Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021

ToA – II - Module - 1
VITRUVIUS Proportion is a balance among the measures of the
members of an entire work, and of the whole to a
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c. 80–70 BC, died after c. certain part selected as standard.
15 BC), was a Roman author, architect, civil
engineer and military engineer during the 1st century Vitruvian theory is also described as anthropomorphic
BC, known for his 10 Books on Architecture titled De as he correlates ideas of ideal proportions with the
Architectura. human figure as the principal source of proportions for
architecture.
De Architectura, was written in 27 BC and is the only
book of its kind to survive from antiquity. According to This proportional aligning of architecture with the
Vitruvius: human figure, or more generally with the proportional
rules of nature, became the basis of classical theory.
The architect should be equipped with knowledge of
many branches of study and varied kinds of learning, The Vitruvian Man of 1487, drawn by Leonardo da
such as drawing, geometry, history, philosophy, music, Vinci depicting a male figure in two superimposed
medicine, law and astronomy. positions with his arms and legs apart and
simultaneously inscribed in a circle and square
An architect should have sound knowledge of practice describes this idea.
(fabrica) and theory (ratiocinato). Practice is the
manual activity associated with building and The subjects of Vitruvius Ten Books, using modern
construction. Theory rationally demonstrates and terminology, are:
explains conventions and proportional systems 1. Landscape architecture
governing design. 2. Construction materials
Architecture has two aspects: the thing signified, and 3. Temples (Part 1)
that which gives it its significance. That which is 4. Temples (Part 2)
signified is the subject of which we may be speaking; 5. Public places
and that which gives significance is a demonstration on 6. Private dwellings
scientific principles. 7. Finishes and colours
8. Water supply
The five fundamental principles of architecture are: 9. Sundials and clocks
1. Order gives due measure to the members of a 10. Mechanical engineering
work considered separately, and symmetrical
agreement to the proportions of the whole. It is in Vitruvius that we first see the classical orders of
architecture, where he attempted to formulate the
2. Eurythmy is beauty and fitness in the adjustments proportioning of their parts.
of the members. This is found when the members
of a work are of a height suited to their breadth, of He described:
a breadth suited to their length, and, in a word, - Doric order as man-like
when they all correspond symmetrically. - Ionic order as woman-like
- Corinthian order as maiden-like
3. Symmetry is a proper agreement between the
members of the work itself, and relation between The ‘Vitruvian Virtues’ or ‘Vitruvian Triad’ – Firmitas,
the different parts and the whole general scheme, Utilitas, Venustas refer to the assertions made by
in accordance with a certain part selected as Vitruvius that structures must be solid, useful and
standard. beautiful.
- Strength encompasses the soundness of the
4. Propriety is that perfection of style which comes
foundation, the building’s structure, and the
when a work is authoritatively constructed on
selection of materials
approved principles. It arises from prescription,
from usage, or from nature. - Utility concerns the convenient planning and social
appropriateness of the structure
5. Economy denotes the proper management of
materials and of site, as well as a careful balancing - Beauty is the building’s aesthetics that arises chiefly
of cost and common sense in the construction of out of proportional harmony.
works.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
ALBERTI demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity
and in particular ancient Roman architecture.
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) was
an Italian humanist author, philosopher, Alberti regarded mathematics as the common ground
artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher and of art and the sciences.
cryptographer.
His treatise De Pictura, relied in its scientific content on
Alberti is considered by many scholars to be the classical optics in determining perspective as a
quintessential Renaissance Man of learning. In geometric instrument of artistic and architectural
the Italian Renaissance, the idea of the polymath was representation.
expressed by Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), in the
St. Andrea, Mantua - On the facade, Alberti combined
statement that "a man can do all things if he will".
two of his favorite ancient images—the pedimented
Alberti’s three main architectural writings are On temple front (pilasters, entablature, trabeation, and
Sculpture - ‘De Statua’, On Painting - ‘De Pictura’ triangular pediment) and the triadic triumphal arch
(1435), ‘De Re Aedificatoria’ (1450) his theoretical (arched central section and lower portals on either
masterpiece. side).

De re aedificatoria (English: On the Art of Building) is The height of the facade equals its width, but the barrel
a classic architectural treatise written by vault of the nave reached well above the apex of the
Alberti between 1443 and 1452. pediment, which was also surmounted by a large
canopy over the nave window.
Although largely dependent on Vitruvius' De
Architectura, it was the first theoretical book on the Santa Maria Novella (1458-71) - The façade of Santa
subject written in the Italian Renaissance and in 1485 Maria Novella is considered Alberti’s greatest
became the first printed book on architecture achievement since it allows the pre-existing and newly
added parts of the building to merge into a clear
Alberti sought to improve Vitruvius’s effort to provide statement of his new principles
the Renaissance with a more coherent and logical basis
for theory. The facade reflects the influences of then recently
rediscovered geometric and mathematical studies
Alberti’s grounding of Renaissance architecture in the applied to nature and art
imitation of nature, his emphasis on its social or
cultural importance, his definition of it as a The Rucellai Palace (1446-1451)
professional discipline, and the pre- eminence he
Its façade proclaimed the new ideas of Renaissance
placed on beauty and harmonic proportions
architecture based on the use of pilasters
established the theoretical focus of the next four
and entablatures in proportion.
centuries.
It demonstrates the impact of the classical but does so
De re aedificatoria is subdivided into ten books :
in a manner which is full of Renaissance originality. The
Book I : Lineaments
grid-like facade, achieved through the application of a
Book II : Materials
scheme of trabeated articulation, makes a statement
Book III : Construction
of rational clarity.
Book IV : Public Works
Book V : Works of Individuals The stone veneer of this facade is given a
Book VI : Ornament rustication and serves as the background for the
Book VII : Ornament to Sacred Buildings smooth-faced pilasters and entablatures which divide
Book VIII: Ornament to Public Secular Buildings the facade into a series of three-storey bays.
Book IX : Ornament to Private Buildings
Book X : Restoration of Buildings The three storeys of the facade have different classical
orders, with the Tuscan order at the base, the Ionic
order at the second level, and a very
Alberti’s belief in an absolute numerical scheme for simplified Corinthian order at the top level.
beauty and proportion was perhaps his most
important contribution to Renaissance theory. Twin-lit, round-arched windows in the two upper
storeys are set within arches with highly
Alberti places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, pronounced voussoirs. The facade is topped by a
geometry and the regularity of parts as they are boldly projecting cornice.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
ANDREA PALLADIO Stuccoed brickwork was always used in his villa designs
in order to portray his interpretations of the Roman
Andrea Palladio 1508 – 1580 was an Italian architect
villa typology.
active in Venice. Palladio, influenced by Vitruvius, is
widely considered to be the most influential individual
Internal Harmony and Balance
in the history of architecture.
1. The constituent parts must correspond to the whole
His teachings are summarized in the architectural and to each other.
treatise, I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura - The Four 2. Varying the volumetric size of rooms
Books of Architecture. 3. Varying the shape of individual rooms

