DIRE-DAWA UNIVERSITY

Dire-Dawa Institute of Technology

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Power System Analysis(PSA)
Chapter 2 Load/Power Flow Analysis

By Dawit Adane
 Load Flow Analysis
 For a given power network, with known complex power loads and some set of
specifications or restrictions on power generations and voltages, solve for any unknown
bus voltages and unspecified generation and finally for the complex power flow in the
network components.
 Assumes balanced three phase system
 Modeled as a single phase system (based on single line diagram)
 A set of non-linear differential equations model both the Real (watts) and Reactive
(Vars) power flow
 Matrices are developed for all impedances/admittances of transmission lines
interconnecting substations (buses)
 Non-linear equations are solved through an iterative process, with an assumed initial
conditions
 The behavior of the LF solution is often influenced by the bus chosen.
Importance of load-flow studies
• Great importance of power flow or load-flow studies is in the planning the future
expansion of power systems as well as in determining the best operation of
existing systems.
• Applications:
1. On-line analyses
• State estimation
The following questions are Criterion:
• Security
1. Will the iteration procedure converge to the
• Economic analyses
unique solution?
2. Off-line analyses
2. What is the convergence rate (how many
• Operation analyses
iterations are required)?
• Planning analyses
3. When using a digital computer, what are the
Network expansion planning
Power exchange planning computer storage and time requirements?
Security and adequacy analyses 4. Simplicity for programming and incorporating
-Faults different extra technique.
-Stability
Modeling of power system components
Loads
• can be classified into three categories of model;
i) constant power, 𝑃𝑝 = 𝐼2𝑅 ∝ 𝑉0 (𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
ii) constant impedance, 𝑃𝑌 = 𝑉2/𝑅 ∝ 𝑉2 (𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒)
iii) constant current, 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐼𝑉 ∝ 𝑉1 (𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒).
• To compute the AC power flow analysis under the normal steady-state values of the
bus voltages, the loads are always represented as constant power loads at a particular
time instant.
Transmission line
• The transmission lines are generally of medium length or of long length.
• A medium and long length lines are always represented by the nominal- model and the
equivalent- model respectively as shown in figure below.
Normal model of a medium line connected between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’

Equivalent model of a long transmission line connected between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’
Transformer
• The exciting current of the transformer is neglected.
• A two winding transformer, with tap ratio is 1:1, is represented by its per unit leakage
impedance as shown in figure below.

For a regulating transformer with transformation ratio 1:t or a:1, the equivalent circuit of
the transformer is shown in figures below. y is the per unit admittance of the transformer.

Equivalent circuit of a regulating Equivalent circuit of a regulating

transformer with transformation ratio 1:t transformer with transformation ratio a:1
Concept of injected power and current
• The injected power (current) indicates the power (current) which is fed ‘in’ to a bus.
let us consider the figure below.

Illustration of injected power

• If Pk, Qk, and Ik denote the injected real power, reactive power and complex current at
bus ‘k’ respectively,
• Pk = PG ; Qk = QG and Ik = IG if only a generator is connected to the bus ‘k’.
• Pk = −PL ; Qk = −QL and Ik = −IL if only a load is connected to the bus ‘k’.
• Pk = PG − PL ; Qk = QG − QL and Ik = IG − IL if both generator and load are
connected to the bus ‘k’.
• Pk = 0 ; Qk = 0 ; Ik = 0 If neither generator nor load is connected to the bus ‘k’.
Formation of bus admittance matrix (YBUS)
Let us consider a 5 bus network as shown in figure below.

A sample 5 bus network Equivalent circuit

• Ik; k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the injected currents at bus ‘k’; yij denotes the series admittance
of the line ‘i-j’ and yijs denotes the half line charging susceptance of the line ‘i-j’.
• Now applying ‘KCL’ at each bus ‘k’ one obtains,
I1 = yT1 V1 − V2 = yT1 V1 − yT1 V2
• Representing the above equations in a matrix form as,
• The matrix equation can be written as,

Where,
IBUS = [I1, I2, …, I5]T (5 × 1) is the vector of bus injection currents
VBUS = [V1, V2, …, V5]T (5 × 1) is the vector of bus voltages measured with
respect to the ground
YBUS (5 × 5) is the bus admittance matrix
• From the elements of the YBUS it can be observed that for i = 1, 2, …, 5;
Yii = sum total of all the admittances connected at bus ‘i’ called Self driving admittance
– diagonal elements
Yij = negative of the admittance connected between bus ‘i’ & ‘j’ (if these two buses are
physically connected with each other) called Mutual driving admittance – off-diagonal
element
Yij = 0; if there is no physical connection between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’
• Similarly, for a ‘n’ bus power system, where,
IBUS = [I1, I2, …, In]T (n × 1) is the vector of bus injection currents
VBUS = [V1, V2, …, Vn]T (n × 1) is the vector of bus voltages
YBUS (n × n) is the bus admittance matrix
Read about the Formation of YBUS matrix in the presence of mutually coupled elements
Basic Power Flow Equation
• For a ‘n’ bus system,

Or,

• Complex power injected at bus ‘i’ is given by,

𝑆𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖 ∗
Now, 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 ; 𝑉𝑗 = 𝑉𝑗 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑗 ; 𝑌𝑖𝑗 = 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑒 𝑗𝛼𝑖𝑗
• Hence, ∗
n n

