Online Art Gallery

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES & EXPLANATION

2.1. MODULES

3.2. MODULE DESCRIPTIOIN

4. PROJECT DICTIONARY

4.1. DATAFLOW DIAGRAMS

4.2. E-R DIAGRAMS

4.3. DATA DICTIONARY

5. FORMS & REPORTS

5.1. I/O SAMPLES

6. BIBILIOGRAPHY
1. INTRODUCTION

Online Art Gallery is an online application, which is used to

display and sell art works of artist irrespective of their nationality,
gender and other narrow consideration, through auction. Artist can
register online for being a member in the art gallery and each artist
can upload the digital copy of their art work under the respective
categories. They can host their art work either for auction or for
fixed price. The artist is liable to pay a fraction of the price of each
art work to the web site to find the running fund for site. Art lovers
have to go to the art exhibition to collect their favorite arts or
painting. But now-a-days they are not getting enough time to go to
the galleries and collect the arts and paintings.

Existing System:
Customer can also register online and they can browse art
works that are arranged in different categories scientifically. Each
Customer can create their own gallery to see his favorite art works
with out much difficult. And each user has the right to purchase an
art work using the integrated payment gateway and participate in
auction by submitting their bids. Qualified bidder should remit the
amount using payment gateway and after each valid payment the
art work will be shipped within some days.

Proposed System:
ONLINE ART GALLERY is a application software and it is very
helpful for the art lovers and others who wants to know the
addresses where this kind of arts will we sold.
This application helps the end-users to search their arts and
paintings and they can place order for the selected pieces. The end-
user can also get the information about the art exhibition and the
respective address, so, that they can visit to those exhibitions.

Art Gallery brings you an opportunity to view online art

exhibitions at our Online Art Gallery we bring you details of all
art exhibitions held in the past and the forthcoming show. The
Online Art Gallery is updated daily, so the user can view and buy
the latest collection of contemporary art online from any where in
the world. You can view and buy the latest Indian contemporary
art collection available at their exhibitions and also at their online
gallery.

An

2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES & EXPLANATION

2.1. MODULES

 User Registration
 Art Exhibition
 Artist Directory
 Contact Us
4. PROJECT DICTIONARY

4.1. DATAFLOW DIAGRAMS

Data flow diagram is used to decrease analysis the movement of

data through a system store of data in the system. Data flow diagrams
are the central tool basing on which components are developed.
The transformation of data from input to output, through process
may be describe logically and independently of physically components
associated with the system. They are called logical data flow diagrams.
In contrast physical data flow diagrams show the actual
implementation and movement of data between people, Department,
and work station.
The data flow diagram show functional composition of the
system. The first level of conceptual level in context diagram is flowed
by the description of input and output for each of entities the next
level of dfd is level 0, which shows the main functions in the system.
Level 0 is followed by the description of the main functions. The main
function further broken into functions and sub functions.
4.1. DFD Diagrams:

DFD level 0:

MEMBERB ART ARTIST

GALLERY

ADMIN
DFD level 1 member:

REGEST
MEMBER ATION

DATA BASE
CHANGE
LOG
PASS
IN WORD

VIEW SEARC
GET ART H ADD SELEC
PROFILE GALLE ARTIST CART T ART
RY WISE

BILLI CON
ORD PAY
NG & FIRM
ER MEN
SHIP ATIO
NOW T
PING N
DFD Level 1 Artist:

REGES
ARTIST TRATIO
N

CHANG
EPASS
LOGIN WORD
DATA BASE

GET VEW SEARCH UPLOA

PROFI GALLE BY D ART
LE RY ARTIST
DFD Level 1 Admin:

ARTIST

MEMBER ART DATA

GALLERY BASE

ADMIN
Context Level Diagram:

login
login

MEMBER register ART register

ARTIST
GALLERY
Get details Get details

transactions Activate &

deactivation

ADMIN
 4.2. E-R Diagrams:

uid pwd

Member pwd
uname
pwd unam
e
Login Artist

Authentication
Member Artist

Unam Upload
Fnam Email
e e
No yes
profile City
Artid Artist Artpat
h

Arts
View artby
Shipping
gg
Billing
Artpath
Artist
Order artid

Drafts

Credit
 Payment

Object diagram:

1:1 1:1
A:Admin

1:1 1:1 1:1

1:*
1:*
1:*
1:*

M:Member L:Login R:Register T:Transactions G:Gallery

Activity diagram for Member:

Registration

Input details

Store details

Display details

Login

No Yes
Valid

Get profile

View gallery

Add to cart

password

Payment
Activity diagram for Artist:

Registration

Input details

Store details

Display details

Login

No Yes
Valid

Get profile

View gallery

Update Gallery
State Chat diagrams:
State chart Diagram for Online registration:

MEMBER REGISTRATION ADMIN DATA BASE

REGISTRATION VALIDATION STORE

CONFORMATION

State chart Diagram for Online Transactions:

 MEMBER LOGIN ADMIN TRANSACTIONS DATABASE

login valid

purchase store

conformation

Uml diagrams:
For member:
Use case diagram:
 Registration

member
getprofile

ViewGallery

Admin
SearchbyArtist

Addtocart

Shippingdetails

Artist
payment

Login

Class Diagram:
 Admin
userid : type = varchar
pwd : type = varchar

Activate()
1:1 deactivate()
1:1
Transactions()
deliverSoldArts()
1:1 1:1
1:1
1:1 1:1

1:*
view gallery
1:* artid
member login payment
uid : type = int artist
uname : type = char order drafts
uname : type = char art path billing
pwd credit
art cost shipping artid
email debit
name2 artistname
fname : type = int login() get arts() artpath
lname : type = int payment()
submit() artcost
city : type = varchar 1:*
pwd 1:*
1:* order()
1:*
register()
get profile
fname : type = char
lname : type = initval
gender : type = char
email
city : type = char

update()

Collaboration:

: member
1: register( )
: member
2: login( )

6: order( ) 9: Confirmations
: order
: login
: get
profile
3: update( )
7: payment( )
8: Transactions
5: submit( ) : Admin
4: get arts( )

: view :
gallery payment
: billing
Sequence diagram:

: member : login : get profile : view gallery : billing : order : payment

: member
: Admin

1: register( )

2: login( )
3: update( )
4: get arts( )

5: submit( )

6: order( )

7: payment( )
8: Transactions
9: Confirmations
For artist:
Class diagram:
Admin
userid : type = varchar
pwd : type = varchar

Activate()
1:1 deactivate()
Transactions() 1:1
deliverSoldArts()
1:*

1:* view gallery

1:* upload
1:1 artid
1:1 artist artid
artist 1:*
artist
art path
uid : type = int art cost art size
uname : type = char artpath
email get arts() artcost
fname : type = int
lname : type = int upload()
city : type = varchar get profile
pwd login fname : type = char
uname : type = char lname : type = initval
register() pwd gender : type = char
email
login() city : type = char

update()

Collabora:

1: register( )
: artist

: Artist
2: login( ) 7: conformation

3: update( )
: get : Admin
: login profile

6: check arts
5: get arts( ) 4: upload( )

: view : upload
gallery

Sequence:
 : artist : login : get profile : upload : view gallery
: Artist

1: register( )
: Admin
2: login( )

3: update( )

4: upload( )

5: get arts( )

6: check arts

7: conformation
 Microsoft.NET Framework

The .NET Framework is a new computing platform that

simplifies application development in the highly distributed

environment of the Internet. The .NET Framework is designed

to fulfill the following objectives:

 To provide a consistent object-oriented programming

environment whether object code is stored and executed
locally, executed locally but Internet-distributed, or
executed remotely.
 To provide a code-execution environment that minimizes
software deployment and versioning conflicts.
 To provide a code-execution environment that guarantees
safe execution of code, including code created by an
unknown or semi-trusted third party.
 To provide a code-execution environment that eliminates
the performance problems of scripted or interpreted
environments.
 To make the developer experience consistent across
widely varying types of applications, such as Windows-
based applications and Web-based applications.
 To build all communication on industry standards to
ensure that code based on the .NET Framework can
integrate with any other code.
The .NET Framework has two main components: the common

language runtime and the .NET Framework class library. The

common language runtime is the foundation of the .NET

Framework. You can think of the runtime as an agent that

manages code at execution time, providing core services such

as memory management, thread management, and remoting,

while also enforcing strict type safety and other forms of code

accuracy that ensure security and robustness. In fact, the

concept of code management is a fundamental principle of the

runtime. Code that targets the runtime is known as managed

code, while code that does not target the runtime is known as

unmanaged code. The class library, the other main component

of the .NET Framework, is a comprehensive, object-oriented

collection of reusable types that you can use to develop

applications ranging from traditional command-line or

graphical user interface (GUI) applications to applications

based on the latest innovations provided by ASP.NET, such as

Web Forms and XML Web services.

The .NET Framework can be hosted by unmanaged

components that load the common language runtime into their

processes and initiate the execution of managed code, thereby

creating a software environment that can exploit both

managed and unmanaged features. The .NET Framework not

only provides several runtime hosts, but also supports the

development of third-party runtime hosts.

For example, ASP.NET hosts the runtime to provide a scalable,

server-side environment for managed code. ASP.NET works

directly with the runtime to enable Web Forms applications

and XML Web services, both of which are discussed later in

this topic.

Internet Explorer is an example of an unmanaged application

that hosts the runtime (in the form of a MIME type extension).

Using Internet Explorer to host the runtime enables you to

embed managed components or Windows Forms controls in

HTML documents. Hosting the runtime in this way makes

managed mobile code (similar to Microsoft® ActiveX® controls)

possible, but with significant improvements that only managed

code can offer, such as semi-trusted execution and secure

isolated file storage.