- The first book includes studies of decorative styles, The Palladian or Venetian Window or Motif features
classical orders, and materials. largely in Palladio's work and is almost a trademark of
- The second book included Palladio's town and his early career.
country house designs and classical reconstructions
It consists of a central light with semicircular arch over,
- The third book has bridge and basilica designs, city carried on an impost consisting of a small entablature,
planning designs, and classical halls. under which, and enclosing two other lights, one on
- The fourth book included information on the each side, are pilasters.
reconstruction of ancient Roman temples. Palladio used the motif extensively, most notably in
Andrea Palladio began to develop his own architectural arcades and entrances.
style around 1541. The Palladian style, named after
him, adhered to Classical principles, which he
rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works.

Palladio's great feat of imagination was to combine his

knowledge of the ruins of ancient temples and civic
buildings with written information relating to antique
villas, and to adapt this synthesis to the practical needs
of the Venice landowner.

Palladio's 3-Part Solution: Drawing upon his own

insights and observations, upon the re-discovered
treatise of the Roman writer Vitruvius and the writings
of Alberti, Palladio's devised a solution with three
principal elements:

- Dramatic exterior motifs

- Economical materials
- Internal harmony and balance
Dramatic Exterior Motifs:
Type I - A loggia pierced by three openings
Type II - The Greek temple front
Type III - The double columned loggia

Economical Materials
Palladio's architecture was not dependent on
expensive materials, which must have been an
advantage to his more financially pressed clients.
Many of his buildings are of brick covered with stucco.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
FRENCH ACADEMIC TRADITION
off the paired Corinthian columns, modeled strictly
French Academic Tradition and the theoretical
according to Vitruvius, against a shadowed void, with
developments that led to the emergence of Neo-
pavilions at the ends. The façade, divided in five parts,
Classicism in France were chiefly articulated Francois
is a typical solution of the French classicism.
Blondel & Claude Perrault
He also achieved success as a physician and anatomist,
The founding of the Royal Academy of Architecture in
and as an author, who wrote treatises on
Paris in 1671 can be taken as the starting point for
physics and natural history.
architecture and modern European theory and
practice.
Aside from his influential architecture, he became well
known for his translation of the Ten Books
The purpose of the Academy was to codify the
of Vitruvius, the only surviving Roman work on
principles of Classical Design and to adopt them in
architecture, into French, and published in 1673.
practice, which it did by holding two public lectures a
week – one each in theory and technicalities of
His treatise on the five classical orders of architecture
architecture
followed in 1683 - Ordonnance For The Five Kinds Of
Columns After The Method Of The Ancients, tried
Symbolically, the new academy represented a
devising a uniform system for the proportioning of
declaration of independence from the Renaissance
columns by calculating the proportional or numerical
tradition. In response to the architectural excesses of
mean between the extremes.
the baroque period, the academy provided a forum for
the consolidation and rational reinterpretation of
Claude Perrault questioned the validity of the Classical
traditional conventions to contemporary culture.
Vitruvian proportions to his time. He repeatedly
stressed the flexibility of Vitruvius and his openness to
BLONDEL innovation and change.
François Blondel (1618 –1686) was a soldier, engineer
of fortifications, diplomat, civil engineer and military Firstly, Perrault argued there were no such things as
architect best known for his teaching and writing. harmonic ratios; that is to say, the eye and ear function
on a physiological level in very different ways when
Blondel was the first director of the Royal Academy of perceiving visual and audible harmonies. Second, he
Architecture. Blondel published his lectures on theory, insisted that proportions were by no means absolute,
between 1675 and 1683 in two large volumes, Cours but were rather based on custom or habit.
d’architecture (Course of Architecture).
Instead, he elaborated his thesis of positive beauty and
His teachings rested on the very traditional notion that arbitrary beauty, where positive beauty is the
architectural beauty derives primarily from normative role of standardization and perfection,
proportions. absolute beauty - its appreciation is universal. Positive
beauty relates only to obvious beauties upon which
Blondel’s objective was to establish design principles everyone can agree, such as symmetry, the
for domestic architecture that correspond to the magnificence of a building, its quality of execution, it is
classical principles already in practice for civil structures necessary, and convincing beauty.

PERRAULT Arbitrary beauty, is a matter of custom, and here – in

the realm of relative beauty – is where proportions
Claude Perrault (1613 –1688) is best known as the reside. Arbitrary beauty refers to such expressive
architect of the east wing of the Louvre Palace in Paris. function as may be required by a particular
The simple character of the ground floor basement sets circumstance or character.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
Laugier's theory is a reaction against the
NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE prevalent Baroque ornamentation. It established the
argument for Neoclassicism and trends towards
The movement concerned itself with the logic of entire unadorned and smaller dwellings.
Classical volumes, unlike Classical revivalism, which
tended to reuse Classical parts. It interpreted Classicism as a logical, straightforward
expression of the need for shelter, derived from the
Neoclassical architecture is characterized by grandeur Primitive Hut of tree-trunks supporting a structure.
of scale, simplicity of geometric forms, Greek or Roman
detail, dramatic use of columns, and a preference for
blank walls. ÉTIENNE-LOUIS BOULLÉE

