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DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Design and Fabrication of Multipurpose Parabolic

Through Solar Water Heater Machine
A Thesis Submitted
In the Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements
For the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical
Engineering (Thermal Engineering Stream)
Advisor; Mr. Yonas T.
DEBRE TABOR ETHIOPIA

MAY 2019
DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY SOLAR WATER HEATER MACHINE DESIGN
Declaration
We hereby declare that the work which is presented in this thesis entitled “Design and Fabrication
of Multipurpose Parabolic Through Solar Water Heater Machine” is original work of our
own, has not been presented for a degree of any other university and that all sources of material
used for the thesis have been duly acknowledged.
__________________________ __________________
TIDARU DESSIE (0573/070) date
_____________________________ ___________________
TILKSEW ANDUALEM (0768/07)
____________________________ ___________________
HABTAMU AGMAS (0157/07)
____________________________ ____________________
GIZACHEW ENYEW (1331/07)
____________________________ _____________________
GETAHUN GASHEW (0026/07)
This is to certify that the above declaration made by the candidates is correct to the best of my
knowledge.
__________________________ __________________
Mr. Yonas Tibebu date
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Acknowledgement
We are very grateful to our advisor Mr. Yonas Tibebu for sharing his time and providing valuable
and continuous support, patience, help, suggestion, courage and comments during this thesis
project paper. Without his valuable comments and encouragements this paper would not have been
complete in time.
Secondly, we would like to pass our gratitude to Mr. Endalkachew Addis, Department Head of
Debre Tabor university Mechanical Engineering Department, for his support, suggestion and
courage he has given us for the successful completion of the project.
We are also grateful to our family and friends for their support and concern which fills us with
extra motivation and energy.
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Abstract
There was no water heating mechanism in student’s dormitory for shower and water is heated by
using fire as well as electricity to be utilized in the cafeteria and lunge of Debre Tabor university.
This project explores the design and fabrication of multipurpose parabolic through solar water
heater machine. In the project, solar water heating systems are studied with their application. On
the design an alternative energy system is introduced using solar energy by using parabolic through
collector and thermal storage system. The concept has the potential to provide efficient parabolic
solar water heater at a substantially lower cost than conventional methods. A solar hot water system
is also outlined in this project as an alternative way to meet the entire heating load for the domestic
hot water system in our community.
The project mainly consists of the analysis and design of different parts of the machine and its
accessory. The design starts from the identification of the problem, data collection, material
selection, general considerations and part specifications, part design, working principle of the
machine, finally part and assembly drawing fabrication and testing of the machine.
In this work stainless steel trough with aluminum foil is taken as the reflecting material for the
parabolic trough. copper is taken as the material for the receiver tubes with 20mm diameter and is
painted black in order to increase their absorptivity and reduce losses. Water ethyl glycol solution
is used as heat transfer liquid. The project mainly assumes to design water heater up 75°C
temperature from collector and maximum of 45°C for the shower purpose.
In order to analyze all of the proposed systems effectively, modelling software’s is used. This
modelling software is Solid work, and the designed model is analyzed using ANSYS software
simulation and by experimental setup. All of these tools will be essential in completing a thorough
evaluation and design of the proposed systems.
PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC iii

Table of Contents
Contents
Declaration ..................................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................ ii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Theoretical Concept of The Project .................................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 The solar Energy resource ............................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Solar thermal water heater ................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Classification of solar thermal water heaters and collectors.............................................................. 5
1.4 Classification depending their geometric configuration..................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Parabolic trough solar collector ................................................................................................... 6
1.4.2 Parabolic dish-type collector........................................................................................................ 7
1.4.3 Solar receptor systems or Central tower .................................................................................. 8
1.4.4 Linear Fresnel collector systems (LFR) ......................................................................................... 9
1.5 Statement of the problems ............................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Design Objective and Requirement .................................................................................................. 10
1.6.1 General objective ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.6.2 Specific objective ....................................................................................................................... 10
1.7 Scope ................................................................................................................................................. 10
1.8 Significance of the project ................................................................................................................ 11
1.9 Benefits and beneficiaries of the machine ....................................................................................... 11
1.9.1 Benefits of the machine ............................................................................................................. 11
1.9.2 Beneficiaries of the machine ..................................................................................................... 11
1.10 System Description ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.10.1 Thermosiphon System ............................................................................................................. 12
1.11 Limitation ........................................................................................................................................ 13
1.12 Organization of the Study (Thesis structure) .................................................................................. 13
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................ 14
2 Literature review ...................................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Research Gaps from Literature Reviews ........................................................................................... 16
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CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 18

3. Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................................... 18
3.1 Site description ................................................................................................................................. 18
3.2 Material selection ............................................................................................................................. 18
3.2.1 COLLECTOR MATERIALS ............................................................................................................. 18
3.2.2 THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE ..................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Methodology..................................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 24
4. DESIGN ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS ....................................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Geometry of Parabolic Trough Solar water heater and Collector .................................................... 24
4.3 Mathematical Modeling of the Parabolic Trough ............................................................................. 25
4.3.1 Basic Terminologies and design parameters ............................................................................. 25
4.4 Tracking system of solar concentrator trough and reflector support structures; ........................ 28
4.5 Wind Load on PTC and its Support Structure ............................................................................... 28
4.6 Solar Irradiation and Absorption ...................................................................................................... 29
4.6.1 Parameters that define the position of the sun......................................................................... 30
4.6.2 Parameters that define the position of the surface .................................................................. 30
4.7 Collector Orientation and Tilt Angle ................................................................................................. 31
4.7.1 Collector Tilt ............................................................................................................................... 31
4.8 The functional parameters................................................................................................................ 32
4.8.1 Thermal Analysis of Collector .................................................................................................... 32
4.9 Total Absorbed Radiation ................................................................................................................. 33
4.9.1 Prediction of Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation on a Horizontal Surface ....................... 33
4.9.2 Prediction of Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation on Horizontal Surface......................... 35
4.10.3 Prediction of Monthly Average Hourly Global Radiation on a Horizontal Surface .................. 35
4.10 Total absorbed energy on collector ................................................................................................ 36
4.11 Heat collecting element (HCE) performance model ....................................................................... 37
4.11.1 Convective heat transfer coefficient ........................................................................................ 37
4.11.2 Collector heat removal factor and Overall loss coefficient ..................................................... 38
4.12 Solar Irradiation Absorption and Thermal Efficiency of a PTSC ...................................................... 41
4.13 Thermal storage .............................................................................................................................. 44
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4.14 Insulation material .......................................................................................................................... 45