The following illustration shows the relationship of the

common language runtime and the class library to your

applications and to the overall system. The illustration also

shows how managed code operates within a larger

architecture.

Features of the Common Language Runtime

The common language runtime manages memory, thread

execution, code execution, code safety verification,

compilation, and other system services. These features are

intrinsic to the managed code that runs on the common

language runtime.

With regards to security, managed components are awarded

varying degrees of trust, depending on a number of factors

that include their origin (such as the Internet, enterprise

network, or local computer). This means that a managed

component might or might not be able to perform file-access

operations, registry-access operations, or other sensitive

functions, even if it is being used in the same active

application.

The runtime enforces code access security. For example, users

can trust that an executable embedded in a Web page can play

an animation on screen or sing a song, but cannot access their

personal data, file system, or network. The security features of

the runtime thus enable legitimate Internet-deployed software

to be exceptionally feature rich.

The runtime also enforces code robustness by implementing a

strict type- and code-verification infrastructure called the

common type system (CTS). The CTS ensures that all managed

code is self-describing. The various Microsoft and third-party

language compilers

Generate managed code that conforms to the CTS. This means

that managed code can consume other managed types and

instances, while strictly enforcing type fidelity and type safety.

In addition, the managed environment of the runtime

eliminates many common software issues. For example, the

runtime automatically handles object layout and manages

references to objects, releasing them when they are no longer

being used. This automatic memory management resolves the

two most common application errors, memory leaks and

invalid memory references.

The runtime also accelerates developer productivity. For

example, programmers can write applications in their

development language of choice, yet take full advantage of the

runtime, the class library, and components written in other

languages by other developers. Any compiler vendor who

chooses to target the runtime can do so. Language compilers

that target the .NET Framework make the features of the .NET

Framework available to existing code written in that language,

greatly easing the migration process for existing applications.

While the runtime is designed for the software of the future, it

also supports software of today and yesterday. Interoperability

between managed and unmanaged code enables developers to

continue to use necessary COM components and DLLs.

The runtime is designed to enhance performance. Although

the common language runtime provides many standard

runtime services, managed code is never interpreted. A feature

called just-in-time (JIT) compiling enables all managed code to

run in the native machine language of the system on which it

is executing. Meanwhile, the memory manager removes the

possibilities of fragmented memory and increases memory

locality-of-reference to further increase performance.

Finally, the runtime can be hosted by high-performance,

server-side applications, such as Microsoft® SQL Server™ and

Internet Information Services (IIS). This infrastructure enables

you to use managed code to write your business logic, while

still enjoying the superior performance of the industry's best

enterprise servers that support runtime hosting.

.NET Framework Class Library

The .NET Framework class library is a collection of reusable

types that tightly integrate with the common language

runtime. The class library is object oriented, providing types

from which your own managed code can derive functionality.

This not only makes the .NET Framework types easy to use,

but also reduces the time associated with learning new

features of the .NET Framework. In addition, third-party

components can integrate seamlessly with classes in the .NET

Framework.

For example, the .NET Framework collection classes

implement a set of interfaces that you can use to develop your

own collection classes. Your collection classes will blend

seamlessly with the classes in the .NET Framework.

As you would expect from an object-oriented class library,

the .NET Framework types enable you to accomplish a range

of common programming tasks, including tasks such as string

management, data collection, database connectivity, and file

access. In addition to these common tasks, the class library

includes types that support a variety of specialized

development scenarios. For example, you can use the .NET

Framework to develop the following types of applications and

services:

 Console applications.
 Scripted or hosted applications.
 Windows GUI applications (Windows Forms).
 ASP.NET applications.
 XML Web services.
 Windows services.

For example, the Windows Forms classes are a comprehensive

set of reusable types that vastly simplify Windows GUI

development. If you write an ASP.NET Web Form application,

you can use the Web Forms classes.

Client Application Development

Client applications are the closest to a traditional style of

application in Windows-based programming. These are the

types of applications that display windows or forms on the

desktop, enabling a user to perform a task. Client applications

include applications such as word processors and

spreadsheets, as well as custom business applications such as

data-entry tools, reporting tools, and so on. Client applications

usually employ windows, menus, buttons, and other GUI

elements, and they likely access local resources such as the

file system and peripherals such as printers.

Another kind of client application is the traditional ActiveX

control (now replaced by the managed Windows Forms control)

deployed over the Internet as a Web page. This application is

much like other client applications: it is executed natively, has

access to local resources, and includes graphical elements.

In the past, developers created such applications using C/C++

in conjunction with the Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC) or

with a rapid application development (RAD) environment such

as Microsoft® Visual Basic®. The .NET Framework

incorporates aspects of these existing products into a single,

consistent development environment that drastically simplifies

the development of client applications.

The Windows Forms classes contained in the .NET Framework

are designed to be used for GUI development. You can easily

create command windows, buttons, menus, toolbars, and

other screen elements with the flexibility necessary to

accommodate shifting business needs.