The new taste for antique simplicity represented a Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799) was a
general reaction to the excesses of the Rococo style. visionary French Neoclassical architect whose work
greatly influenced contemporary architects.
Neoclassical French architecture can be best described
as idealistic and civic-minded, for a new society. His book Essay on the Art of Architecture, arguing for
an emotionally committed Neoclassicism. Boullée
promoted the idea of making architecture expressive
MARC-ANTOINE LAUGIER of its purpose, and frequently employed symbolism
appropriate to the use of the building.
The abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier (1713 – 1769) was
a French Jesuit priest and an important architectural Boullée developed a distinctive abstract geometric
theorist of Neo-Classicism. style inspired by Classical forms. His work was
characterized by the removal of all unnecessary
Laugier is best known for his Essay on ornamentation, inflating geometric forms to a huge
Architecture published in 1753. In 1755 he published scale and repeating elements. He theorized that the
the second edition with a famous, often reproduced abstract, geometric forms he used were the basis for
illustration of a primitive hut. beauty through their regularity, symmetry, and
variety.
The Primitive Hut theory states that Ancient Greek
temples owed their form to the earliest habitations Boullée’s utopian designs were articulated by
erected by man. In the primitive hut, the horizontal perspective, polarity, relations and alternations
beam was supported by tree trunks planted upright in between light and shade, use of solids and voids,
the ground and the roof was sloped to shed rainwater. absence of functionality concerning the use of the
Laugier's Primitive Hut is sometimes called The buildings.
Vitruvian Hut, because Laugier built on ideas of natural
proportion documented by Vitruvius. Boullée abstracted the geometric forms suggested by
ancient works of architecture into a new concept of
According to Laugier, all architecture derives from monumental building that combined the calm, ideal
these three essential, primitive elements: beauty of classical architecture with considerable
The column expressive power.
The entablature
The pediment The real importance of Boullée’s architectural ideas
and creations is that he is trying to overcome the
Laugier's Primitive Hut is his representation of the inherent limit of his discipline.
philosophy that all architecture derives from this
simple ideal.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021

CLAUDE-NICOLAS LEDOUX VISIONARY ARCHITECTURE

Claude-Nicolas Ledoux (1736 – 1806) was one of the Beyond their admiration for the Greek, Roman, and
earliest exponents of French Neoclassical architecture. Renaissance styles from which they drew their primary
Claude-Nicolas Ledoux developed an eclectic and inspiration, both Boullée and Ledoux were drawn into
visionary style combined with social ideals. utopian speculation.

In 1804, he published a collection of his designs under In defiance of all the Vitruvian and Albertian rules on
the title L'Architecture considérée sous le rapport de feasibility and practicality, each drew up plans for
l'art, des mœurs et de la législation [Architecture impossible structures.
considered in relation to art, morals, and legislation].
Throughout his life, Ledoux designed simplified, Immersed as they were in an age of scientific,
powerful geometric forms. intellectual, and political revolution, Boullée
and Ledoux each bore the influence of their times.
Ledoux’s formal sources and theoretical intentions
went beyond the revival of antiquity and infused his The radical ideas they encountered and revolutionary
designs with an expressive character appropriate to events that they witnessed gave them both the
their purpose. Ledoux pursued this attitude by impression that a new world was forming before their
exploring typology and the ways by which eyes, in which the space of limitless possibility could
architecture can convey meaning. open up.

In 1771, he was appointed as architect-engineer for the

saltworks (salines) in eastern France. From 1775 to
1780, Ledoux realized the Saline de Chaux, at Arc-et-
Senans.

Chaux is the model of a new social and urban

organization. The shape of the buildings indicates the
activity that takes place inside them. The shape of the
city is the community’s symbol, around a common
center.

He devised a radial concentric plan for the settlement,

with rings of workers’ dwellings enclosing a central salt-
extraction factory.

His master plan and architectural designs

systematically addressed the technical, social, and
symbolic dimensions of this important industry.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
MODEL –The model is a form to be copied, repeated or
19th Century Theory imitated.

QUATREMÈRE DE QUINCY CHARACTER – implies something more expressive than

Antoine-Chrysostome Quatremère de Quincy (1755 – type.
1849) was a French archaeologist, architectural 1. Essential Character – natural character, the purest
theorist, effective arts administrator and influential simplest essence
writer on art. 2. Distinctive Character – refers to a building’s
dominant quality
Quatremère de Quincy was the author of numerous 3. Relative Character – comparison of parts of the
articles and books. Between 1788 and 1825 he edited same structure
the Encyclopédie Méthodique, to which he contributed
much of the text. His Dictionnaire historique de GOTTFRIED SEMPER
l'Architecture was published in 1832-33. (1803 – 1879) was a German architect, art critic and
professor.
Quatremére de Quincy’s idea of type was explicitly and
systematically theorized for the first time in the history Semper wrote extensively about the origins of
of architecture in 1789. architecture, especially in his book The Four Elements
of Architecture from 1851.
Quatremére de Quincy’s conceptualization of type was
based on three concepts: origin, transformation and Semper was one of the major figures in the
invention. controversy surrounding the polychrome
architectural style of ancient Greece.
Quatremére de Quincy’s aim was to make type more
practical by putting it into the context of use, need, and Style in the Technical and Structural Arts, or Practical
custom. Aesthetics—1861–3, Discusses extensively the use of
materials within arts, crafts, and architecture. Analyses
Quincy believed that architecture was imitative of architectonics in antiquity and current architecture.
nature:
- In the details of nature – like the certain In architecture, he noted how traditional and familiar
characteristics of an individual forms retained traces of very early, primitive uses.
- In nature as a collective whole like referring to a
specific species Semper rather than describing one building typology as
being the beginning, he considers what assemblies and
Also theorized that architecture was one of three systems are universal in all indigenous primitive
original architectural types: structures.
1. Hut - Post and lintel construction, transposed into
stone and became a model for Greek architecture The Four Elements of Architecture, stressed on
2. Cave - Heavy dark interiors marked religious functionalism as a prerequisite to intention and
architecture of the Egyptians conceives four essential categories of making artefacts:
3. Tent - Light and mobile structure shows traces in
wooden structures of the Chinese. • Weaving - producing textiles and patterns
• Moulding - creating pottery from clay
TYPE – Type, is the basis for the conception of works, • Carpentry - providing structures of timber,
which bear no resemblance to one another. The especially walls, partitions and roofs
architectural ‘type’ was at once ‘pre-existent germ,’ • Masonry - involving building with stone for hearth,
origin and primitive cause. walls, piers, etc.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
To the four processes, he added metal work, and JOHN RUSKIN
concluded that the forms used in architecture
originated in these processes themselves. Thus, (1819 –1900) was an English art critic, art patron,
dividing architecture into four distinct elements: the draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social
hearth, the roof, the enclosure and the mound. thinker and philanthropist. He wrote on subjects as
varied as geology, architecture, myth, ornithology,
From these he derived his theory of style, and argued literature, education, botany and political economy.
that architecture was reducible to its materials and
processes. John Ruskin rebelled against formal, classical art and
architecture. His writings heralded the Gothic Revival
19th Century Theory – Gothic Revival movement in Britain and paved the way for the Arts &
Crafts movement in Britain and the United States.
Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian
Gothic, Neo-Gothic or Collegiate Gothic) is Ruskin argued that the technical innovations of
an architectural movement that began in the late architecture since the Renaissance and particularly
1740s in England. the Industrial Revolution, had subsumed its spiritual
content and sapped its vitality. Practically, he
The Gothic Revival movement roots were intertwined suggested an 'honest' architecture with no veneers,
with deeply philosophical movements associated with finishes, hidden support nor machined moldings and
a re-awakening of High Church concerned by the that beauty must be derived from nature and crafted
growth of religious nonconformism. by man.