Si = Pi + 𝒾Q i = Vi ejθi ෍ Vj Yij ej θj +αij

= ෍ Vi Vj Yij ej θi −θj −αij

j=1 j=1
n n

= ෍ Vi Vj Yij cos θi − θj − αij + 𝒾 ෍ Vi Vj Yij sin θi − θj − αij

j=1 j=1
Or, 𝐧 𝐧

𝐏𝐢 = ෍ 𝐕𝐢 𝐕𝐣 𝐘𝐢𝐣 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉𝐢 − 𝛉𝐣 − 𝛂𝐢𝐣 & 𝐐𝐢 = ෍ 𝐕𝐢 𝐕𝐣 𝐘𝐢𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝐢 − 𝛉𝐣 − 𝛂𝐢𝐣

𝐣=𝟏 𝐣=𝟏

The basic load flow equations

• Therefore, for ‘n’-bus power system, there are altogether ‘2n’ load-flow equations and
‘4n’ variables(Vi, θi, Pi & Qi; i = 1, 2, …, n). Out of these ‘4n’ variables, ‘2n’ quantities
need to be specified and remaining ‘2n’ quantities are solved from the ‘2n’ load-flow
equations. Thus, for each bus, two quantities need to be specified.
D

𝑦10 = 𝑦120 + 𝑦130 = 𝑗0.03 + 𝑗0.025 = 𝑗0.055

𝑦20 = 𝑦120 + 𝑦230 = 𝑗0.03 + 𝑗0.020 = 𝑗0.050
𝑦30 = 𝑦130 + 𝑦230 = 𝑗0.025 + 𝑗0.020 = 𝑗0.045
D
 AC Load Flow
The buses in a system are classified into three categories;
1. Load Bus (PQ bus) – At these buses, loads are connected and the values of loads
(real, Pi, and reactive, Qi, power ) are known (specified) and voltage magnitude, Vi &
it’s angle, θi need to be calculated.
2. Generator/Voltage Controlled/ Bus (PV bus) – these buses are the generator buses at
which the magnitude of the voltage, Vi, is specified and is kept constant by adjusting
the field current of a synchronous generator (provided that the reactive power supplied
or absorbed by the generator is within the limits) and also the real power, Pi, supplied
by the generator is known according to the economic dispatch. Thus, the reactive
power, Qi, and voltage angle, θi, need to be calculated (unknown).
Note: Certain buses without generators may have voltage control capability; such buses are also
designated voltage-controlled buses at which the real power generation is simply zero.
3. Slack/Swing/ Bus (Reference bus) – a special generator bus serving as a reference for
voltage measurement and supplies system losses plus its share of the loads (generation
mismatch). Its voltage is specified to be fixed in both magnitude, Vi, & phase (angle),
θi, (for instance, 1∟00 pu) and the real, Pi, & reactive, Qi, powers are calculated
(unknown). Usually, the largest generator in the system is designated as the slack bus.
In a load flow problem, the quantities Pi and Qi (Qi at PV while Pi and Qi at slack buses)
are not directly solved. Only the quantities Vi and θi (state variables or dependent variables
since their values, which describe the state of the system , depend on the quantities
specified at all the buses) are directly solved (Vi for all PQ buses while θi for all PV and
PQ buses). Once the voltage magnitudes and angles at all the buses are known (Vi & θi at
the slack bus are already specified) and subsequently Pi and Qi at any bus can be
calculated using the basic load flow equations.
 The basic load flow equations represent a set of simultaneous, non-linear, algebraic
equations as such no closed form, analytical solution for these equations exist. Hence,
these equations can only be solved by using suitable numerical iterative techniques.
For solving the load flow problem, various iterative methods are:
1. Gauss-Seidel LF technique 3. Fast-Decoupled LF technique
2. Newton-Raphson (polar & rectangular) LF technique
 Gauss Seidel Load Flow Technique (GSLF)
• The injected current at bus ‘i’nof n-bus system is: n

Ii = ෍ Yik Vk = Yii Vi + ෍ Yik Vk

k=1 k=1, ≠i
Hence,
n
1
Vi = Ii − ෍ Yik Vk
Yii
k=1, ≠i

Pi −jQi
• From the relation, Pi + jQ i = Vi Ii∗ we get, Ii = .
V∗i
Thus, 𝐧
𝟏 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐣𝐐𝐢
𝐕𝐢 = ∗ − ෍ 𝐘𝐢𝐤 𝐕𝐤
𝐘𝐢𝐢 𝐕𝐢
𝐤=𝟏, ≠𝐢

• This is the basic equation for performing GSLF.