4.15 pressure drops ................................................................................................................................ 45
4.15.1 Pressure drop across the collector piping................................................................................ 46
4.15.2 Pressure drop across the storage coils .................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................................. 48
5. FABRICATION PROCEDURE..................................................................................................................... 48
5.1 Support Fabrication Process ......................................................................................................... 48
5.2 Collector Fabrication Process ........................................................................................................ 49
5.3 Storage Fabrication Process .......................................................................................................... 50
5.4 Assembling process and drawing .......................................................................................................... 51
5.5 Working principle .................................................................................................................................. 52
5.6 Used Equipment and their operation ................................................................................................... 52
5.7 Cost analysis .......................................................................................................................................... 53
5.8 Result and Discussion............................................................................................................................ 54
5.9 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 56
5.10 Recommendation................................................................................................................................ 57
Reference .................................................................................................................................................... 58
Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 60
Part and assemble drawing......................................................................................................................... 60
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List of Figures
figure 1- 1 Direct normal, diffuse and global radiation [16] ......................................................................... 4
figure 1- 2 parabolic through type collector [6] ............................................................................................ 7
figure 1- 3 Parabolic dish type collector. [9] ................................................................................................ 8
figure 1- 4 Central tower system and heliostat. [8] ....................................................................................... 9
figure 1- 5 Linear Fresnel collector [8] ......................................................................................................... 9
figure 3- 1 flow chart................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 4- 1 parabolic trough........................................................................................................................ 24

. Figure 4- 2 Geometrical parabolic trough parameters ............................................................................. 25
Figure 4- 3 Collector Aperture Area And Receiver Aperture Area .............................................................. 27
Figure 4- 4 Support and trucking mechanism ............................................................................................. 28
Figure 4- 5 PTC wind load components and directions, ............................................................................. 29
Figure 4- 6 .(a) Zenith angle, slope, surface azimuth angle, and solar azimuth angle for a tilted surface.
(b) Plan view showing solar azimuth angle ................................................................................................ 31
Figure 5- 1 Trough support ........................................................................................................................ 48

Figure 5- 2 collector ................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 5- 3 storage system ......................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 5- 4 . assembly drawing................................................................................................................... 51
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List of tables
Table 1- 1 Classification of solar collectors according to the temperature obtained by the working fluid.
[6] .................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Table 3- 1 material for the collector material ............................................................................................. 20

Table 3- 2 material for storage system ....................................................................................................... 21
Table 4- 1 Recommended Average Days for Months and Values of N by Months ................................... 34
Table 5- 1 collector dimension ................................................................................................................... 48

Table 5- 2 Equipment’s, hand tools, and operation................................................................................... 52
Table 5- 3 Cost analysis .............................................................................................................................. 53
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Nomenclature and Abbreviations

SWH Solar Water Heating
HTF Heat transfer fluid
HCE Heat Collector element
RF Flow Factor
Sc collector’s surface area
Sr receptor area
PTSC Parabolic Trough Solar Collector
W aperture width
ϕ rim angle
F Focal point
PTC parabolic trough collector
L span-wise length
ST solar time
LFR Linear Fresnel collector systems
C Solar Concentration Ratio
DO Outer diameter of absorber pipe
Di Inner diameter of absorber pipe
Ai Inner cross-sectional area
Ao Outer cross-sectional area
Aap,c Collector Aperture Area
Aap,r Receiver Aperture Area
δa Acceptance angle
V Mean Wind speed
ρ Density
fx Horizontal force
fz Vertical force
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my Pitching moment
ω Angle of incidence
δ Solar declination
θz Zenith angle
αs Solar altitude angle
γs Solar azimuth angle
Φ Latitude
λ Latitude
β Slope
θ Angle of incidence
γ Surface azimuth angle
H Monthly average daily radiation on horizontal surface.
Ho The monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation
ωs sun rise hour angle
a, b empirical constant
n̅s Monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine, 11 per day
̅s
N Monthly average of the maximum possible daily hours of bright sunshine
Isc Solar constant
Lst The standard meridian for the local time zone
I Average total radiation on horizontal surface surface is
kT Clearance index
h1 heat transfer coefficient
Re Reynolds number
UL Overall Heat Loss Coefficient
Uo The overall heat transfer coefficient
Nu Nusselt number
ff Friction factor
Pr Prandetl number
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F collector efficiency factor

FR The heat removal factor or correction factor
ηo Optical Efficiency
ηth Thermal Efficiency
∆pL Pressure drop across the collector piping
∆pC Pressure drop across the storage coils
KL Elbow loss coefficient
XEND end loss
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CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
The history of using the sun for energy goes way back to the Ancient Greeks and Romans as their
buildings were constructed such that the rays of the sun provided light and heat for indoor spaces.
Romans advanced this art by covering the openings to south facing building with glass, in order to
retain the heat of the winter sun. The sun has been a powerful presence and force throughout the
history of human existence on earth. It has been regarded by most people to be the ultimate source
of life on this planet. It has also been intentionally exploited by many clever means over the
centuries in order to better utilize this life-giving energy. As far as renewable energy sources go,
the sun represents the best and most stable we have. [1]
Solar Water Heating (SWH) is the process of converting sunlight into renewable energy to heat
water using a solar thermal collector. Solar water heating systems comprise of various technologies
that are increasingly used worldwide. [1]
Solar energy is diurnal and seasonal in nature. Solar energy can be used for heating water / air for
any process applications and generating electricity using photovoltaics. Solar Domestic Hot Water
System is not entirely new. In 19th century, black painted metal tanks filled with water were used
to absorb solar energy. It had the disadvantage of rapid loss of its heat because it had no insulation.
In 1891, Clarence Kemp patented by adding a metal panel to the tank in order to improve the
efficiency of the solar tank. In 1909, William Bailey started selling day and night solar water heater
with a coiled pipe collector inside a glass covered box and a separate insulated indoor water storage
tank mounted above the collector thereby allowing hot water circulation by natural convection. By
1960s, simple solar water heater with a basin and top glass cover were used in large numbers in
Japan.
One of the biggest uses of electricity, gas and oil is the heating of water in the home, and in offices,
schools and hospitals etc. Solar water heating is a very simple and efficient way to grab energy
from the sun and use it. Solar water heaters concentrate diffused solar radiation into thermal
energy. A solar water heater system consists of a solar collector and a storage tank.
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Usage of Solar Water Heaters increases globally to meet out the energy crisis, deficit and increase
in cost of fossil fuels. This attempt to utilize renewable solar energy also reduces the carbon
emission into the atmosphere. The technology of heating water using solar energy is used
successfully for large scale process heat applications in industries and small scale for domestic
needs in order to preserve fuel reserves and avoid using high grade electrical energy for heating.
A Conventional Solar water heater is provided with a solar collector and storage device separately.
A compact Solar Water Heater is provided with a storage device well below the collector as an
integrated unit thereby minimizing the material usage, space and consequently cost.
The technology of parabolic-trough solar water-heating and absorption-cooling systems, the

situations in which parabolic-trough systems are likely to be cost effective, and considerations in
selecting and designing a system. Parabolic through Solar heater is a device which is used for
heating the water, for producing the steam for domestic and industrial purposes by utilizing the
solar energy. Use of parabolic-trough systems is more limited by geography and system size than
are other types of solar water heating, but where parabolic troughs are usable, they often have very
attractive economics. [2]
1.1 Theoretical Concept of The Project
1.1.1 The solar Energy resource
In this chapter basics and detailed literature review on Parabolic Trough Collector are presented.
The main objective of the literature review is to identify research gaps and methodology for the
present study.
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the electromagnetic radiation
emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as
heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. However, the technical feasibility and
economical operation of these technologies at a specific location depends on the available solar
resource.
Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation
that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:

• Geographic location
• Time of day
• Season
• Local landscape
• Local weather
Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° (just
above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface
gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the
atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar
Regions never get high energy from the sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas
receive no sun at all during part of the year. [16]
From the rays of the sun, which pass through the earth’s atmosphere to the ground, a portion is
scattered by particles or clouds. The intensity of solar radiation outside the atmosphere is about
1.3 kW/m². Even though only a fraction of this actually hits the earth’s surface, the magnitude of
the energy from this source is enormous. For example, utilizing only 1% of the earth’s deserts and
applying a conversion efficiency of 15% to produce electric energy would develop more electricity
than is currently produced worldwide by fossil fuels. [17] This is not practical given the need to
distribute the electricity to users around the world, but it does highlight the magnitude of this
resource.
Global radiation is radiation energy incident on a surface, which is comprised of a diffuse

(scattered) component and a direct normal component (the part coming undisturbed directly from
the sun). Figure illustrates the definitions of Global, Diffuse and Direct Normal Radiation (DNR).

figure 1- 1 Direct normal, diffuse and global radiation [16]

Because the sun is an intermittent resource, its energy is not available throughout the day and
seasonally with the same intensity. The angle of the sun’s rays relative to the earth’s surface
changes during the day and with the seasons. The sun is low in the sky in winter, which results in
a lower energy flux and causes air temperatures to drop. In summer, the sun is over head and the
energy flux is high. Radiation levels are affected by both weather conditions and the length of the
path traveled by rays through the atmosphere.
1.2 Solar thermal water heater

Classical optical theory predicts that light rays travelling parallel to the axis of a spherical mirror
will reflect off the mirror and pass through the focus of the mirror located a distance R/2 from the
mirror, where R is the radius of the mirror. [17] The energy of all incident light rays combine at
this point, effectively concentrating the light energy. This concentration produces heat, hence the
name: Concentrated Solar Power (CSP). So, in short, CSP systems use different mirror or reflector
configurations to convert the sun’s energy into high temperature heat. This heat can then be used
directly or converted into electricity.

The main components of a CSP system are:
A. The solar collector field:
This is the array of mirrors or reflectors that actually collect the solar radiation and focuses it on
to the solar receiver. The field is usually quoted in square meters which represents the surface area
of the array, not the land use area.
B. The solar receiver
The solar receiver is the part of the system that transforms the solar radiation into heat. Sometimes
this receiver is an integral part of the solar collector field. A heat transfer medium, usually water
or oil, is used in the solar receiver to transport the heat to the energy conversion system.
C. The energy conversion system
The final component in the system converts the heat into usable forms of energy, in the form of
electricity or heat depending on the application of the system.
1.3 Classification of solar thermal water heaters and collectors

There are two main types of solar water heater systems based on way of water; passive and active.
Active systems integrate pumps and rotary elements and are therefore very expensive. Passive
systems use natural water circulation, gravity, and/or pressurized water systems. Passive solar
water heater systems are much less expensive than their active counterparts and are easier to
maintain and repair.
Solar collectors can be classified depending on their geometric configuration or on the temperature
obtained by the working fluid after gaining heat. According to their geometric configuration they
can be flat solar collectors and concentrating solar collectors. According to the temperature, they
are classified according to the range of temperatures reached by the working fluid, which in turn
depends on the type of application for which the device is required.

Table 1- 1 Classification of solar collectors according to the temperature obtained by the

working fluid. [6]
Solar collector Temperature (0c)

Very low temperature 10 to25
Low temperature 25 to50
Medium temperature 60 to 130
High temperature 130 to 600
Very high temperature Above 600
1.4 Classification depending their geometric configuration
1.4.1 Parabolic trough solar collector
Parabolic cylindrical shaped collectors permit capturing direct radiation from the sun along a semi-
cylindrical or parabolic structure placed horizontally, which has a sensor receptor tube located on
the focal line of the parable along the structure. [6]
Within this sensor tube circulates the fluid that absorbs the thermal energy obtained heating until
reaching the desired temperature. Temperature in the fluid increases as it goes through the pipes.
This technology is used in applications whose range of temperature is between 125 and 400 °C.
Usually, it is used in electric power generation facilities with large power capacity and even the
water heating technology in small areas as our case. The type of working fluid used in this type of
collector is usually demineralized water and ethylene glycol solution.

1-reflecrot 3-supporting
2-central pipe 4-piping connection
figure 1- 2 parabolic through type collector [6]
1.4.2 Parabolic dish-type collector
The parabolic dish-type collector has a hemispherical surface that reflects the radiation from the
sun onto a reduced area located on the system’s focal point, where it is located on the receptor.
Usually, it is used for temperatures between 130 and 600 °C; however, it depends on the device’s
concentration ratio, defined as the relationship between the collector’s surface area “Sc” and the
receptor area “Sr”. The higher the collector’s Sc/Sr ratio, the higher the temperature reached in the
receptor. It is used for electric power generation and for devices requiring high temperatures like
furnaces to incinerate hazardous wastes. The system is basically comprised of a collector, a heat
exchanger (receptor), and a solar tracking system that aims the collector directly at the sun during
the day. [7]

figure 1- 3 Parabolic dish type collector. [9]
1.4.3 Solar receptor systems or Central tower
This comprises a group of heliostats (flat reflectors) aligned in circular manner. A tower is located
in the center of the circumference, which captures the radiation reflected by the heliostats. The
thermal energy captured is stored by using a salt-based fluid or with synthetic oils capable of
withstanding very high temperatures. The fluid can be stored in a thermal condenser for later use
or it can be brought directly to a heat exchanger where vapor is produced to propel a turbine and a
generator as done with parabolic cylindrical collectors. The thermal condenser is a storage device
where the fluid at high temperatures is deposited and which significantly reduces energy losses,
given that it minimizes heat exchange with the environment because of the thermal isolation with
which it was designed. [8]

figure 1- 4 Central tower system and heliostat. [8]

This technology is being implemented to construct large power capacity thermo solar plants in
which a support system is also required.
1.4.4 Linear Fresnel collector systems (LFR)
This system is made up of a set of almost-flat reflectors, which concentrate solar radiation in high
inverted receptors. As with parabolic cylindrical systems, a fluid is used to capture thermal energy
reaching the system’s receptor.
figure 1- 5 Linear Fresnel collector [8]

There are two ways that solar collectors can be mounted; stationary or tracking. If the collector is
to be mounted in a stationary position calculations are carried out at the design stage as to the
optimum inclination of the panels for location and usage. The collectors will then remain fixed to
this tilt angle all year round and for the lifespan of the system. In a tracking position the
collector’s inclination will change as the sun’s angle in the sky changes hour to hour and day to
day in order to receive the optimum amount of radiation.