Gothic Revival architecture varied considerably in its The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849)
faithfulness to both the ornamental style and This was both an aesthetic attack on, and a social
principles of construction of its medieval original, critique of the division of labour in particular,
sometimes amounting to little more than pointed and industrial capitalism in general. The most
window frames and a few touches of Gothic important premise of this book is the idea that
decoration on a building otherwise on a wholly 19th- architecture is closely related to the moral state of a
century plan and using contemporary materials and nation or city.
construction methods.
The 'lamps' of the title are Ruskin's principles of
Associated with the Middle Ages in Europe and lasting architecture, they codified some of the contemporary
until the early 17th century, Gothic is the architecture thinking behind the Gothic Revival. The essay is
of the pointed arch, the rib vault, the flying buttress, structured an introduction and one chapter for each of
window tracery, pinnacles and spires. Walls are the seven 'Lamps', which represent the demands that
reduced to a minimum by large arcades and there is good architecture must meet.
an emphasis on verticality.
• Sacrifice – dedication of man's craft to God, as
Gothic was most commonly used in church visible proofs of man's love and obedience
architecture during this period, but also in collegiate • Truth – handcrafted and honest display of materials
architecture, notably at Oxford and Cambridge. and structure. Truth to materials and honest display
of construction
The Gothic Revival occurred as industrialization • Power – buildings should be thought of in terms of
progressed, in part because there was a reaction their massing and reach towards the sublimity of
against the use of machinery and factory production. nature by the action of the human mind upon them
and the organization of physical effort in
A. W. N. Pugin was a prominent architect, designer, constructing buildings.
artist, and critic involved with Gothic Revival.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
provided the necessary intellectual impetus for the
• Beauty – aspiration towards God expressed in French Gothic Revival movement.
ornamentation drawn from nature, his creation
• Life – buildings should be made by human hands, so In Discourses on Architecture, he discusses three
that the joy of masons and stonecarvers is emergent models: the Greek Doric temple, the
associated with the expressive freedom given them complex structures of imperial Rome, and the Gothic
• Memory – buildings should respect the culture from cathedrals of medieval France.
which they have developed
• Obedience – no originality for its own sake, but Viollet-le-Duc's studies of nineteenth-century iron
conforming to the finest among existing values structures greatly informed his emerging
interpretation of the Gothic as a rational scheme of
The Stones of Venice (1851–53) - Developing from a skeletal forms designed to bear the weight of the
technical history of Venetian architecture, it acted as a increasingly taller vaults.
warning about the moral and spiritual health of society.
The simultaneous functionality and visibility of these
Ruskin argued that Venice had slowly deteriorated. Its skeletal elements, namely the ribs, arches, and vertical
cultural achievements had been compromised, and its supports, was essential to his understanding of Gothic
society corrupted, by the decline of true Christian faith. architecture.
Instead of revering the divine, Renaissance artists
honoured themselves, arrogantly celebrating human He claims that the impetus for Gothic architecture,
sensuousness. both structural and decorative, developed out of
functional necessity and the state of medieval building
Praising Gothic ornament, Ruskin argued that the techniques and materials. In essence, form followed
worker must be allowed to think and to express his own function.
personality and ideas, ideally using his own hands, not
machinery and identified ‘imperfection’ as an essential In his Entretiens he suggested similarities between
feature contrasting it with the mechanical regularity of iron structures and Gothic systems, and proposed
modern mass production. iron for the framework in order to allow areas of
transparency as in Gothic architecture.

VIOLLET-LE-DUC His theory envisioned the restoration of buildings as a

Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, (1814- kind of re-imagination of the original, informed not
1879), French Gothic Revival architect, restorer of only by the existing structure and its many layers, but
French medieval buildings and theorist. also by an individual knowledge of history and form,
site of change and adaptation, rather than as a static
He defined architecture as a response to a structural and immutable monument, coupled with a
problem, set by functional needs. His writings nineteenth-century understanding of the Middle Ages.
centered on the idea that materials should be used
'honestly'. As a restorer and theorist, Viollet-le-Duc championed
the use of new materials both for contemporary
He believed that the outward appearance of a building architecture and for his restorations.
should reflect the rational construction of the
building, rather than a concern for aesthetic or This emphasis upon function, rationality, and
iconographic design. transparency in both structure and purpose, drawn
from the medieval world, would ultimately serve as
His two architectural theoretical works Reasoned the basis for his conception of a modern architecture.
Dictionary of French Architecture 11th-16th
Century (1854) and Discourses on Architecture (1863)
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
ToA – II - Module - 2 from (i) historic architecture and responded to the
(ii) context of the American city.
POSTMODERNISM
Postmodern architecture began as an international
Venturi's buildings typically juxtapose architectural
style the first examples of which are generally cited as
systems to acknowledge the conflicts often inherent in
being from the 1950s, but did not become a
a project or site
movement until the late 1970s

Robert Venturi is known for incorporating stylized

Postmodernity in architecture is said to be heralded by
cultural icons into his buildings. Venturi believes that
the return of ‘wit, ornament and reference’ to
structure and decoration should reflect the culture in
architecture in response to the formalism of
which it exists.
modernism.

Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, 1966

Architects rediscovered past architectural ornament
Venturi re-assessed architecture to stress the
and forms which had been abstracted by the
importance of multiple meanings in appreciating
Modernist architects.
design.