 Initialization and Stopping Criteria
Initialization of the Voltage
All the unknown bus voltage are initialized to 1.0∟00 p.u (i.e., Vj(0) = 1.0∟00 for j = 2, 3,
…, n). This process of initializing all bus voltage to 1.0∟00 pu is called flat voltage start
(because of the uniform voltage profile assumed). V2(0) = V3(0) = … =Vn(0) = 1.0∟00 = 1.0 + j0
Stopping Criteria (Convergence)
The iterative process must be continued until either
1. The iteration count reached maximum iteration count number limit, NUM = NUMmax
2. The magnitude of change of bus voltage between two consecutive iteration is less than
or equal to a certain tolerance limit, ε for all bus voltages.
max|Vi(k+1) ‒ Vi(k)| ≤ ε; Ɐ i = 2, 3, …, n.
Acceleration of convergence
The number of iterations can be reduced if the iteration at each bus is accelerated, by
multiplying with a constant α, called the acceleration factor. In the (k+1)st iteration we can
let
𝐕𝐢𝐤+𝟏 accelerated = 𝐕𝐢𝐤 + 𝛂 𝐕𝐢𝐤+𝟏 − 𝐕𝐢𝐤
where α is a real number b/n 1 < ɑ < 2. α is taken between 1.2 to 1.6, for GS load flow
procedure.
Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:
Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that (n–1)
complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the slack bus is
generally numbered as bus-1.
Algorithm for GS method
1. Prepare data for the given system as required.
2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS. This is generally done by the rule of
inspection.
3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2, 3, …, n. In practical power systems, the
magnitude of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus voltages at all
(n-1) buses (except slack bus) are taken to be 1.0  00. This is normally referred as the
flat start solution.
4. Set iteration count k = 1.
5. Update the bus voltages as;
 Or, in any (k + 1) st iteration, the voltages are given by

Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values are already
available for buses 2,3, …, (i-1) in the current (k+1)st iteration. Hence these values are
used. For buses (i+1), ..., n, values from previous, kth iteration are used.
6. Continue iterations till

Where, ε is the tolerance limit. Generally, it is customary to use a value of 0.0001 pu.
7. Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged. [assuming bus 1 is slack bus].

8. Compute all line flows as follow:

For line currents
𝐼𝑖𝑘 = 𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑘 + 𝐼𝑖𝑘0 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑘 𝑦𝐿𝑖𝑘 + 𝑉𝑖 𝑦𝑖𝑘0
𝐼𝑘𝑖 = 𝐼𝐿𝑘𝑖 + 𝐼𝑘𝑖0 = 𝑉𝑘 − 𝑉𝑖 𝑦𝐿𝑖𝑘 + 𝑉𝑘 𝑦𝑖𝑘0
 For line complex power

9. The complex power loss in the line is given by Sik + Ski. The total loss in the system is
calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.
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Case (b): Systems with PV buses also present:
For a system having multiple generators, the bus voltage initialization is carried out in a
two step procedure;
i) The load buses are initialized with flat start (i.e. Vj(0) = 1.000 for j = (m+ 1), (m+ 2),
…, n) and
ii) The magnitudes of the voltages of the PV buses are initialized with the corresponding
specified voltage magnitudes while initializing all these voltage angles to 00 (i.e. Vj(0) =
Vjsp00 for j = 2, 3, …, m, where Vjsp is the specified bus voltage magnitude of the jth
generator).
The reactive power supplied or absorbed by a generator (QG) is calculated by the load flow
procedure. However, any generator has a maximum and minimum limit on Q. If the
calculated QG from the generator is within these limits, then the generator excitation
system is able to maintain the terminal voltage at the specified value. On the other hand, if
the generator QG reaches or exceeds its limit on Q (either maximum or minimum), then
the generator excitation system would not be able to maintain the terminal voltage
magnitude at the specified value. In that case the generator bus would behave as a PQ bus
(P being already specified and QG is set at either maximum or minimum limiting value of
Q violated). Thus, both the magnitude and angle of the bus voltage are calculated in the
present iteration. This phenomenon (where the generator is behaving like a PQ bus) is
termed as ‘PV to PQ switching’.
Complete GSLF algorithm
Step 1: Initialize Vj(0) = Vjsp00 for j = 2, 3, …, m and Vj(0) = 1.000 for j = (m+ 1), (m+ 2), …,
n. Set iteration count k = 1.
Step 2: For PV buses, i = 2, 3, …, m, carry out the following operations.
a) Calculate,
∗ ∗
𝐤 𝐤−𝟏 𝐤 𝐤−𝟏
𝐐𝐢 = −𝐈𝐦 𝐕𝐢 σ𝐢−𝟏 𝐘 𝐕
𝐣=𝟏 𝐢𝐣 𝐣 + 𝐕𝐢 σ𝐧𝐣=𝐢 𝐘𝐢𝐣 𝐕𝐣 𝐤−𝟏 or
𝐧
𝐤 𝐤−𝟏 𝐤−𝟏 𝐤−𝟏 𝐤−𝟏
𝐐𝐢 = ෍ 𝐕𝐢 𝐕𝐣 𝐘𝐢𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝐢 − 𝛉𝐣 − 𝛂𝐢𝐣
𝐣=𝟏
b) If, Qimin ≤ Qi(k) ≤ Qimax ; then assign |Vi(k)| = Visp and θi(k) = (Ai(k)). The quantity Ai(k) is given
by,
𝐤 𝐢−𝟏 𝐧 𝐤
𝐤 𝟏 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐣𝐐 𝐢 𝐤 𝐤−𝟏 𝐤 𝐕 𝐢
∠𝐕𝐢 = ∠ − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣 − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣 𝐎𝐫 𝐕 = 𝐕𝐢
𝐘𝐢𝐢 𝐕 𝐤−𝟏 ∗ 𝐢 𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝
𝐕
𝐤
𝐢 𝐣=𝟏 𝐣=𝐢+𝟏 𝐢
c) If Qi(k) ≥ Qimax, then set Qi(k) = Qimax and calculate
𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐢−𝟏 𝐧
𝐤 𝟏 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐣𝐐𝐢 𝐤 𝐤−𝟏
𝐕𝐢 = − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣 − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣
𝐘𝐢𝐢 𝐕 𝐤−𝟏 ∗
𝐢 𝐣=𝟏 𝐣=𝐢+𝟏
 d) If Qi(k) ≤ Qimin, then set Qi(k) = Qimin and calculate
𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝐢−𝟏 𝐧
𝐤 𝟏 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐣𝐐𝐢 𝐤 𝐤−𝟏
𝐕𝐢 = − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣 − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣
𝐘𝐢𝐢 𝐕 𝐤−𝟏 ∗
𝐢 𝐣=𝟏 𝐣=𝐢+𝟏
Step 3: For PQ buses, i = (m+ 1), …, n, calculate
𝒌 𝐢−𝟏 𝐧
𝐤 𝟏 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐣𝐐𝐢 𝐤 𝐤−𝟏
𝐕𝐢 = − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣 − ෍ 𝐘 𝐕
𝐢𝐣 𝐣
𝐘𝐢𝐢 𝐕 𝐤−𝟏 ∗
𝐢 𝐣=𝟏 𝐣=𝐢+𝟏
Step 4: Compute ei(k) = |Vi(k) − Vi(k-1) | for all i = 2,3, …, n;
Step 5: Compute e(k) = max(e2(k), e3(k), …, en(k));
Step 6: If e(k) ≤ ε, stop and print the solution. Else set k = k + 1 and go to step 2.
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 Basic Newton - Raphson (NR) Techniques
Let there be ‘n’ equations in ‘n’ unknown variables x1, x2, …, xn as given below,