1.5 Statement of the problems

In our country solar energy is not, properly used and utilized for industrial and domestic
applications as an alternative for electrical energy. Electrical energies are costly to use and
fluctuate in supply that leads inability to use continuous electricity. Due to this, it is required to
have solar water heater source that can be used for many applications, this why it is necessary to
design and fabricate the multipurpose parabolic through solar water heater in our university.
1.6 Design Objective and Requirement
1.6.1 General objective
The main objective of this design project to design and fabricate multipurpose solar water heater.
1.6.2 Specific objective
More specifically the design has the following specific objectives;
• To identify potential research area related to solar water heater technology and important
up on the completion of this project.
• To design the parts of the parabolic through solar water heater machine components
• To make material selection and detailed numerical design analysis of parabolic through
solar water heater machine components.
• To fabricate the machine.
• To test machine.
• To analyze the cost of the machine.
1.7 Scope
The range of this design project is from designing of each part of the parabolic trough solar water
heater machine fabrication and testing of the machine and experimental investigation.

1.8 Significance of the project

• Energy Independence: Using solar energy can reduce our dependence upon electric
energy.
• Financial Benefits: When we choose to use solar to replace all or part of what we had
been using the utility for, that comes with financial savings on your utility bill.
• Reduce Environmental Impact:
• Safety of the user
1.9 Benefits and beneficiaries of the machine
1.9.1 Benefits of the machine
Benefits of using parabolic through solar water heater in our community and university include;
• A reduction in electrical power cost for boiling water for cooking, shower, washing utensils
and foods like rice and soon.
• Providing hot water at night when solar power is not available by introducing thermal storage
system.
• To decrease the problems associated with electric water heating.
• To overcome the problem of electric power fluctuation and discontinuity in our university for
cooking and other purposes.
1.9.2 Beneficiaries of the machine
Sectors those are beneficiaries of solar water heater machine:
• Cafeterias, lounges and coffee makers of our university for obtaining boiled water at
possible minimum power and at any time for their task.
• Hotels
• Any community at household where solar energy available.

1.10 System Description

Parabolic through solar water heating is a well-proven renewable energy technology with
considerable potential for application at different facilities. parabolic-trough water-heating
systems are most cost effective in areas where direct solar radiation is high. In order to use the
sun's energy for applications such as water heating, or air heating or photovoltaic etc. it is necessary
to determine the solar radiation incident on the surface. This can be done only from the knowledge
of the relationship between the sun's position and the surface of interest at any given instant of
time.
Knowledge of the nature of extraterrestrial radiation, the effects of orientation of receiving or

collector surfaces and the theoretically available solar radiation at the earth’s surface are
important parameters in optimization and performance evaluation of solar water heating
systems.
Solar energy collectors work in a similar manner to heat exchangers in that they transform one
form of energy, solar radiation to another form of energy, heat energy, to produce hot water. The
component that allows this exchange of energy is parabolic trough solar collector.
The solar collector absorbs radiation and converts it into heat. This heat is then transferred to a
fluid which is usually water or a glycol mixture, flowing through the collector. The energy that is
collected from the process just described is then transferred from the fluid to a solar water heating
storage tank from which it can be used when necessary.
1.10.1 Thermosiphon System
Thermosiphon which are the method of passive heat exchange, based on density difference, which
circulates a fluid without the necessity of a mechanical pump are used in the solar heating systems
to heat water.
Thermosiphon systems are the most frequently installed solar systems worldwide. The collector is
placed below the storage tank. When the sun is shining the pipe of the parabolic trough collector,
HTF is heated up in the pipe, which leads to a reduction of density. If the temperature is so high

that the weight of fluid in the line of collector bottom–collector top–tank inlet is less than the
weight of the fluid from tank inlet–tank outlet–collector inlet, the fluid starts moving.
The heat transfer fluid(HTF) is heated passively by solar energy and relies on heat energy being
transferred from the sun to parabolic trough collector. The heat from the collector can be
transferred to HTF solution and carries the heat from the parabolic through collector and transfers
it to the thermal storage tank. Convection allows for the movement of the heated HTF out of
the solar collector to be replaced by colder HTF which is in turn heated. Due to this principle, it is
necessary for the thermal storage to be placed above the collector.
1.11 Limitation
The limitation of this thesis work is that the test is conducted only in Debre tabor, and does not
cover the whole Country. Materials employed for the investigation are those available in the
market. Better results would have been obtained if selected materials for improved performance
were available in the market. In other way the manual tacking mechanism is employed for this
machine and only boil up to 70°c and can not get 100 °c and these are as a limitation for the project.
1.12 Organization of the Study (Thesis structure)

This study encompasses five main chapters. The first chapter discusses briefly the introduction or
background of the study. At the same time, the expected results, the scope and limitation of the
project has been stated in this chapter. The second chapter dedicatedly converse literatures related
to solar and solar technology and the status of different materials are reviewed. The third chapter
mainly focuses on materials and methods of the project and careful study of already existing solar
water systems was done; and a choice was made on the type of system materials to be designed
with focus on simplicity, installation, and maintenance cost as well as durability. Design The
mathematical modeling of the parabolic trough has been presented in the fourth chapter.
Fabrication process and outlines of the result and discussion, conclusion and recommendations are
presented in last chapter, chapter five.