For example, the .NET Framework provides simple properties

to adjust visual attributes associated with forms. In some

cases the underlying operating system does not support

changing these attributes directly, and in these cases the .NET

Framework automatically recreates the forms. This is one of

many ways in which the .NET Framework integrates the

developer interface, making coding simpler and more

consistent.

Unlike ActiveX controls, Windows Forms controls have semi-

trusted access to a user's computer. This means that binary or

natively executing code can access some of the resources on

the user's system (such as GUI elements and limited file

access) without being able to access or compromise other

resources. Because of code access security, many applications

that once needed to be installed on a user's system can now be

safely deployed through the Web. Your applications can

implement the features of a local application while being

deployed like a Web page.

C#.Net for Windows Application

Overview of the .NET Framework

The .NET Framework is a managed type-safe environment for

application development and execution. The .NET Framework
manages all aspects of your program’s execution. It allocates
memory for the storage of data and instructions, grants or
denies the appropriate permissions to your application,
initiates and manages application execution, and manages the
reallocation of memory from resources that are no longer
needed. The .NET Framework consists of two main
components: the common language runtime and the .NET
Framework class library.

The common language runtime can be thought of as the

environment that manages code execution. It provides core
services, such as code compilation, memory allocation, thread
management, and garbage collection. Through the common
type system (CTS), it enforces strict type-safety and ensures
that code is executed in a safe environment by also enforcing
code access security.
The .NET Framework class library provides a collection of
useful and reusable types that are designed to integrate with
the common language runtime. The types provided by the
.NET Framework are object-oriented and fully extensible, and
they allow you to seamlessly integrate your applications with
the .NET Framework.

Languages and the .NET Framework

The .NET Framework is designed for cross-language

compatibility, which means, simply, that .NET components
can interact with each other no matter what supported
language they were written in originally. So, an application
written in Microsoft Visual Basic .NET might reference a
dynamic-link library (DLL) file written in Microsoft Visual C#,
which in turn might access a resource written in managed
Microsoft Visual C++ or any other .NET language. This
language interoperability extends to full object-oriented
inheritance. A Visual Basic .NET class might be derived from a
C# class, for example, or vice versa.

This level of cross-language compatibility is possible because

of the common language runtime. When a .NET application is
compiled, it is converted from the language in which it was
written (Visual Basic .NET, C#, or any other .NET-compliant
language) to Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL or IL).
MSIL is a low-level language that the common language
runtime can read and understand. Because all .NET
executables and DLLs exist as MSIL, they can freely
interoperate. The Common Language Specification (CLS)
defines the minimum standards to which .NET language
compilers must conform. Thus, the CLS ensures that any
source code successfully compiled by a .NET compiler can
interoperate with the .NET Framework.

The CTS ensures type compatibility between .NET

components. Because .NET applications are converted to IL
prior to deployment and execution, all primitive data types are
represented as .NET types. Thus, a Visual Basic Integer and a
C# int are both represented in IL code as a System.Int32.
Because both languages use a common type system, it is
possible to transfer data between components and avoid time-
consuming conversions or hard-to-find errors.

Visual Studio .NET ships with languages such as Visual

Basic .NET, Visual C#, and Visual C++ with managed
extensions, as well as the JScript scripting language. You can
also write managed code for the .NET Framework in other
languages. Third-party tools and compilers exist for Fortran,
Cobol, Perl, and a host of other languages. All of these
languages share the same cross-language compatibility and
inheritability. Thus, you can write code for the .NET
Framework in the language of your choice, and it will be able
to interact with code written for the .NET Framework in any
other language.

.NET Framework Architecture

The Structure of a .NET Application

To understand how the common language runtime manages
code execution, you must examine the structure of a .NET
application. The primary unit of a .NET application is the
assembly. An assembly is a self-describing collection of code,
resources, and metadata. The assembly manifest contains
information about what is contained within the assembly. The
assembly manifest provides:

 Identity information, such as the assembly’s name and

version number
 A list of all types exposed by the assembly

 A list of other assemblies required by the assembly

 A list of code access security instructions, including

permissions required by the assembly and permissions to
be denied the assembly

Each assembly has one and only one assembly manifest, and
it contains all the description information for the assembly.
However, the assembly manifest can be contained in its own
file or within one of the assembly’s modules.

An assembly contains one or more modules. A module

contains the code that makes up your application or library,
and it contains metadata that describes that code. When you
compile a project into an assembly, your code is converted
from high-level code to IL. Because all managed code is first
converted to IL code, applications written in different
languages can easily interact. For example, one developer
might write an application in Visual C# that accesses a DLL in
Visual Basic .NET. Both resources will be converted to IL
modules before being executed, thus avoiding any language-
incompatibility issues.