The quantities b1, b2, …, bn as well as the

functions f1, f2, …, fn are known.

To solve the above equations, first we take an initial guess of the solution and let the
0 0 0 0 𝑇
vector of initial guesses be denoted as 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 . Subsequently, first
order Taylor’s series expansion (neglecting the higher order terms) is carried out for these
equation around the initial guess of solution as follow:
The above Equations can be written in matrix form as,

In the above equation, the matrix containing the partial derivative terms is known as the
Jacobin matrix (J). It is an n x n square matrix.
By rearranging and simplifying the above equation yields

This is the basic equation for solving the ‘n’ algebraic equations given at first place.
The steps of solution are as follow:
Step 1: Assume a vector of initial guess x(0) and set iteration counter k = 0.
Step 2: Compute f1(x(k)), f2(x(k)), …, fn(x(k)).
Step 3: Compute ∆m1, ∆m2, …, ∆mn.
Step 4: Compute error = max [|∆m1|, |∆m2|, …, |∆mn|]
Step 5: If error ≤ ε (pre - specified tolerance), then the final solution vector is x(k) and print
the results. Otherwise go to step 6.
Step 6: Form the Jacobin matrix analytically and evaluate it at x = x(k).
Step 7: Calculate the correction vector ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑥1 , ∆𝑥2 , … , ∆𝑥𝑛 𝑇 by using the above
equation.
Step 8: Update the solution vector x(k+1) = x(k) + ∆x and update k = k + 1 and go back to
step 2.
 Newton Raphson Load Flow Technique (NRLF) in polar coordinates
For NRLF techniques, the starting equations are same as the basic load flow equations:
n 𝑛

Pi = ෍ Vi Vj Yij cos θi − θj − αij = 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐺𝑖𝑖 + ෍ Vi Vj Yij cos θi − θj − αij &

j=1 j=1,≠𝑖
n 𝑛

Q i = ෍ Vi Vj Yij sin θi − θj − αij = −𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 + ෍ Vi Vj Yij sin θi − θj − αij

j=1 j=1,≠𝑖
Assume that in an ‘n’ bus, ‘m’ machine system, the first ‘m’ buses are the generator buses
with bus 1 being the slack bus. Therefore, the unknown quantities are; 𝜃 =
𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , … , 𝜃𝑛 𝑇 (total ‘n–1’ quantities) & 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚+1 , 𝑉𝑚+2 , … , 𝑉𝑛 𝑇 (total ‘n-m’
quantities). Thus, the total number of unknown quantities is n–1+n–m = 2n–m–1. The
specified quantities are; 𝑃 𝑠𝑝 = 𝑃2 𝑠𝑝 , 𝑃3 𝑠𝑝 , … , 𝑃𝑛 𝑠𝑝 𝑇 (total ‘n–m’ quantities) and 𝑄 𝑠𝑝 =
𝑄𝑚+1 𝑠𝑝 , 𝑄𝑚+2 𝑠𝑝 , … , 𝑄𝑛 𝑠𝑝 𝑇 . Hence, the total number of specified quantities is also (2n–
m–1).
Since the injection real and reactive Power at any bus are functions of θ and V and can be
written as Pi = Pi θ, V for i = 2, 3, …, n and Q i = Q i θ, V for i = (m + 1), (m + 2), …, n.
Assuming initial guesses of the bus voltage angles (θ(0)) and the bus voltage magnitudes
(V(0)), The Taylor’s series expansion of the basic load flow equations are
In the above equation, the quantity Pi(θ(0), V(0)). is the calculated value of Pi with initial
guessed vectors θ(0), V(0).and can be denoted as 𝑃𝑖 𝑐𝑎𝑙 . Similarly, for Qi(θ(0), V(0)) = 𝑄𝑖 𝑐𝑎𝑙 .
With this notation, the above equation can be written as:

𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑇 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑇

Where, 𝑃 = 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … , 𝑃𝑛 and 𝑄 = 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 , … , 𝑄𝑛 . Also note
that the vectors ∆θ and Psp are of dimension (n − 1) × 1 each and the vectors ∆V and Qsp
are of dimension (n−m) × 1 each.
And

Then

𝐽1 𝐽2 ∆𝜃
Where, the matrix 𝐽 = is known as the Jacobian matrix, the vector ∆𝑥 = is
𝐽3 𝐽4 ∆𝑉
known as the correction vector and
 𝑃𝑠𝑝 − 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑙
The vector ∆𝑀 = 𝑠𝑝 𝑐𝑎𝑙 is known as the mismatch vector.
𝑄 −𝑄
The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be calculated as follows:
𝜕𝑃
Matrix 𝐽1 = (in this case, i = 2, 3, …, n, & j = 2, 3, …, n)
𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑃
Matrix 𝐽2 = (in this case, i = 2, 3, …, n, & j = m + 1, m + 2, …, n)
𝜕𝑉
 𝜕𝑄
Matrix 𝐽3 = (in this case, i = m + 1, m + 2, …, n, & j = 2, 3, …, n)
𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑄
Matrix 𝐽4 = (in this case, i = m + 1, m + 2, …, n, & j = m + 1, m + 2, …, n)
𝜕𝑉

Where, 𝐺𝑖𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖𝑖 cos 𝛼𝑖𝑖 and 𝐵𝑖𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖𝑖 sin 𝛼𝑖𝑖
Complete NRLF (polar) algorithm
Step 1: Initialize Vj(0) = Vjsp ˂ 0o for j = 2, 3, …, m and Vj(0) ≤ 1.0∟0o for j = (m+1),
(m+2), …, n. Let the vectors of the initial voltage magnitudes and angles be denoted as
V(0) and θ(0) respectively.
Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1.
Step 3: For i = 2, 3, …, m, carry out the following operations.
a) Calculate,
𝑛
𝑘−1 𝑘−1 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑄𝑖 = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑗 − 𝛼𝑖𝑗
𝑗=1
b) If 𝑄𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑄𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; then assign 𝑉𝑖 𝑘 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑠𝑝 and the ith bus retained as PV
𝑘

bus for kth iteration.

c) If 𝑄𝑖 𝑘 > 𝑄𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then assign 𝑄𝑖 𝑠𝑝 = 𝑄𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 or, if 𝑄𝑖 𝑘 < 𝑄𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛 , then assign
𝑄𝑖 𝑠𝑝 = 𝑄𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛 . In both the cases, this bus is converted to PQ bus. Hence, its voltage
magnitude becomes an unknown for the present iteration (thereby introducing an
extra unknown quantity) and to solve for this extra unknown quantity, an extra
equation is required, which is obtained by the new value of Qisp (as shown above).
Therefore, when the ith bus is converted to a PQ bus, the dimensions of both ∆V and
∆Q vectors increases by one.
 In general, if l generator buses (l ≤ (m− 1)) violate their corresponding reactive
power limits at step 3, then the dimensions of both ∆V and ∆Q vectors increases
from (n – m) to (n – m + l). However, the dimensions of both ∆P and ∆θ vectors
remain the same. Therefore, the size of matrix J2 becomes (n – 1) × (n – m + l), that
of matrix J3 becomes (n – m + l) × (n – 1) and the matrix J4 becomes of size (n – m
+ l) × (n – m + l). The size of matrix J1, however, does not change. Hence, the size
of the matrix J becomes (2n – m – 1 – l) × (2n – m – 1 – l) while the sizes of both
the vectors ∆X and ∆M becomes (2n – m – 1 – l) × 1. Of course, if there is no
generator reactive power limit violation, then l = 0.
Step 4: Compute the vectors Pcal and Qcal with the vectors θ(k−1) and V(k−1) thereby forming
the vector ∆M. Let this vector be represented as ∆M = [∆M1, ∆M2, …, ∆M2n−m−1−l] T.
Step 5: Compute error = max (|∆M1|, |∆M2|, …, |∆M2n−m−1−l|).
Step 6: If error ≤ ε (pre - specified tolerance), then the final rotation vectors are θ(k−1) and
V(k−1) and print the results. Otherwise go to step 7.
Step 7: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors θ(k−1) and V(k−1).
Step 8: Compute the correction vector ∆X.
Step 9: Update the solution vectors θ(k) = θ(k−1) + ∆θ and V(k) = V(k−1) + ∆V. Update k = k +
1 and go back to step 3.
Newton Raphson Load Flow Technique (NRLF) in polar coordinates
 Fast Decoupled LFA Technique
The change in real power is primarily governed by the changes in the voltage angles, but
not in voltage magnitudes. On the other hand, the changes in the reactive power are
primarily influenced by the changes in voltage magnitudes, but not in the voltage angles.
(a) Under normal steady state operation, the voltage magnitudes are all nearly equal to 1.0.
(b) As the transmission lines are mostly reactive, the conductance's are quite small as
compared to the susceptance (Gij << Bij). Yij = Gij + Bij ; → lossless line (G is neglected)
(c) Under normal steady state operation the angular differences among the bus voltages are
quite small (θi − θj ≈ 0 (within 50 − 100)).→cos θi − θj ≈ 1 & sin (θi − θj) ≈ (θi − θj) rad ≈ 0.
(d) The injected reactive power at any bus is always much less than the reactive power
consumed by the elements connected to this bus when these elements are shorted to the
ground (Qi << BiiVi2).
 With these assumptions, the
equations for Jacobian elements
Now, Gii and Gij are quite small and negligible and also cos(θi−θj) ≈ 1 and sin(θi−θj) ≈ 0,
as [(θi−θj) ≈ 0]. Hence,