CHAPTER TWO
2 Literature review
The different literatures reviewed on Parabolic Trough Collector and solar water heater are
presented below.
(Soteris A. Kalogirou, 2004) [1] has presented a survey of the various types of solar thermal
collectors and applications. All the solar systems which utilize the solar energy and its application
depends upon the solar collector such as flat-plate, compound parabolic, evacuated tube, parabolic
trough, Fresnel lens, parabolic dish and heliostat field collectors which are used in these systems.
The solar collectors are used for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes. These include solar
water heating, which comprise thermosyphon, integrated collector storage, direct and indirect
systems and air systems, space heating and cooling, which comprise, space heating and service hot
water, air and water systems and heat pumps, refrigeration, industrial process heat, which comprise
air and water systems and steam generation systems, desalination, thermal power systems,
which comprise the parabolic trough, power tower and dish systems, solar furnaces, and
chemistry applications.
(K. Sivakumar) [1]has presented the design of Elliptical heat pipe flat plat solar collector and
tested with a collector tilt angle of 11° to the horizontal. Experimental analysis of the effect of
condenser length/evaporator length (Lc/Le) ratio of the heat pipe, different cooling water mass
flow rates and different inlet cooling water temperature were analyses.
(B Sivaraman and N Krishna Mohan, 2005) [2] have presented experiments on the effect of L/d
ratio of heat pipe on heat pipe solar collector. Two solar collectors with different L/di have been
designed and fabricated. A heat pipe with stainless steel wick replaces the transport tubes of the
solar collector. Copper and stainless steel were used as container and wick material and methanol
was used as working fluid of heat pipe.
(Dharamvir Mangal, Devander Kumar Lamba, Tarun Gupta, Kiran Jhamb, 2010) [1] have
presented acknowledgement to one of the latest solar water heaters which is evacuated solar water
heater based on a thermo siphon principle used for heating water for domestic purposes in
household by utilizing solar radiations.

Pradeep Kumar K, Srinath et al [3]have proposed ideas in order to improve the performance of
solar concentrator, different geometries and different types of reflectors were evaluated with
respect to their optical and energy conversion efficiency, which clears that parabolic trough is a
type of solar thermal energy collector. It can be constructed as a long parabolic mirror with a
Dewar tube running its length at the focal point. Sunlight is reflected by the mirror and
concentrated on the Dewar tube. The trough is usually aligned on a north-south axis, and rotated
to track the sun as it moves across the sky each day. The energy efficiency of system increases,
avoiding the need for tracking motors solar tracking mechanism.
Donald Jeremy Gaita et al [4] gave one important factor in the analysis of solar
concentrators that is the concentration ratio in their studies. The concentration ratio is defined
as the ratio of the area of the aperture of the concentrator to the area of the receiver that is reflected
upon by the concentrator. This is in essence the heart of a solar concentrator. Solar tracking is also
necessary for efficient use of concentrating collectors. Without tracking the collector becomes
almost useless except for a very short time period once a day. Large scale concentrators
today use automated tracking systems that can track the sun on a biaxial path. Due to
cost restrictions and complexity, and the small scale of this project, manual turning of the
concentrator was chosen as the preferred method of solar tracking.
Ricardo Vasquez Padilla et al [5] has presented the performance of parabolic trough based solar
power plants over the last 25 years has proven that this technology is an excellent alternative for
the commercial power industry. Compared to conventional power plants, parabolic trough solar
power plants produce significantly lower levels of carbon dioxide, although additional research
is required to bring the cost of concentrator solar plants to a competitive level. The cost reduction
is focused on three areas: thermodynamic efficiency improvements by research and development,
scaling up of the unit size, and mass production of the equipment. The optimum design,
performance simulation and cost analysis of the parabolic trough solar plants are essential for
the successful implementation of this technology.
Duffie, J. and Beckman, W., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes [14] presents the general
over view on the solar energy technology and the comparison on the different types of solar
collectors for power generation, water heating technology and other applications.

The U.S. Department of Energy the National Renewable Energy Laboratory [2] have
presented that Parabolic-trough solar water heating is a well-proven technology that directly
substitutes renewable energy for conventional energy in water heating. Parabolic-trough collectors
can also drive absorption cooling systems or other equipment that runs off a thermal load.
A.Z. Hafez et al [ 5] This paper presents a review of the design parameters, mathematical
techniques and simulations used in the design of parabolic trough solar systems, along with a
review on their applications. Recent studies that analyze the deployment of solar parabolic trough
collectors (SPTC) in different countries and the operational SPTC plants are also presented and
discussed.
A detailed heat transfer analysis and modeling of a parabolic trough solar receiver was carried out
by Forristall [6]. One- and two-dimensional energy balances were used for short and long
receivers respectively. This model was used to determine the thermal performance of parabolic
trough collectors under different operating conditions.
The parabolic trough solar technology was modeled using the methodology developed by Stine
and Harrigan [12]. The model is capable of modeling a Rankine-cycle parabolic trough plant,
with or without thermal storage, and with or without fossil-fuel backup. A simplified conceptual
and numerical methodology for designing of parabolic trough solar energy systems was proposed.
A more recent methodology for the economic optimization of the solar area in either parabolic
trough or complex solar plants was carried out by Montes et al. [15]. Thermal performance for
different solar power plants was analyzed at nominal and load conditions.
An analytic model for a solar thermal electric generating system with parabolic trough collectors
was done by Rolim et al. [17]. Three fields of different collectors were considered, the first field
with evacuated absorbers, the second with non-evacuated absorbers and the third with bare
absorbers.
2.1 Research Gaps from Literature Reviews

Many researchers have worked on parabolic trough collector for different applications such
as distillation, water heating, steam generation, electricity generation, etc. but very small of

them worked on the improvement of efficiency of parabolic though collector by modifying and
using new designs of receivers.
parabolic trough based solar water heater is an excellent alternative for the domestic water heating
application. All the solar systems which utilize the solar energy and its application depends upon
the types of solar collector which are used in these systems. parabolic trough solar power plants
as well as domestic water heaters produce significantly lower levels of carbon emission,
although additional research is required to bring the cost of concentrator and/or collector of solar
plants to a competitive level.
Standing from the papers and ideas presented, it is proposed and designed solar water heater
system better than the current systems, which saves more energy and cost effective than the designs
given above. It is understood that to produce hot water using solar energy, first, it is needed to
analyze Types of reflective surfaces such as Lens, mirror, polished metal, foil tape, Types of light-
concentrating shapes such as Parabolic, concentrated, flat plate. To design and operate such things,
it is required to design a machine in efficient and précised manner based on the availability and
efficiency and have come up with decision to design water heater machine.
Based on the motivation of this dissertation, the chapters follow the following outline. In Chapter
1, solar water heater of the PTC solar receiver is introduced. Chapter 2 presents the different
literatures that is assessed to the work. Chapter 3 presents the methods and materials used in the
design process. Chapter 4 presents the design of typical parabolic trough solar water based on the
demand and available material. Chapter 5 shows the fabrication process of the machine.