Each module also contains a number of types. Types are

templates that describe a set of data encapsulation and
functionality. There are two kinds of types: reference types
(classes) and value types (structures). These types are
discussed in greater detail in Lesson 2 of this chapter. Each
type is described to the common language runtime in the
assembly manifest. A type can contain fields, properties, and
methods, each of which should be related to a common
functionality. For example, you might have a class that
represents a bank account. It contains fields, properties, and
methods related to the functions needed to implement a bank
account. A field represents storage of a particular type of data.
One field might store the name of an account holder, for
example. Properties are similar to fields, but properties usually
provide some kind of validation when data is set or retrieved.
You might have a property that represents an account
balance. When an attempt is made to change the value, the
property can check to see if the attempted change is greater
than a predetermined limit. If the value is greater than the
limit, the property does not allow the change. Methods
represent behavior, such as actions taken on data stored
within the class or changes to the user interface. Continuing
with the bank account example, you might have a Transfer
method that transfers a balance from a checking account to a
savings account, or an Alert method that warns users when
their balances fall below a predetermined level.

CLR Execution Model

Compilation and Execution of a .NET Application

When you compile a .NET application, it is not compiled to

binary machine code; rather, it is converted to IL. This is the
form that your deployed application takes—one or more
assemblies consisting of executable files and DLL files in IL
form. At least one of these assemblies will contain an
executable file that has been designated as the entry point for
the application.

When execution of your program begins, the first assembly is

loaded into memory. At this point, the common language
runtime examines the assembly manifest and determines the
requirements to run the program. It examines security
permissions requested by the assembly and compares them
with the system’s security policy. If the system’s security
policy does not allow the requested permissions, the
application will not run. If the application passes the system’s
security policy, the common language runtime executes the
code. It creates a process for the application to run in and
begins application execution. When execution starts, the first
bit of code that needs to be executed is loaded into memory
and compiled into native binary code from IL by the common
language runtime’s Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler. Once
compiled, the code is executed and stored in memory as native
code. Thus, each portion of code is compiled only once when
an application executes. Whenever program execution
branches to code that has not yet run, the JIT compiler
compiles it ahead of execution and stores it in memory as
binary code. This way, application performance is maximized
because only the parts of a program that are executed are
compiled.

2: The .NET Base Class Library

 The .NET base class library is a collection of object-

oriented types and interfaces that provide object models
and services for many of the complex programming tasks
you will face. Most of the types presented by the .NET
 base class library are fully extensible, allowing you to
build types that incorporate your own functionality into
your managed code.

The .NET Framework base class library contains the base

classes that provide many of the services and objects you need
when writing your applications. The class library is organized
into namespaces. A namespace is a logical grouping of types
that perform related functions. For example, the
System.Windows.Forms namespace contains all the types that
make up Windows forms and the controls used in those forms.

Namespaces are logical groupings of related classes. The

namespaces in the .NET base class library are organized
hierarchically. The root of the .NET Framework is the System
namespace. Other namespaces can be accessed with the
period operator. A typical namespace construction appears as
follows:

System
System.Data
System.Data.SQLClient

The first example refers to the System namespace. The second

refers to the System.Data namespace. The third example refers
to the System.Data.SQLClient namespace. Table 1.1 introduces some of the
more commonly used .NET base class namespaces.

Table 1-1. Representative .NET Namespaces

Namespace Description

System This namespace is the root for many of the low-

level types required by the .NET Framework. It
is the root for primitive data types as well, and
it is the root for all the other namespaces in
the .NET base class library.

System.Collections This namespace contains classes that represent

a variety of different container types, such as
 ArrayList, SortedList, Queue, and Stack. You
also can find abstract classes, such as
CollectionBase, which are useful for
implementing your own collection
functionality.

System.ComponentModel This namespace contains classes involved in

component creation and containment, such as
attributes, type converters, and license
providers.

System.Data This namespace contains classes required for

database access and manipulations, as well as
additional namespaces used for data access.

System.Data.Common This namespace contains a set of classes that

are shared by the .NET managed data
providers.

System.Data.OleDb This namespace contains classes that make up

the managed data provider for OLE DB data
access.

System.Data.SQLClient This namespace contains classes that are

optimized for interacting with Microsoft SQL
Server.

System.Drawing This namespace exposes GDI+ functionality

and provides classes that facilitate graphics
rendering.

System.IO In this namespace, you will find types for

handling file system I/O.

System.Math This namespace is home to common

mathematics functions such as extracting roots
and trigonometry.

System.Reflection This namespace provides support for obtaining

 information and dynamic creation of types at
runtime.

System.Security This namespace is home to types dealing with

permissions, cryptography, and code access
security.

System.Threading This namespace contains classes that facilitate

the implementation of multithreaded
applications.

System.Windows.Forms This namespace contains types involved in

creating standard Windows applications.
Classes that represent forms and controls reside
here as well.

The namespace names are self-descriptive by design. Straightforward names

make the .NET Framework easy to use and allow you to rapidly familiarize
yourself with its contents.