Similarly,

Again,
The basic FDLF equation is:

Where,

is known as the correction vector and is the mismatch vector.

Thus, there is a decoupling between ‘∆P - ∆θ’ and ‘∆Q - ∆V’ relations (i.e., ∆P depends
only on ∆θ and ∆Q depends only on ∆V).
The elements of J1 and J4 are:
Elements of J1:
Elements of J4:
We know ∆P = J1 ∆θ
Substituting J1 in to the above equation, results:
n

∆Pi = −Vi ෍ Vk Bik ∆θk

k=1
Or, n
∆Pi
= − ෍ Vk Bik ∆θk
Vi
k=1
Assuming Vk ≈ 1.0 under normal steady state operating condition, the above equation
reduces to, n
∆Pi
= − ෍ Bik ∆θk
Vi
k=1
∆P
Or, = −B ∆θ or,
V

∆𝑷
= 𝑩′ ∆𝛉
𝑽
Matrix B’ is a constant matrix of (n−1) × (n−1). Its elements are the negative of the
imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YBUS matrix where i & k = 2,3, …, n.
Similarly, 𝐧

∆𝐐𝐢 = −𝐕𝐢 ෍ 𝐁𝐢𝐤 ∆𝐕𝐤

𝐤=𝟏
∆𝐐𝐢
Or, =− σ𝐧𝐤=𝟏 𝐁𝐢𝐤 ∆𝐕𝐤
𝐕𝐢
∆Q
= B′′ ∆V
V
Matrix B” is a constant matrix of (n−m) × (n−m). Its elements are the negative of the
imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YBUS matrix where i & k = m + 1, m + 2, …, n.
As the matrixes [B’] and [B”] are constant, the inverse of these matrices can be stored
only once and used in every iteration, thereby making the algorithm faster.
 The “DC” Power Flow
A further simplification of the power flow algorithm involves simply dropping the Q-V
equation altogether from FDLF. This results in a completely linear, noniterative, power
flow algorithm. To carry this out, we simply assume that all Vi = 1.0 per unit.
∆𝑷
= 𝑩′ ∆𝛉
𝑽
∆𝑃2 ∆𝜃2 ∆𝜃2 ∆𝑃2
∆𝑃3 = 𝐵′ ∆𝜃3 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝜃3 = 𝑋 ∆𝑃3 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 = 𝐵′ −1
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
The quantity ∆θ1 is not included in the vector ∆θ as the reference angle does not change.
The power flowing on each line using the DC power flow is then:
1
𝑃𝑖𝑘 = 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑘 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗
𝑥𝑖𝑘
And the injected power at bus i is:
𝑛

𝑃𝑖 = ෍ 𝑃𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑖

𝑘=1
- Only good for calculating MW flows on transmission lines and transformers.
 COMPARISON OF AC LOAD FLOW METHODS
GS
-Needs many iteration
-No guarantee for convergence to single solution especially if the initial estimate
was outside the boxed in region
NR
Converges more rapidly(quadratically) than GS meaning it needs less iteration
However, more functional evaluation are required during each iteration
May diverge if the starting value is not close enough to the root
 COMPARISON OF LOAD FLOW METHODS

No. GS NR FD

1 Provide large no. iteration to Provide less no. iteration to converge Provide even less no. iteration
converge to converge than NR
2 The computation time per iteration The computation time per iteration is The computation time per
is less more iteration is less
3 fewer memory requirement high memory requirement few memory requirement

4 Linear convergence quadratic convergence quadratic convergence

5 Prone to Diverge Less prone to Diverge Less prone to Diverge

 A.C.-D.C. LOAD FLOW
There are two approaches for load flow analysis of an AC system having one or two
HVDC links. These are:
a. Simultaneous solution technique
 the equations pertaining to the A.C. system and the equations pertaining to the DC
system are solved together.
b. Sequential solution technique
 the AC and DC systems are solved separately and the coupling between the AC and
DC system in accomplished by injecting an equivalent amount of real and reactive
power at the terminal AC buses.
For an HVDC link existing between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’ of an AC system (rectifier at bus ‘i’ and
inverter at bus ‘j’), the effect of the DC link is incorporated into the AC system by injections
P(R)DCi and Q(R)DCi at bus ‘i’ and P(I)DCj and Q(I)DCj at bus ’j’ (the super scripts ‘R’ and ‘I’ denote
the rectifier and inverter respectively). Therefore, the net injected power at bus ’i’ and ‘j’ are:
PiTotal = PACi + P(R)DCi; QiTotal = QACi + Q(R)DCi; PjTotal = PACj + P(I)DCj; QjTotal = QACj + Q(I)DCj.
With these net injected powers, the AC system is again solved and subsequently, the
equivalent injected powers (P(R)DCi, Q(R)DCi, P(I)DCj, Q(I)DCi) and the total injected powers
(PiTotal, QiTotal, PjTotal, QjTotal) are updated. This process of alternately solving AC and DC
system quantities is continued till the changes in AC system and DC system quantities
between two consecutive iterations become less then a threshold value.
 DC system model
The basic assumptions for deriving a suitable model of a HVDC system for steady state
operation:
a. The three phase AC voltages at the terminal bus bar are balanced and sinusoidal.
b. The converter operation is perfectly balanced.
c. The direct current and voltages are smooth.
d. The converter transformer is lossless and the magnetizing admittance is ignored.
The equivalent circuit of the converter (either rectifier or inverter) is shown in Figure
below.
For rectifier