CHAPTER THREE
3. Materials and Methods

A careful study of already existing solar water systems was done; and a choice was made on the
type of system to be designed with focus on simplicity, installation, and maintenance cost as well
as durability. Use of locally available materials was made a matter of priority. A parabolic trough
collector was used as the absorber.
3.1 Site description

The data is composed of the metrological data of the site i.e. Debre Tabor, Ethiopia. Debre Tabor,
Ethiopia is situated between North Latitude 11.850O and East Longitude 38.850O. The elevation
above sea level is 8491ft and situate within tropical zone. The local standard time of meridian is
97˚30´ E. The setup of the project is installed at block 056 student’s dormitory.
3.2 Material selection

Material selection for each part is based their shapes and the process carried out by that component.
Availability, cost mechanical and chemical property of the material should have to be considered
while we select the material. Solar water heater systems can be direct (closed loop) or indirect
(open loop) type (i.e. with or without heat exchangers in the hot water storage tank). Their
operation is based on the thermosiphon principle or the use of a pump together with an appropriate
control system. A review is made in this project of the materials used for the construction of solar
water heater systems. This project has been written considering mainly our university and our
community, which have a large potential of solar irradiation, where simple thermosiphon systems
are extensively used. In addition, comments are included for the reasons (engineering, investment,
local conditions, etc.) leading to the selection of the specific materials. The solar water heater
comprises of collector, thermal storage and fluid passage pipes.
3.2.1 COLLECTOR MATERIALS
The most common use of solar collectors is water heating for domestic needs. The basic unit in
this system is solar collector. Solar energy can be trapped more efficiently dependent upon the

type of solar collectors used. Each type of solar collector is designed to absorb the shorter
wavelengths of light which are received from the sun. most solar collector can comprise of the
following components, such as absorber, absorber coatings, fluid passageways, transparent cover,
insulation, frame and sealant.
Copper tubes is the most common material used for the fluid passageways, while mild steel or
stainless steel and mild steel tubes are also in use.
Low cost, optically efficient, selective coatings are required for the collectors tube envisioned for
solar heating and cooling applications. Plated coatings and paint coatings are two attractive types
of coatings for this application. Black nickel (NiS and ZnS), black chrome (CrOx) and black iron
(FeOx) were found to be attractive plated coatings from the standpoint of optical efficiency,
durability and cost.
Paint coatings are potentially the lowest cost selective coating. However, paints lack the optical
efficiency of the plated coatings. The best optical performance achieved with a paint coating was
α = 0.90 and ε = 0.30. it is chosen paint coating due to availability and lowest cost.
 In addition to having a wide liquid temperature range, a suitable fluid will require
combination of the following properties, depending on heat-transfer and storage media:
1) low cost 3) compatible with piping and tank wall materials, and
2) environmentally safe 4) high-temperature stability.
 Preferred properties that will make any new HTF(ethyl glycol water solution) more
attractive for particular systems are
1) high heat capacity 5) low thermal expansion coefficient
2) high thermal conductivity 6) high extinction coefficient
3) low viscosity 7) high heat-transfer coefficient, and
4) high fluid density 8) low vapor pressure over the operating range.
 Reflector materials should be low cost and have the following traits
good outdoor durability

high solar reflectivity (> 92%) for wave lengths within the range of 300 nm to 2,500 nm
good mechanical resistance to withstand periodical washing
 The supporting structure should fulfil the following requisites:
1) lower weight 3) more accurate tracking
2) higher stiffness 4) simplified assembly
Table 3- 1 material for the collector material
Collector parts Function Material

Parabolic shaped Reflective to track the solar radiation by Stainless steel
through
Heat transfer fluid To transfer heat from the sun Water and ethyl glycol
radiation to storage tank solution
central heat pipe To carry the working fluid Copper pipe
Reflective coating To reflect the solar incident Aluminum foil
rays to the central pipe
Fluid inlet and outlet pipes Allow the entrance and exit Cast iron
for the working fluid
Collector supports Support and stand for the Cast iron
collector
Insulation Avoid heat loss Sheep wool
3.2.2 THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE
Beside the collectors, the storage tank is the second essential component of solar thermal systems,
since solar energy is a time-dependent energy resource. Energy needs for the most applications are
also time dependent but usually in a different fashion than the solar energy supply. Consequently,
the storage of energy is necessary if solar energy is to meet substantial shares of the energy needs.
The right choice and the correct dimensioning contribute decisively to the solar fraction achieved.
Energy storage may be in form of sensible heat of a liquid or solid medium, as heat of fusion in
chemical systems, or as chemical energy of products in a reversible chemical reaction. The choice

of storage media depends on the nature of the process. For the most solar thermal systems, sensible
heat of stored water and storage salts are used.
For our design machine we used potassium chloride salt as a storage material because potassium
chloride salt has high heat storage capacity for an extended period of time. low costs, Low melting
point, low viscosity, low vapor pressure(unpressurized storage), with high heat capacity and
thermal stability are the most important characteristics to be considered in a salt system
for thermal energy storage and heat transfer applications.
Materials for storing salt is required to have high corrosion resistance and lower cost , availability
and it is chosen carbon steel.
Chloride salts are selected due to their high heat of fusion, suitable melting temperature and the
low cost of chlorides compare to nitrite and other salts.
Requirements for storage systems are
− efficient in terms of energy and exergy losses
− low cost
− long service life and high corrosion resistance
− low parasitic power requirements
Table 3- 2 material for storage system
Thermal storage parts Function Material

Storage To store heat working Potassium chloride salt
fluid
Barrel To store the salt Carbon steel barrels
Bend or coiled tubes To make heat exchange Copper tube pipes
between salt and
working fluid
Insulator To insulate the heat loss Ash
Stands To support the storage Cast iron

Material for Connection pipes are selected based on the availability of the material, cost, and
corrosion resistance of the material. From this basis we selected plain carbon steel pipe.
3.2 Methodology
 To make a detailed literature reviews regarding multipurpose parabolic through solar water
heater machine technology being used in our locality, and to study the advantages and
disadvantages of the machine;
 To make detailed plan and fabricate a solar water heater machine to boil water and to
produce hot water at low cost, less time and with minimum power consumption;
 And also to design and drawing of the machine, fabrication of the machine, and
performance test and reporting; we assess the following points.
▪ Brain storm to solve the proposed problem.
▪ Collect data primarily by asking the authorized individuals and secondarily by surveying
different literatures and searching on the web.
▪ Selecting materials for each component by studying the working conditions.

▪ Select the types of solar collector and the heat transfer fluid being used that circulate
between the collector and the thermal storage system
▪ Analyze and determine the focal point of the collector
▪ assembly the solar collector that will provide the maximum amount of solar energy for
heating
▪ Design the rest of the components in relation to the maximum amount of heat can be
produced.
▪ Design and analyze the thermal storage system which can sustain its heat to the required
time period.
▪ Design stands for both solar collector and thermal storage system based on the total weight
of the machine and the wind load.
▪ Draw both the part and assembly drawing as per the dimensions designed.
▪ Manufacture all the machine components using the available materials in the shop.
▪ Assemble, install, and test the machine.
▪ Analyze the cost of the machine using the cost standards in market.