Reference Types and Value Types

Types in the .NET Framework come in two varieties: value types and
reference types. The primary difference between value types and reference
types has to do with the way variable data is accessed. To understand this
difference, a little background on memory dynamics is required.

Application data memory is divided into two primary components, the stack
and the heap. The stack is an area of memory reserved by the application to
run the program. The stack is analogous to a stack of dinner plates. Plates
are placed on the stack one on top of another. When a plate is removed from
the stack, it is always the last one to have been placed on top that is removed
first. So it is with program variables. When a function is called, all the
variables used by the function are pushed onto the stack. If that function
calls additional functions, it pushes additional variables onto the stack.
When the most recently called function terminates, all of its variables go out
of scope (meaning that they are no longer available to the application) and
are popped off the stack. Memory consumed by those variables is then freed
up, and program execution continues.
The heap, on the other hand, is a separate area of memory reserved for the
creation of reusable objects. The common language runtime manages
allocation of heap memory for objects and controls the reclamation of
memory from unused objects through garbage collection.

All the data associated with a value type is allocated on the stack. When a
variable of a value type goes out of scope, it is destroyed and its memory is
reclaimed. A variable of a reference type, on the other hand, exists in two
memory locations. The actual object data is allocated on the heap. A variable
containing a pointer to that object is allocated on the stack. When that
variable is called by a function, it returns the memory address for the object
to which it refers. When that variable goes out of scope, the object reference
is destroyed but the object itself is not. If any other references to that object
exist, the object remains intact. If the object is left without any references, it
is subject to garbage collection. (See Lesson 6 of this chapter.)

Examples of value types include primitives, such as Integer (int), Boolean

(bool), Char (char), and so on, as well as user-defined types such as
Structure (struct) and Enumeration (enum). Classes represent the majority of
reference types. Other reference types include the interface, delegate, and
array types. Classes and structures are discussed in Lesson 3 of this chapter,
and other reference and value types are discussed in Chapter 3.

Using .NET Framework Types in Your Application

When you begin writing an application, you automatically begin with a

reference to the .NET Framework base class library. You reference it so that
your application is aware of the base class library and is able to create
instances of the types represented by it.

Value Types

int myInteger;

This line tells the runtime to allocate the appropriate amount of memory to
hold an integer variable. Although this line creates the variable, it does not
assign a value to it. You can assign a value using the assignment operator, as
follows:

myInteger = 42;
You can also choose to assign a value to a variable upon creation, as shown
in this example:

int myInteger = 42;

Reference Types

Creating an instance of a type is a two-step process. The first step is to

declare the variable as that type, which allocates the appropriate amount of
memory for that variable but does not actually create the object. The
following syntax declares an object:

System.Windows.Forms.Form myForm;

This line tells the runtime to set aside enough memory to hold a Form
variable and assigns it the name myForm, but it does not actually create the
Form object in memory. The second step, called instantiation, actually
creates the object. An example of instantiation follows:

myForm = new System.Windows.Forms.Form();

This line makes a call to the constructor method of the type

System.Windows.Forms.Form by way of the New (new) keyword. The
constructor is a special method that is invoked only at the beginning of an
object’s lifetime. It contains any code that must be executed for the object to
work (assigning values to properties, for example). If any parameters were
required by the constructor, they would be contained within the parentheses
at the end of the line. The following example shows declaration and
instantiation of a hypothetical Widget class that requires a string as a
parameter in the constructor.

Widget myWidget;
myWidget = new Widget("This string is required by the constructor");

If desired, you can also combine both declaration and instantiation into a
single statement. By declaring and instantiating an object in the same line,
you reserve the memory for the object and immediately create the object that
resides in that memory. Although there was a significant performance
penalty for this shortcut in previous versions of Visual Basic, Visual
Basic .NET and Visual C# are optimized to allow this behavior without any
performance loss. The following example shows the one-step declaration
and instantiation of a new Form:

System.Windows.Forms.Form myForm = new
System.Windows.Forms.Form();

Both value types and reference types must be initialized before use. For class
and structure fields in Visual Basic .NET, types are initialized with default
values on declaration. Numeric value types (such as integer) and floating-
point types are assigned zero; Boolean variables are assigned False; and
reference types are assigned to a null reference.

In C#, variables of a reference type have a default value of null. It is

recommended that you do not rely on the default value. These variables
should not be used until they have been initialized.

Using Value Type and Reference Type Variables

A variable that represents a value type contains all the data represented by
that type. A variable that represents a reference type contains a reference to a
particular object. This distinction is important. Consider the following
example:

int x, y;
x = 15;
y = x;
x = 30;
// What is the value of y?