Modernists believed that a work of art bears a

The book demonstrated, through countless examples,
universal truth or meaning. Postmodernists believe
an approach to understanding architectural
that works of art are open to many different
composition and complexity, and the resulting
interpretations.
richness and interest.
- Visual preferences in opposition to modernism
Characteristics of Post-modernism
- Complexity and contradiction VS Simplification
1. Emphasis on Eclecticism
- Ambiguity and tension rather than
2. Recycling past cultures and styles - Pastiche
straightforwardness
3. Playful use of ‘useless’ decoration
- ‘Both-and’ rather than ‘either-or’
4. Celebration of complexity and contradiction
- Hybrid rather than pure elements
5. Sensitivity to subtleties of image, language & signs
- Messy vitality rather than obvious unity
6. Intermixing – different styles – Collaging
7. Rejection of monolithic definitions of culture –
Learning from Las Vegas, 1972
celebrate pluralism and diversity
Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown and Steven
8. Scepticism towards ‘absolutism’ - Decline of the
Izenour began a study of Las Vegas architecture - their
idea of only one source of meaning
effort was to categorize and classify architecture.

ROBERT VENTURI Learning from Las Vegas was a criticism of orthodox

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in (1925-2018). He modernism and its elite style. Their book based on
graduated from Princeton University and worked with these studies suggested that ‘low art’ such as
Eero Saarinen and Louis I. Kahn before he founded his supermarkets, parking lots commercial strips &
own practice in 1958. casinos offered lessons in planning, urban design &
architecture
He is also known for coining the maxim "Less is a
bore" as antidote to Mies van der Rohe's famous The project studied architecture and the role its signs
modernist dictum "Less is more”.
played in creating the urban landscape. It became a
call to re- introduce symbolism into architectural
Architecture of Robert Venturi helped redirect design. These varied sources helped them to
American architecture to a more exploratory and rediscover what they called the forgotten symbolism
eclectic, design approach that openly drew lessons of architecture, a concept that modern architects had
rejected in favor of an abstract aesthetic.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
The angled recessed opening and the oversized black
Duck & Decorated Shed granite column are important features
Duck is referred to a building whose space, structure
and program represent an overall symbolic form and CHARLES JENCKS
gives a clear message of the functions of the (1939-2019) architecture theorist, critic, landscape
structure. Decorated Sheds are more like simple architect and designer. His has widely written on the
structures which cannot exist without signs and other history & criticism of modernism and postmodernism.
applied ornamentation, which may be cultural
symbols or even written words telling the purposes or He proclaimed the ‘Death of Modern Architecture’ -
functions of the building. Decorated shed can be “Modern Architecture died in St. Louis, Missouri on
modified, can be transformed, and might last longer July 15, 1972 at 3:32 PM (or thereabouts) when the in-
in the functional term. famous Pruitt-Igoe scheme, or rather several of its slab
blocks, were given the final coup de gráce by
VANNA VENTURI HOUSE dynamite.” ~ Charles Jencks (1987)
One of the first prominent works of the postmodern
architecture movement. Located in Philadelphia, Important Publications:
Pennsylvania, constructed between 1962 -1964. - The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, 1977
- Critical Modernism - Where is Post-Modernism
Architecturally, elements of the house are a reaction Going?, 2007
against modernist elements: - What is Post-Modernism?
- The five-room house stands only about 10m tall at - Towards A Symbolic Architecture
the top of the chimney
- Monumental front facade 1. Multivalence is preferred to univalence
- Pitched roof rather than flat roof 2. ‘Complexity and Contradiction’ over ‘Minimalism’
- Emphasis on central hearth & chimney along with 3. Memory and History are inevitable
the staircase 4. All architecture is invented and perceived through
- Closed ground floor codes, hence the languages of architecture and
- On the front elevation the broken pediment & a symbolic architecture, hence the double-coding of
non-structural, purely ornamental appliqué arch architecture within the codes of both the
- ‘Hole in the wall’ windows professional and populace.
- House is a composition of rectangular, curvilinear, 5. Architecture must crystallise social reality, means
and elements coming together the pluralism of ethnic groups; hence participatory
design and pluralist culture for a design
GUILD HOUSE 6. Architecture is a public language, hence the need
This apartment building is for low-income elderly for a Post- Modern Classicism which is based on
housing. Like ordinary structures in this neighborhood, architectural and changing technology.
it has a facade of red brick and conventional double- 7. Architecture necessitates ornament (or patterns)
hung metal windows. which should be symbolic.
8. Architecture necessitates metaphor and this should
The Guild House has a six-story entrance facade and relate us to natural and cultural concerns.
stepped back sides which allows for more windows. 9. Architecture must form the city, hence context and
It is contextual, relating to the architecture of the mixed uses and ages of buildings should be
neighborhood. considered.
10. Architecture must confront the ecological reality
The entrance has a white brick base and the and that means sustainable development, Green
fenestration terminates in an arched window, architecture and cosmic symbolism.
illuminating the common room on the top floor. 11. Architecture which celebrates criticism, process
and humour.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
The appearance of buildings and spaces provokes
DECONSTRUCTION shock, uncertainty, unease, disquiet, disruption,
distortion. The attempt in deconstructivism in
Deconstructivism in architecture, also architecture was to move away from the constricting
called Deconstruction, is a development of "rules" of modernism such as :
postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. - Form Follows Function
Deconstructivism rejects the postmodern acceptance - Purity Of Form
of historical references and the idea of ornament as - Truth To Materials
an after-thought or decoration.
Deconstruction :
It is characterized by ideas of: - Challenged familiar ideas about space, order and
- Fragmentation regularity in the environment.
- Manipulating ideas of structure and/or skin - Rejects the idea of relationship between form and
- Non-rectilinear shapes function.
- Distortion and dislocation of structure and envelope
- Destroys the dominance of the right angle Computer aided design (CAD) today, is especially
pertinent to the nature of Deconstructivism:
The main channel from Deconstructivist philosophy to - 3D modeling and animation for conception and
architectural theory was through the philosopher construction of complex spaces
Jacques Derrida. - For manufacturing of different modular elements
Characteristics from Philosophy: and mass production.
- Metaphysics of presence
- Architecture communicating meaning and PETER EISENMAN
treatments by methods of linguistic philosophy
Any architectural deconstruction according to Derrida Born in Newark, New Jersey in 1932. He graduated
requires the existence of a particular from Cornell and obtained his Post-Graduation from
generic construction, a strongly-established Columbia University.
conventional expectation to play flexibly against.
Eisenman first rose to prominence as a member of the
Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist New York Five (Charles Gwathmey, John Hejduk,
movement include: Michael Graves and Richard Meier).