▪ Conclude the project.
The methodology for the proposed project work is as shown in flow chart below
Brain storm to solve the proposed problem
Collection of data through literature available
Comparative study of different collector with parabolic trough collector
Study and search alternate compact size SWH, forced circulation system
Preparation of detailed design for proposed work
Development of software model of the system
Fabrication
Assembly & Testing
Result & Data interpretation
Conclusion
figure 3- 1 flow chart

CHAPTER FOUR
4. DESIGN ANALYSIS
4.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS

The design parameter of a parabolic trough collector can be classified as geometric and functional;
The geometric parameters of a PTC are its aperture width and length, rim angle, focal length, diameter
of the receiver diameter of the glass envelope and the concentration ratio.
4.2 Geometry of Parabolic Trough Solar water heater and Collector

Parabolic Trough Solar Collector (PTSC), which is also called a cylindrical parabolic collector, employs
linear imaging concentration. These collectors comprise of a cylindrical concentrator of parabolic cross–
sectional shape, and a circular cylindrical receiver located along the focal line of the parabola. The
parabolic reflector is defined by its aperture width (W), rim angle (θr), and receiver shape and
size. The radius of parabola at an arbitrary location is defined by r, and is called the "mirror
radius" .
Figure 4- 1 parabolic trough

4.3 Mathematical Modeling of the Parabolic Trough
4.3.1 Basic Terminologies and design parameters
The aperture (W):

Aperture is the plane opening of the concentrator through which the solar radiation passes. It is
characterized by the diameter or width of the opening. A parabolic reflector of about 800mm
aperture width is used. Therefore; the focal and a length of 2000mm parabolic shape, 800mm width
and 200mm depth is taken in our design.
. Figure 4- 2 Geometrical parabolic trough parameters: [10]
𝑥2
F = 4𝑦; or
𝑊
F = 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙/2) ……………………………………………….………………………………..(4.1)
where 𝜙 rim angle and W is the parabolic trough width
800
F = = 4𝑡𝑎𝑛90/2) = 200mm

And the height can found as 200mm
Solar Concentration Ratio:

The total amount of solar light energy concentration achieved by a given collector is termed as
Solar Concentration Ratio. It is defined as ratio of averaged radiant solar flux integrated over the
receiver area to the flux incident on the collector aperture. It ratio of the effective area of the
aperture to the surface area of the absorber. It directly relates the reflector quality. A higher
concentration ratio allows the collector to reach a higher working temperature with minimal
thermal loss.
Aap,c
C= ……………………………………………………………………………………...(4.2)
Aap,r
Where; C is the concentration ratio
Aap, c is the area of the aperture collector
Aap, r is the area of the absorber
Given that; Outer diameter of absorber pipe = 30mm
Inner diameter of absorber pipe = 28mm
𝜋𝐷𝑖 2 𝜋0.0202
Inner cross-sectional area (Ai) = == = 3.1416× 10-4 m2.
4 4
𝜋𝐷𝑜2 𝜋0.0222
Outer cross-sectional area (Ao) = = = 3.8013 × 10-4 m2.
4 4
Aap, c = L × W
= 2000mm× 800𝑚𝑚 = 1.6 × 106 𝑚𝑚2 = 1.600 m

2
Aap, r = ΠDL
ΠDL
And the Area of receiver exposed to rays is = 2
Π(0.022)(2)
Aap,r = = 0.06912 m2
2
1.6
Then; c = 0.06912 = 23.1482

Figure 4- 3 Collector Aperture Area And Receiver Aperture Area: [9]

Receiver Diameter and Coating;
The receiver diameter determines the intercept factor and consequently the optical Efficiency. An
absorber (receiver) tube made of copper and coated with selective black coating is used. The
diameter is taken as 20mm internal and 22mm external.
Intercept factor (γ):-

The fraction of the radiation, which is reflected or refracted from the concentrator and is incident
on the absorber. It is the ratio of the energy intercepted by the receiver to the total energy reflected
by the focusing device. The value of the intercept factor is generally close to unity and is taken as
0.95 based on our trough dimension.
Acceptance angle (2δa )

The angle over which beam radiation may deviate from the normal to the aperture plane and
yet reach the absorber. Collectors with large acceptance angles require only occasional
adjustments, while collectors with small acceptance angles have to be adjusted continuously.
Rim Angle;
The rim angle is the angle from the rim of the collector to the line normal to the collector surface
passing through the focus. For the same aperture, various rim angles are possible. For different rim
angles, the focus-to-aperture ratio, which defines the curvature of the parabola is variable. It can

be demonstrated that, with a 90° rim angle, the main focus to reflector distance and hence the
reflected beam spread is minimized, so that the slope and tracking errors are less pronounced.
4.4 Tracking system of solar concentrator trough and reflector

support structures;
The manual tracking system of solar concentrator trough in which we track the concentrator from
E to W direction by 18 degree in every one minutes interval.
The reflector support structure is the primary member of a PTC which provides the correct
optical shape of the reflector surface, maintains the same to within acceptable tolerances
during operation and offers protection during operating and non -operating periods from extreme
weather conditions.
Figure 4- 4 Support and trucking mechanism
4.5 Wind Load on PTC and its Support Structure

In developing solar collectors, wind loading is one of the major structural design considerations.
Parabolic trough solar collectors are typically designed to follow the apparent motion of the sun
by rotating about a one-dimensional axis throughout the day. Because of this, wind loads exerted
on the drive mechanism vary depending on the tilt angle of the collector, herein called the pitch

angle.
Figure 4- 5 PTC wind load components and directions,

𝑓𝑥
Horizontal force, 𝑓𝑥 𝑐𝑓𝑥 = …………………………….…………………(4.3a)
𝑞𝐿𝑤
𝑓𝑧
Vertical force 𝑓𝑍 𝑐𝑓𝑧 = ……………………………………..…………(4.3b)
𝑞𝐿𝑤
𝑚𝑦
Pitching moment, 𝑚𝑦 𝐶𝑚𝑦 = ………………………………..……………(4.3c)
𝑞𝐿𝑤 2
Where; fx, fz, and my are the aerodynamic loads, Lis the span-wise length, and W is the aperture
width of the collector. The quantity, q, is the mean reference dynamic pressure measured at the
pivot height of the solar collector.
1
q = 2 𝜌𝑣 2 …………………………………………………………………………….(4.3d)
Here v is the mean wind speed at the pivot height, and ρ is the density of air
4.6 Solar Irradiation and Absorption