For inverter

‘N’ = the number of six-pulse bridges at any particular side

‘Φ’ = the angular difference between the terminal voltages and primary current of the
transformer, i.e. the power factor of the converter as seen by the AC bus.
‘Xc’ = the commutating reactance of the converter transformer and
‘α’ and ‘γ’ = the firing angle of the rectifier and the extinction angle of the inverter
respectively.
VdO = No-load direct voltage for converters
The rectifier and the inverter are interconnected though the following equation:
Rd = the DC link resistance.
The set of solution variables for each converter is;

Therefore, for a two terminal HVDC link, the complete set of solution vector is;

Therefore, out of 9 unknown variables, any 4 variables need to be specified and thereafter,
the remaining 5 variables can be solved using 5 DC model equations. These 4 variables
can be specified using the control specification. There can be several combinations of
control specification and some of their combination are;

Relationship between AC and DC quantities with multiple bridge:

3 2 3 2
Vdor = Nr ar Et and Vdoi = Ni ai Et
π π
For sequential solution technique
Combination 1
α, Pdr, γ and Vdi are specified. The calculation procedure is
Step 1: We know, Pdr = VdrId. Or
𝐕𝐝𝐫 𝐕𝐝𝐫 −𝐕𝐝𝐢
𝐏𝐝𝐫 =
𝐑𝐝
𝟐
⟹ 𝐕𝐝𝐫 − 𝐕𝐝𝐢 𝐕𝐝𝐫 − 𝐑 𝐝 𝐏𝐝𝐫 = 𝟎
𝟐 +𝟒𝐑 𝐏
𝐕𝐝𝐢 ± 𝐕𝐝𝐢 𝐝 𝐝𝐫
𝐕𝐝𝐫 =
𝟐
Out of the two values, the value of Vdr which is greater than Vdi is chosen, i.e.
𝟏 𝟐
𝐕𝐝𝐫 = 𝐕𝐝𝐢 + 𝐕𝐝𝐢 + 𝟒𝐑 𝐝 𝐏𝐝𝐫
𝟐

