies, U. (2012). Op- 14(3), pp.211-223.
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958. Li, H., & Karim, G. A. (2005). Exhaust emissions from a gas- natural gas engines. Journal of Aerosol Science, 31(4), pp.403-
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959. Kalam, M. A., Masjuki, H. H., Amalina, M. A., Abdesselam, H., & implications for transportation policy in the greenhouse era.
Mahlia, T. M. I. (2005). CO, HC and NOx Emissions Character- Climatic change, 20(2), pp.113-141.
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960. Bounechada, D., Groppi, G., Forzatti, P., Kallinen, K., & Kinnu- Light-Duty Vehicles. Energy & Fuels, 29(9), pp.6008–6018.
nen, T. (2012). Effect of periodic lean/rich switch on methane 976. Tong, F., Jaramillo, P. and Azevedo, I.M., 2015. Comparison of life
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985. Siewert, R.M., Mitchell, P.J. and Mulawa, P.A., 1993. Environ- a Bi-Fuel Spark Ignition Engine (No. 950468). SAE Technical
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987. Fritz, S.G. and Egbuonu, R.I., 1992. Emissions from heavy-duty INTERCIENCIA-CARACAS-, 20, pp.354-359.
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bines and power, 114(3), pp.561-567. An investigation to determine the exhaust particulate size
988. Gambino, M., Cericola, R., Corbo, P. and Iannaccone, S., 1993. distributions for diesel, petrol, and compressed natural gas
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1992. Effects of clean fuels (reformulated gasolines, M85, and 1008. Clark, N., Gautam, M., Lyons, D.W., Bata, R.M., Wang, W., Nor-
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1993. Rationale of dedicated low emitting CNG cars (No. 1009. Matthews, R.D., Chiu, J., Zheng, J., Wu, D.Y., Dardalis, D., Shen,
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991. Fritz, S.G. and Egbuonu, R.I., 1993. Emissions from heavy-duty 1996. The Texas Project: Part 1-Emissions and Fuel Economy of
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992. Sharp, C.A., Ullman, T.L. and Stamper, K.R., 1993. Transient 1010. Wang, W.G., Clark, N.N., Lyons, D.W., Yang, R.M., Gautam, M.,
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993. Murphy, M.J., Brown, S.T. and Philips, D.B., 1992. Extent of in- ometer testing facility. Environmental science & technology, 31
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leaks (No. 922486). SAE Technical Paper. 1011. Fanick, E.R., Whitney, K.A. and Bailey, B.K., 1996. Particulate
994. Park, P.W., Yoo, S.J. and Jeong, C., 1993. Evaluation of 3-Way characterization using five fuels (No. 961089). SAE Technical
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995. Reinke, G., Saez, A. and KATZ, R., 1993. Particulate emission evaluation program results. SAE transactions, 105, pp.609-633.
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997. Hoekstra, R.L., Collier, K., Mulligan, N. and Chew, L., 1995. Ex- Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 47(12),
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998. Hochhauser, A.M., Koehl, W.J., Benson, J.D., Burns, V.R., Knep- novative Approach to Energy Conservation and Environmental
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1018. Ristovski, Z., Morawska, L., Hitchins, J., Thomas, S.B., Greenway, Emission Performance of CNG/Diesel Dual-fuel Engine Is De-
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