1982 - Parc de la Villette architectural design Eisenman has always drawn parallels between his
competition (especially the entry from Jacques architectural works and philosophical theory.
Derrida and Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi's
winning entry) His earlier works were ‘generated’ from a
transformation of forms related with language as an
1988 - Mark Wigley and Phillip Johnson curated the underlying structure.
Museum of Modern Art exhibition, Deconstructivist
Architecture, which crystallized the movement, and He served as a Lieutenant in the Korea war (1956-
brought fame and notoriety to its key practitioners. 1957) and while at the war, he realized how
The architects presented at the exhibition were Peter passionate he was for Architecture.
Eisenman, Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Coop
Himmelblau, Rem Koolhaas, Daniel Libeskind, and He worked for Walter Gropius and in the 1980s,
Bernard Tschumi. Eisenman established his own architectural practice in
New York
1989 - Opening of the Wexner Center for The Arts in
Columbus, designed by Peter Eisenman.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
Recurrent Themes: The strategies used in the organisation of the stelae to
- Architecture of memory enforce instability, disorientation, anxiety and
- Place-oriented or textual architecture dislocation are:
- Experience difficult to express of space and time - Undulating ground surface that defeats the sense of
- ‘Unlink’ function from the form grid
Concepts: - Confined spaces
- Tracing - Consistently different views
- Layering - Unpredictability of the heights
- Deformation - No signs or symbols
Techniques:
- Shear The Information Centre beneath the Field of Stelae
- Intersection documents the ill-treatment and destruction of the
- Distortion Jews of Europe and the historical sites of the crimes.
- Scaling The focus of the exhibition lies on the personalisation
- Diagrammatic image of the victims and on the geographical dimension of
- Superposition the Holocaust.

MEMORIAL TO THE MURDERED JEWS WEXNER CENTER OF ARTS

Also known as the Holocaust Memorial, is a memorial Location: Ohio State University,Ohio
in Berlin to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Peter Building Type: University Arts Center.
Eisenman won the competition and construction of Construction System: Steel, Concrete, Glass.
project started in April 2003. It was inaugurated on Program: Included in the Wexner Center space are a
May 10 2005, sixty years after the end of World War II. film and video theater, a performance space, a film
and video post-production studio, a bookstore, café,
The underlying idea the memorial was to show the and 1,100m² of galleries.
absence of meaning in the experience similar to
absence of meaning in executions carried out in Peter Eisenman won the design competition for
camps. Wexner Center of Arts resulting in one of the first
large scale constructions of Deconstructivist
The memorial is an analogy to experience the camps Architecture. A major part of the project is not a
and also to the idea of breaking down the relationship building itself, but a non-building.
between experience and understanding.
Eisenman uses his characteristic operations.
According to Eisenman remembering the Holocaust - Identification of the grids from conditions that
can only be a living condition in which the past exist at the edge of the site
remains active in the present. - Rotates the grid by 12.5º
- Breaks the notion of comfort and induces instability - Grafting one grid on top of the other to seek
- Scheme drawn from philosophy and linguistics potential connections at the urban, local and
- Scheme suggests a psychological void provoking interior level.
individual & cultural anxiety and dislocation - Scalar operations are performed as a means of
mediating the scale of the urban grid towards a
Often referred to as a ‘field of stelae’, the memorial human scale to serve as a map that is used to
consists of 2711 concrete stelae (0.95 m x 2.37 m), locate program, pathways, structure, interior, and
with heights varying from less than a meter to 4m. views.

The stelae are separated by a space equal to the width

of an individual stele.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
Eisenman extended his grid abstractions with two
strategies that aim at linking the past & present.
- A scaled 3D scaffolding grid and integrates this into
the primary pathway of the building that is at a
human scale.
- Reconstruction of a part of the armoury that
occupied the site previously.

Running through the core Wexner Center is its most

recognizable feature: a 165m long ‘scaffolding’
structure that extrudes the grid into a three-
dimensional matrix.
- Exposed and partially unenclosed, it is meant to
look deliberately incomplete.
- It functions as an axis of circulation and an
important spatial role in delineating and organizing
spaces throughout the site.

The elevation is a series of fragments of red brick

turrets of the pre-existing armoury-like forms that
indicate the ‘essence’ of the armoury without
reproducing any of the original intricate detail while
dramatically clashing with the hyper-modern
aesthetic of the scaffolding.

The Wexner Center deconstructs the archetype of the

castle and renders its spaces and structure with
conflict and difference.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
ToA – II - Module - 3 - Low level - every day and instrumental meanings
2. Criticality and Choices- As the criticality increases
CONTRIBUTION TO ARCHITECTURAL THOUGHT
along different scales - climatic, economic,
technological, the fewer the choices to be taken.
AMOS RAPOPORT (1929, Warsaw) 3. Basic Needs –Family, Privacy, Position of Women,
His work has focused mainly on the role of: Relationship between House and Settlement
- Cultural variables 4. Sites and Choice - Religious and cosmological,
- Cross-cultural studies symbiotic and exploitative
- Theory development and synthesis 5. Constancy and Changes

His influential book House, Form & Culture (1969) Building Tradition: Grand Design and Folk Design
explores how culture, human behavior, and the Grand tradition - Buildings are monuments, made by
environment affect house form. the most refined techniques and by distinct builders
or architects in a time so as to be able to be
The foundation of the book was laid on the intellectual distinguished from the rest of other buildings.
debate between meaning and characteristics of folk,
primitive, or vernacular buildings and modern Folk tradition - Direct and subconscious translation
buildings. into physical form of a culture, its needs, values and
aspirations of its people. It is the ideal environment of
He noted that in the past there were hierarchies in a people expressed in buildings and settlements, with
society which were legible on built forms but at the no designer, artist, or architect as form giver.
time of writing there was a general loss of hierarchies
within society, resulting in the reality that all buildings
tend to have equal prominence.