In this example, two integer variables named x and y are created. X is

assigned a value of 15, and then y is assigned the value of x. Next the value
of x is changed to 30, and the question is posed: what is the value of y? The
answer to this question might seem obvious, and it is y = 15 because x and y
are two separate variables and have no effect on each other when changed.
When the line y = x is encountered, the value of x is copied to the value of y,
and there is no further connection between the two variables.
This situation changes, however, in the case of reference types. Let’s
reconsider the previous example using a reference type (Form) instead of a
value type.

System.Windows.Forms.Form x,y;
x = new System.Windows.Forms.Form();
x.Text = "This is Form 1";
y = x;
x.Text = "This is Form 2";
// What value does y.Text return?

What value does y.Text return? This time, the answer is less obvious.
Because System.Windows.Forms.Form is a reference type, the variable x
does not actually contain a Form; rather, it points to an instance of a Form.
When the line y = x is encountered, the runtime copies the reference from
variable x to y. Thus, the variables x and y now point to the same instance of
Form. Because these two variables refer to the same instance of the object,
they will return the same values for properties of that object. Thus, y.Text
returns “This is Form 2”.

The Imports and Using Statements

Up to this point of the chapter, if you wanted to access a type in the .NET
Framework base class library, you had to use the full name of the type,
including every namespace to which it belonged. For example:

System.Windows.Forms.Form

This is called the fully-qualified name, meaning it refers both to the class
and to the namespace in which it can be found. You can make your
development environment “aware” of various namespaces by using the
Imports (Visual Basic .NET) or using (Visual C#) statement. This technique
allows you to refer to a type using only its generic name and to omit the
qualifying namespaces. Thus, you could refer to
System.Windows.Forms.Form as simply Form. In Visual Basic .NET, the
Imports statement must be placed at the top of the code window, preceding
any other statement (except Option). In Visual C#, the using statement must
occur before any other namespace element, such as a class or struct. This
example demonstrates use of this statement:

using System.Windows.Forms;

When two types of the same name exist in more than one imported
namespace, you must use the fully qualified name to avoid a naming
conflict. Thus, if you are using MyNameSpaceOne and MyNameSpaceTwo,
and each contains a Widget class, you would have to refer to
MyNameSpaceOne.Widget or MyNameSpaceTwo.Widget to ensure the
correct result.

In C#, you can resolve namespace conflicts such as these by creating an

alias. An alias allows you to choose one name to refer to another class. You
create an alias using the using keyword, as shown below:

using myAlias = MyNameSpaceTwo.Widget;

After implementing an alias, you can use it in code to represent the aliased
class. For example:

// You can now refer to MyNameSpaceTwo as myAlias. The
// following two lines produce the same result:
MyNameSpaceTwo.Widget anotherWidget = new MyNameSpaceTwo.Widg
et() ;
myAlias anotherWidget = new myAlias() ;

You cannot create aliases for types in this manner in Visual Basic .NET.

Referencing External Libraries

You might want to use class libraries not contained by the .NET Framework,
such as libraries developed by third-party vendors or libraries you
developed. To access these external libraries, you must create a reference.

To create a reference to an external library

1. In the Solution Explorer, right-click the References node of your

project.
2. From the pop-up menu, choose Add Reference. The Add Reference
dialog box appears.
 3. Choose the appropriate tab for the library you want to reference. .NET
libraries are available on the .NET tab. Legacy COM libraries appear
on the COM tab, and local Visual Studio projects appear on the
Projects tab.

4. Locate the library you want to reference, and double-click it to add it

to the Selected components box. Click OK to confirm the choice of
that reference.

Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming

Programming in the .NET Framework environment is done with objects.

Objects are programmatic constructs that represent packages of related data
and functionality. Objects are self-contained and expose specific
functionality to the rest of the application environment without detailing the
inner workings of the object itself. Objects are created from a template
called a class. The .NET base class library provides a set of classes from
which you can create objects in your applications. You also can use the
Microsoft Visual Studio programming environment to create your own
classes. This lesson introduces you to the concepts associated with object-
oriented programming.

Objects, Members, and Abstraction

An object is a programmatic construct that represents something. In the real

world, objects are cars, bicycles, laptop computers, and so on. Each of these
items exposes specific functionality and has specific properties. In your
application, an object might be a form, a control such as a button, a database
connection, or any of a number of other constructs. Each object is a
complete functional unit, and contains all of the data and exposes all of the
functionality required to fulfill its purpose. The ability of programmatic
objects to represent real-world objects is called abstraction.
Classes Are Templates for Objects

Classes can be thought of as blueprints for objects: they define all of the
members of an object, define the behavior of an object, and set initial values
for data when appropriate. When a class is instantiated, an in-memory
instance of that class is created. This instance is called an object. To review,
a class is instantiated using the New (new) keyword as follows:

When an instance of a class is created, a copy of the instance data defined by

that class is created in memory and assigned to the reference variable.
Individual instances of a class are independent of one another and represent
separate programmatic constructs. There is generally no limit to how many
copies of a single class can be instantiated at any time. To use a real-world
analogy, if a car is an object, the plans for the car are the class. The plans
can be used to make any number of cars, and changes to a single car do not,
for the most part, affect any other cars.