Step 2: Id is calculated as,

𝐏𝐝𝐫
𝐈𝐝 =
𝐕𝐝𝐫
Step 3: Vdor is calculated as,
𝟑
𝐕𝐝𝐫 + 𝐗 𝐜𝐫 𝐍𝐫 𝐈𝐝
𝛑
𝐕𝐝𝐨𝐫 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛂
Step 4: ar (tap ratio) and cos ϕr are calculated as,
𝐕𝐝𝐫 𝐕𝐝𝐨𝐫 𝛑
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟𝐫 = 𝒂𝐫 =
𝐕𝐝𝐨𝐫 𝟑 𝟐𝐍𝐫 𝐄𝐭𝐫
Note: Etr is known as, in the sequential solution method, the terminal voltages at rectifier
side, are known from the immediate past solution of the AC system equations.
Step 5: The quantities P(R)DCi and Q(R)DCi are calculated as;
𝐑 𝐑
𝐏𝐃𝐂𝐢 = −𝐏𝐝𝐫 and 𝐐𝐃𝐂𝐢 = −𝐏𝐝𝐫 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟𝐫
Step 6: Vdoi is calculated as,
𝟑
𝐕𝐝𝐢 +𝛑𝐗 𝐜𝐢 𝐍𝐢 𝐈𝐝
𝐕𝐝𝐨𝐢 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛄
Step 7: ai (tap ratio) and cos ϕi are calculated as,
𝐕𝐝𝐢 𝐕𝐝𝐨𝐢 𝛑
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟𝐢 = 𝛂𝐢 =
𝐕𝐝𝐨𝐢 𝟑 𝟐𝐍𝐢 𝐄𝐭𝐢
Step 8: The quantities P(I)DCj and Q(I)DCj are calculated as;
𝐈 𝐈
𝐏𝐃𝐂𝐣 = −𝐏𝐝𝐢 = −𝐕𝐝𝐢 𝑰𝒅 and 𝐐𝐃𝐂𝐣 = 𝐏𝐝𝐢 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟𝐢
Step 9: The net injected power at bus ‘i’ and ‘j’ are calculated as;
PiTotal = PACi + P(R)DCi; QiTotal = QACi + Q(R)DCi
PjTotal = PACj + P(I)DCj; Q jTotal = QACj + Q(I)DCj
Step 10: With these net injected powers, the AC system is again solved to obtain the
updated values of Etr and Eti and subsequently, steps (1) - (8) are repeated again to update
the values of P(R)DCi, Q(R)DCi, P(I)DCj and Q(I)DCj till convergence in obtained.
Note:
At the rectifier end, P(R)DCi = ‒ Pdr and Q(R)DCi = ‒ Qdr as the rectifier draws both real and
reactive power from the grid.
At the inverter end, P(I)DCj = Pdi and Q(I)DCj = ‒ Qdi as the inverter supplies real power to
the AC grid and draws reactive power from the AC grid.
Combination 8
α, γ, Pdi and Vdr are specified. The calculation procedure is
𝐕𝐝𝐢 𝐕𝐝𝐫 −𝐕𝐝𝐢
Step 1: We know, Pdi = VdiId = , or
𝐑𝐝
𝟐
𝐕𝐝𝐢 + 𝐑 𝐝 𝐏𝐝𝐫 − 𝐕𝐝𝐢 𝐕𝐝𝐫 = 𝟎 , or
𝟐
𝐕𝐝𝐫 ± 𝐕𝐝𝐫 − 𝟒𝐑 𝐝 𝐏𝐝𝐢
𝐕𝐝𝐢 =
𝟐
From the two values of Vdi in the above equation, the final value of Vdi is calculated as,
1 𝟐
𝐕𝐝𝐢 = 𝐕𝐝𝐫 + 𝐕𝐝𝐫 − 𝟒𝐑 𝐝 𝐏𝐝𝐢
2
Step 2: Id is calculated as, 𝐏𝐝𝐢
𝐈𝐝 =
𝐕𝐝𝐢
With these calculated values of Vdi and Id, steps (3)-(8) of combination-1 are followed to
𝐑
calculate the Equivalent power injection values, where 𝐏𝐃𝐂𝐢 = 𝐕𝐝𝐫 𝐈𝐝 . With these injected
power values, the AC and DC systems are continued to be solved alternately till
convergence in achieved.
Combination 3
ar, Pdr, ai and Vdi are specified. The calculation procedure is
Step 1: Calculate Vdor & Vdoi from AC terminal bus voltage (Et) as follow;
3 2 3 2
Vd0r = Nr ar Etr and Vd0i = Ni ai Et𝑖
π π
Step 2: Since ϕr and ϕi are known from the given AC terminal bus voltage angle, we can
obtain Vdr as follow
Vdr = Vdor cos ϕr
Step 3: Id is calculated as,
Pdr
Id =
Vdr
Step 4: The quantities P(R)DCi and Q(R)DCi are calculated as;
R R
PDCi = −Pdr and QDCi = −Pdr tan ϕr
Step 5: The quantities P(I)DCj and Q(I)DCj are calculated as;
I I
PDCj = −Pdi = −Vdi Id and Q DCj = Pdi tan ϕi
Step 6: The step–9 of combination–1 is followed. The AC and DC systems are continued
to be solved alternately till convergence in achieved.
Example: Figure below shows a 5 – bus power system with one bipolar HVDC link is connected
between bus 4 and 5 (rectifier at bus 4 and inverter at bus 5). The relevant data for this DC link
3 3
are as follows; Rd = 10 Ω; Nr = Ni = 2; Xcr = Xci = 6.0 Ω. The specified control values for
π π
combination 1 is given as follow:
Combination 1
α = 5o, Pdr = 100 MW, γ = 18o, Vdi = 250 kV
Obtain the load flow solution using sequential FDLF method? (Assume that the base voltage of
the AC system is 132 kV)
Solution
Initially, the flat start is assumed for all the buses in the system. Therefore, |V4| = |V5| = 1.0 p.u.
Now, before commencing the AC load flow, the equivalent power injections (both real and
reactive) at buses 4 and 5 need to be determined by calculating the values of different DC
variables as follows:
 1 2
1
Vdr = Vdi + Vdi + 4R d Pdr = 250kV + 250kV 2 + 4 ∙ 10 ∙ 100MW
2 2
Pdr 100 MW
Id = =
Vdr 253.938 kV
3
Vdr + Xcr Nr Id 253.938 kV + 6 Ω ∙ 2 ∙ 393.797 A
Vdor = π = = 259.6516 kV
cos α cos 5o
Vdr 253.938 kV Vdor π 259.6516 kV ∙ π
cos ϕr = = = 0.978 & ar = = = 0.7283
Vdor 259.6516 kV 3 2Nr Etr 3 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 132 kV
ϕr = cos−1 0.978 = 12.042o
Q dr = Pdr tan ϕr = 100 MW tan 12.042o = 21.332216 Mvar
Pdi = Vdi Id = 250 kV ∙ 393.797 A = 98.44925 MW
3
Vdi + Xci Ni Id 250 kV + 6 Ω ∙ 2 ∙ 393.797 A
Vdoi = π = = 267.8343 kV
cos γ cos 18 o
Vdi 250 kV
cos ϕi = = = 0.933413 & ϕr = cos −1 0.933413 = 21.026762o
Vdoi 267.8343 kV
Q di = Pdi tan ϕi = 98.44925 MW tan 21.026762o = 37.8439 Mvar
Vdr = 253.938 kV;Id = 393.797 A; Qdr = 16.276 Mvar; Pdi = 98.45 MW;Qdi = 35.024 Mvar.
D