He termed ‘modifying factors’ to specify non-

architecture aspects that determine the architectural
form and functions. Two parts that he discussed:
1. Modifying Factors of House Form
2. Socio-cultural Factors and House Form

Modifying Factors of House Form:

1. Climate and the Need for Shelter
2. Materials, Construction and Technology
3. Site
4. Defense
a. To protect food storage
b. Against enemy or animals
c. Spiritual defense
5. Economics
6. Religion

Socio-Cultural Factors and House Form

1. Meaning in house
- High level meanings - cosmologies, cultural views,
world views, philosophical systems
- Middle level meanings - identity, power, status,
wealth

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021

KENNETH FRAMPTON 5. Culture Versus Nature: Topography, Context,

Is known for his writing on: Climate, Light and Tectonic Form - Frampton
- 20th-century architecture and argues that it is necessary to adopt universal
- Development of architectural phenomenology values of modernism, by using contextual forces
to give a sense of place and meaning with
His books include: emphasis on topography, climate, light and local
- Modern Architecture: A Critical History (1980) tectonics.
- Studies in Tectonic Culture (1995)
6. The Visual Versus the Tactile - Substantiates the
Critical regionalism is an approach to architecture that priority of tectonic (construction) over the
strives to: visual(aesthetic). Reinterpreting vernacular
- Counter the place-lessness and lack of identity of elements.
Modern architecture
- Rejects the whimsical individualism and Critical regionalism tries to address this problem, in a
ornamentation of Postmodern architecture critical sense to create an identity of a limited area.
- To provide an architecture rooted in the modern Precondition for critical regionalism to exist are:
tradition, but tied to geographical and cultural
context – Connection of the profession with the political
- Mediate between the global and the local consciousness of the society
languages of architecture. – A strong sense for creating a local identity
– Sufficient prosperity which is locally ‘grown’
Frampton achieved great prominence and influence
with his essay ‘Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Some of the qualities a building should evoke
points of an Architecture of Resistance’ (1983) ‘sympathy’, ‘affinity’, ‘memory’ and ‘familiarity’

Common strategy adopted by the architects is; to

1. Culture & Civilization - Discusses the state of select, defamiliarize, and recompose regional
building to be 'conditioned' by the building elements.
industry to the point of restriction and more
concerned with utility rather than cultural Working with the environmental constraints, and
expression. resources has also been seen as critical regionalism.

2. The Rise and Fall of the Avant-Garde - As times

change the ability of the avant-garde to sustain
diminishes. Critical regionalism is an attempt to
preserve ideals of what has been or present
culture.

3. Critical Regionalism and World Culture - Critical

regionalism will mediate the spectrum between
universal civilization and the particularities of
place.

4. The Resistance of the Place-Form - Considering

the mediation of the impact of universal
technique and regional particularities, this section
suggests an aregional approach to defining form
based on a defined place.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
patterns should be applied to a design. Linkages are
CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER critical for patterns to become a language, rather than
Is an architect and educator noted for theories about a collection of isolated standalone ideas for design.
the nature of design and humane urban
environments. Specifically, a pattern expresses a relationship among
parts that resolves problems that would exist if the
His seminal works on architecture include: relationship were missing.
Notes on the Synthesis of Form (1964)
The Oregon Experiment (1975) Each pattern is described in a similar way:
A Pattern Language (1977) 1. A picture shows an example of the pattern
The Timeless Way of Building (1979) 2. A paragraph describes the context of the pattern
The Nature of Order (2002-2005) 3. A bold headline gives the essence of the problem
4. A research-based exploration of the problem
Through these books, the Center for Environmental 5. Solution stated as an instruction
Structure have built a movement with the idea that 6. A diagram describing the solution
people should design houses, streets, and 7. A paragraph describing smaller patterns that can
communities for themselves. Reasoning that users are help this pattern
more sensitive to their needs than any architect 8. Each pattern also comes with a label signifying how
could be. sure the authors are that this truly is a universal
pattern.
A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings,
Construction is a 1977 book on architecture, urban
design, and community livability. It was authored
by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray
Silverstein.

Patterns, or good solutions to generic problems,

should be available in a community encyclopedia. Care
should be taken to curb the economic and political
power of large monolithic projects. Places should be
shaped for people, to make them feel more whole,
and to nourish them. And people should be involved
in the construction of their community.

The book creates a new language, derived from 253

Patterns to form a generative grammar.

A pattern language consists of a hierarchy of parts,

linked together by patterns which solve generic
problems associated with the parts.

Each pattern has a title and collectively the titles form

a language for design. In a pattern language individual
patterns are not isolated.

The structure of the language is composed of the links

from larger patterns to smaller patterns, together
creating a network defining the order in which the
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021
- This mode of designing is still used whenever new
GEOFFREY BROADBENT materials have to be used.

Wrote ‘A Plain Man’s Guide to the Theory of Signs in ICONIC DESIGN

Architecture’ & Design in Architecture - Members of a particular culture share a fixed
According to Broadbent, any building will: mental image of what the design should be like.
- The design process is by mutual adaption between
1. Enclose spaces for certain human purposes. The ways of life and building form. Eg. Eskimo's igloo
actual division of spaces may facilitate or inhibit - Involves craftsmanship learned and perfected over
specific human activities, it may also provide security. time and are hence difficult to abandon.
- User participation is the most important reason for
2. Modify the external climate thus providing repetition of design icons.
conditions in which human beings may be more or less
comfortable, in visual, thermal and actual terms. ANALOGIC DESIGN
- Involves the comparison or using references of
3. Act as a system of signs or symbols into which analogies usually visual as solutions to design
people may read meanings problems.
- Sources of analogies vary from painting (Cubism,
4. Modify the values of the materials from which it is De Stijl), sculpture (Constructivism); Biological
built, the land on which it stands and possibly of the form (morphology/ biomorphism) to abstract,
adjacent properties. philosophical concepts.
- Analogies may be direct (form oriented) or indirect
According to Broadbent, theory of architecture will be (philosophical/ experiential).
theory of design-behaviour which predicts, with - Analogical design requires the use of a medium
probabilities, the ways in which architects try to such as a drawing/model for translating the original
generate a 3- dimensional built form. Certain into its new form.
mechanisms have been used by designers throughout - Any design analogue - a drawing, model, or even a
history; starting long before there were any computer program, will influence the way they
professional architects. design.