Objects and Members

Objects are composed of members. Members are properties, fields, methods,

and events, and they represent the data and functionality that comprise the
object. Fields and properties represent data members of an object. Methods
are actions the object can perform, and events are notifications an object
receives from or sends to other objects when activity happens in the
application.

To continue with the real-world example of a car, consider that a Car object
has fields and properties, such as Color, Make, Model, Age, GasLevel, and
so on. These are the data that describe the state of the object. A Car object
might also expose several methods, such as Accelerate, ShiftGears, or Turn.
The methods represent behaviors the object can execute. And events
represent notifications. For example, a Car object might receive an
EngineOverheating event from its Engine object, or it might raise a Crash
event when interacting with a Tree object.

Object Models

Simple objects might consist of only a few properties, methods, and perhaps
an event or two. More complex objects might require numerous properties
and methods and possibly even subordinate objects. Objects can contain and
expose other objects as members. For example, the TextBox control exposes
a Font property, which consists of a Font object. Similarly, every instance of
the Form class contains and exposes a Controls collection that comprises all
of the controls contained by the form. The object model defines the
hierarchy of contained objects that form the structure of an object.

An object model is a hierarchical organization of subordinate objects

contained and exposed within a main object. To illustrate, let’s revisit the
example of a car as an object. A car is a single object, but it also consists of
subordinate objects. A Car object might contain an Engine object, four
Wheel objects, a Transmission object, and so on. The composition of these
subordinate objects directly affects how the Car object functions as a whole.
For example, if the Cylinders property of the Engine subordinate object is
equal to 4, the Car will behave differently than a Car whose Engine has a
Cylinders property value of 8. Contained objects can have subordinate
objects of their own. For example, the contained Engine object might
contain several SparkPlug objects.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the concept that implementation of an object is independent

of its interface. Put another way, an application interacts with an object
through its interface, which consists of its public properties and methods. As
long as this interface remains constant, the application can continue to
interact with the component, even if implementation of the interface was
completely rewritten between versions.

Objects should only interact with other objects through their public methods
and properties. Thus, objects should contain all of the data they require, as
well as all of the functionality that works with that data. The internal data of
an object should never be exposed in the interface; thus, fields rarely should
be Public (public).

Returning to the Car example. If a Car object interacts with a Driver object,
the Car interface might consist of a GoForward method, a GoBackward
method, and a Stop method. This is all the information that the Driver needs
to interact with the Car. The Car might contain an Engine object, for
example, but the Driver doesn’t need to know about the Engine object—all
the Driver cares about is that the methods can be called and that they return
the appropriate values. Thus, if one Engine object is exchanged for another,
it makes no difference to the Driver as long as the interface continues to
function correctly.

Polymorphism

Polymorphism is the ability of different classes to provide different

implementations of the same public interfaces. In other words,
polymorphism allows methods and properties of an object to be called
without regard for the particular implementation of those members. For
example, a Driver object can interact with a Car object through the Car
public interface. If another object, such as a Truck object or a SportsCar
object, exposes the same public interface, the Driver object can interact with
them without regard to the specific implementation of that interface. There
are two principal ways through which polymorphism can be provided:
interface polymorphism and inheritance polymorphism.

Interface Polymorphism

An interface is a contract for behavior. Essentially, it defines the members a

class should implement, but states nothing at all about the details of that
implementation. An object can implement many different interfaces, and
many diverse classes can implement the same interface. All objects
implementing the same interface are capable of interacting with other
objects through that interface. For example, the Car object in the previous
examples might implement the IDrivable interface (by convention, interfaces
usually begin with I), which specifies the GoForward, GoBackward, and
Halt methods. Other classes, such as Truck, Forklift, or Boat might
implement this interface and thus are able to interact with the Driver object.
The Driver object is unaware of which interface implementation it is
interacting with; it is only aware of the interface itself. Interface
polymorphism is discussed in detail in Lesson 3.

Inheritance Polymorphism

Inheritance allows you to incorporate the functionality of a previously

defined class into a new class and implement different members as needed.
A class that inherits another class is said to derive from that class, or to
inherit from that class. A class can directly inherit from only one class,
which is called the base class. The new class has the same members as the
base class, and additional members can be added as needed. Additionally,
the implementation of base members can be changed in the new class by
overriding the base class implementation. Inherited classes retain all the
characteristics of the base class and can interact with other objects as though
they were instances of the base class. For example, if the Car class is the
base class, a derived class might be Sport scar. The Sport scar class might be
the base class for another derived class, the ConvertibleSportsCar. Each
newly derived class might implement additional members, but the
functionality defined in the original Car class is retained.

Requirements:

Hardware : PC with 2 GB hard-disk and 256 MB RAM

Operating System : Windows 2000, XP, 2003 server
Software : ASP.Net, C#.Net
Backend : Sql Server 2000/2005