The four design processes can be classified under: CANONIC DESIGN

- Pragmatic design (culture, climate, resources) - A canon is an accepted body of principles and
- Iconic design (culture, climate, resources) norms that uses specific criteria for making
- Analogic design (ideas & simulation) judgements, hence a canonic design is one with
- Canonic design (ideas & simulation) concerns of order and regularity. Eg. Proportioning
systems, Modular, Golden Section
PRAGMATIC DESIGN - 20th century design has been based on similar
- Materials used by trial-and-error, until a form precepts; it is the basis of all modular systems,
emerges which seems to serve the function. dimensional co-ordination, prefabricated systems
- Most primitive way of design. Conveys information building and so on.
physically. Looks at architecture, as a sign of - New mathematical/parametric techniques and
system, affects those who use building – visual and computer aids are likely to boost even further this
through senses. Practical and utilitarian. Ex. a interest.
mammoth hunter's tent
- Available resources were allowed to determine the
form. Deals with the origins, uses and the effects
of signs within the behavior of the user.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021

Characteristics of Positive Theory

ToA – II - Module - 4
- Describes and explains a phenomenon
ARCHITECTURAL THEORY - Can be tested using scientific methods
- Identify causal links – cause and effect
Creating Architectural Theory: The Role of the - Predict future behavior
Behavioral Sciences in Environmental Design 1987 by - Basis for research in design
Jon Lang. - Separates fact from value
- Tentative and subject to revision
Architectural theory – the set of principles that guides
the architect in making decisions about the complex Normative theories are based on empirical
problems that arise in translating a brief into the assumptions to interpret how or what the world
design of a building. should be encompassing the social value systems or
morals judgments.Normative means relating to an
A theory is a general framework that: ideal standard or model, or being based on what is
- Explains observed phenomena considered to be the normal or correct way of doing
- Predicts effects that appear under specific something
circumstances Characteristics of Normative theories
- Enables to create new situations that perform in a - Intellectual constructs of attitudes to how the
way predicted by the theory world works
- Conventional ideas, rule of thumb, withstood the
Characteristics of Architectural Theory test of time
- Translates conceptual and intellectual concerns - Testable by means of professional acceptance or
- Describes the practice and production of longevity
architecture - Less logical rigor
- Identifies Challenges - Guide and simplify design decisions
- Poses alternate solutions based on the current - Cultural opinions
state - Action prescribers – manifestos, design principles,
- Offers new thought paradigms standards based on ideological positions
Concerns of Architectural Theory
- Issues of origin
- The requisite qualities of an architect According to Lang positive theories should lead to
- The requisite qualities of architecture normative theories. Normative theories need to be
- To understand processes including technique, re-examined to become positive theories in respond
material, elements and construction to current issues. Research needs to be conducted to
- Attitude to history develop a logical normative theory and understand its
- Attitude to theory and practice limits to be dealt with in due course. Hence, for
sensitive design practice, theory needs to re-
Theories categorized as Positive and Normative evaluated with changing needs.
Theories. Both of which are further categorized as:

Substantive (Subjective) theory – phenomena,

environmental qualities, functions, aesthetics,
behavior.

Procedural (Objective) theory – design methodology

dealing with creativity, analysis, synthesis, evaluation
and research.
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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021

ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM Wayne Attoe derives normative criticism from

judgment or evaluation and differentiates non-
Criticism can be described as an interpretation made evaluative criticism into two categories: descriptive
by judging wisely and objectively, either of an and interpretive criticism, which are distinguished by
evaluative judgment, or a non-evaluative description. their respective goals. Attoe’s categorization of
criticism:
Objectives and Characteristics according to
Wayne Attoe, - Architecture and Critical 1. Normative criticism
Imagination,1978 - Doctrinal criticism
1. Should be positive and constructive, not - Systematic criticism
threatening or intimidating - Typal criticism
2. A tool for communicating significant content, - Measured criticism
responding to or effecting the built and un-built
environment 2. Interpretative criticism
3. Descriptive tool used to facilitate understanding - Advocatory criticism
4. Focus on how things in the past and present can - Evocative criticism
teach us how better to handle the future - Impressionistic criticism
5. Provoking and stimulating opinion affecting the
character of the existing environment 3. Descriptive criticism
6. Awareness of the methods of criticism to - Depictive criticism
improve quality of the physical environment - Biographical criticism
7. Criticism is more about the critic than the object - Contextual criticism
being criticized
8. Impact not only on the individual career but also Normative criticism is grounded in the belief that
on collective future there is a model, pattern, standard, or principle
against which its quality or success may be assessed.
Sources of Criticism Prescriptions and judgments are made using the
- Building Occupants standards indicated.
- Owners
- Contractors - Doctrinal criticism has as its basis in the belief that
- Financiers there is a single approach for accomplishing our
- Neighbours purposes and a single standard for measuring our
- General Public achievements
- Professional Peers
- Design Connoisseurs - Systematic criticism is an alternative to the single
- Recognized Critic doctrine it is an interwoven assemblage of principles
or factors, a system for judging
Medium of Criticism
1. Written word - Typal criticism is based upon structural, functional,
2. Photographs and form types.
3. Cartoons / Memes
4. Oral – Discussions, Opinions - Measured criticism assigns numerical standards to
5. Modification of buildings provide the norms against which something is
6. Vandalism judged.

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Theory of Architecture – II I 18 ARC 46 I Apr - Aug 2021

Interpretative criticism, is highly personal as the Descriptive criticism either depicts physical
interpretative critic seeks to mould others’ vision to phenomena, recounts pertinent events in the life of
make them see as he does. Interpretive criticism is not the designer, tells us about the historical context of
concerned with evaluation and judgment, but the design process and construction insofar as the
attempts to make us see the environment in a context influenced design decisions, or details the
particular way. design process itself.

- Advocatory criticism aims to provide a new Descriptive criticism, either pictures a building or the
perspective, particularly an advocatory view, on an process of its generation, or is biographical or
object, a building, or an environment. It is contextual in character.
employed by a critic who is an advocate of a
building or place and is concerned primarily with Descriptive criticism seeks to be factual and non-
getting appreciation, not with passing judgment judgmental.

- Evocative criticism uses whatever means are - Depictive criticism does not judge, but merely
needed to arouse similar feelings in the depicts what exists; such as, how people move
reader/viewer. The evocative critique is not right or through a space.
wrong, but a surrogate experience.
- Biographical criticism provides others with and
- Impressionistic criticism uses the space or building understanding of the artist in order to allow a
as a foundation on which the critic then constructs better understanding of their intentions.
his own work of art.
- Contextual criticism provides information about
the social, political, and economic context in
which something was designed.

21