Because the earth’s orbit is slightly elliptical, the intensity of solar radiation received outside the
earth’s atmosphere varies as the square of the earth-sun distance. Variation of the earth-sun
distance leads to variation of extraterrestrial radiation flux in the range of ±3% with the maximum
irradiance occurring at the perihelion i.e. earth closest to the sun (January 3-5) and the minimum

at the aphelion (July 5). The variation of the extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal
to the radiation on the nth day of the year is given by the equation below. [12]
4.6.1 Parameters that define the position of the sun
The geometric relationships between a plane of any particular orientation relative to the earth at
any time (whether that plane is fixed or moving relative to the earth) and the incoming beam solar
radiation, that is, the position of the sun relative to that plane, can be described in terms of several
angles. [14]
✓ Solar declination (δ): Is the angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the
plane of the equator, north positive; -23.45˚ ≤ δ ≤ 23.45˚.
284+𝑁
δ = 23.45sin(360 ) where N is the day number starting at January 1.
365
✓ Zenith angle (θz): Is the angle between the vertical and the line to the sun, that is, the angle
of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface.
ϴz = 90 – δ
✓ Solar altitude angle (αs): Is the angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun, that
is, the complement of the zenith angle.
✓ Solar azimuth angle (γs): Is the angular displacement from the south of the projection of
beam radiation on the horizontal plane. Displacements east of south are negative and west
of south are positive.
4.6.2 Parameters that define the position of the surface
Hour angle (ω): Is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due to
rotation of the earth on its axis at 15˚ per hour; morning negative, afternoon positive.
ω = (ST – 12)× 150
Latitude (Φ): Is the angular location north or south of the equator, north positive; -90˚ ≤ Φ ≤ 90˚.
Longitude (λ): It is the distance of the arc between the Greenwich meridian and the meridian
passing through the point; 0˚ ≤ λ ≤ 180˚.

Slope (β): Is the angle between the plane of the surface in the parabolic trough and the
horizontal; 0˚ ≤ β ≤ 180˚. Based on these considerations and considering for removal of dust particles
the specified tilt angle and azimuth are;
𝜷 = 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝑫𝑻 + 𝟏𝟓 = 11.850 + 15 = 26.850°
Surface azimuth angle (γ): Is the deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of the normal
to the surface from the local meridian, with zero due south, east negative, and west positive; -
180˚ ≤ γ ≤ 180˚. The azimuth is the angle the collector faces relative to south. The maximum heating
performance is occurred at azimuth of 0º or true south.
Angle of incidence (θ): Is the angle between the beam radiation on a surface and the normal to
that surface.
cosϴ = (cos2ϴz + cos2δsin2ω)1/2
Figure 4- 6 .(a) Zenith angle, slope, surface azimuth angle, and solar azimuth angle for a tilted
surface. (b) Plan view showing solar azimuth angle [14]
4.7 Collector Orientation and Tilt Angle
4.7.1 Collector Tilt
The tilt of a collector is the angle between the collector and the local horizontal. In most solar
water heating applications, a tilt of approximately latitude plus 10º to 15º is near optimum because
it is necessary to favor the summer season, when the collector operates under adverse conditions
(due to lower ambient temperature) and load is greatest.
The best tilt

A. Mounting at an angle equal to the latitude works best for year-round energy use.
B. Latitude minus 15° mounting is best for summer energy collection.
C. Latitude plus 15° mounting is best for winter energy collection.
4.8 The functional parameters

The functional parameters of a PTC are optical efficiency, instantaneous and all-day thermal
efficiency and receiver thermal losses. These parameters are largely influenced by the absorptive
of the absorber.
4.8.1 Thermal Analysis of Collector
In analyzing the solar parabolic collector, it is important to identify each and every part of the
collector and the terms used on the solar collector.
Number of simplifying assumptions can be made to lay the foundations without obscuring the
basic physical situation. These assumptions are as follows:
The PTC is assumed to be in steady-state conditions.
• There are no contact thermal losses.
• The receiver is an evacuated tube and the heat convection losses between absorber and
cover are neglected.
• There is uniform heat flux over the absorber
• The receiver temperature does not have great variation along the tube because the
collector has a reasonable length (<10 m).
• There is no great difference between cover and ambient temperature level.
• There is no great difference between the receiver and fluid temperature level
• The headers cover a small area of collector and can be neglected
• There is no absorption of solar energy by a cover insofar as it affects losses . from the
collector
• Heat flow through a cover is one dimensional
• The sky can be considered as a blackbody for long-wavelength radiation at an equivalent
sky temperature
• Dust and dirt on the collector are negligible.

4.9 Total Absorbed Radiation
4.9.1 Prediction of Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation on a Horizontal

Surface
The first empirical correlation using the idea of employing sunshine hours for the estimation of
global solar radiation was proposed by Angstrom. The simplest model used to estimate monthly
average daily solar radiation on horizontal surface is the well-known Angstrom equation.
̅
𝑯 𝒏
̅
̅
= 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝑵̅𝒔 …………………………………………………………………..(4.4)
𝑯𝒐 𝒔
Where:𝐻 ̅ - Monthly average daily radiation on horizontal surface.
Ho -the monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation
̅
𝐻𝑜 - Can be obtained by the Klein relationship
24∗3600 360𝑁 𝜋
𝐻𝑜̇ = [ 𝜋 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ] [1.0 + 0.033 cos ( 365 )][cos ∅ cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑠 + 180 𝜔𝑠 sin 𝛿 sin ∅]
Where ; 𝜔𝑠 is sun rise hour angle and is given by

𝜔𝑠 =cos −1(− tan ∅ tan 𝛿)
where a, b – empirical constants, (Values are obtained by regression).
𝑛̅𝑠 - Monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine, 11 per day
̅ s - Monthly average of the maximum possible daily hours of bright sunshine.

N
The regression parameters a and b can be determined from:
𝑛̅ 𝑛̅
a = -0.110+0.235cos∅+0.323(𝑁̅𝑠 ), b = 1.449-0.533cos ∅-0.694(𝑁̅𝑠 )
𝑠 𝑠
11
a = -0.110+0.235cos11.850+0.323(11.317) = 0.434
11
, b = 1.449-0.533cos 11.850-0.694(11.317) = 0.253
̅𝑜 - Can be obtained by the Klein relationship

𝐻
24∗3600 360𝑁 𝜋
𝐻𝑜̇ = [ 𝜋 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ] [1.0 + 0.033 cos ( 365 )][cos ∅ cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑠 + 180 𝜔𝑠 sin 𝛿 sin ∅]
24∗3600 360××344
=[ × 1361] [1.0 + 0.033 cos ( )][cos 11.850 cos(−23.05) sin 84.878 +
𝜋 365
𝜋
× 84.878 sin(−23.05) sin 11.850] = 30.016MJ/𝑚2
180
Therefore, now we can find Monthly average daily radiation on horizontal surface

̅
𝑯 𝟏𝟏
̅𝒐
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏.𝟑𝟏𝟕 = 0.6797
𝑯
̅ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟗𝟕 × 30.016MJ/𝑚2 = 20.402MJ/𝑚2

𝑯
Where: 𝜔𝑠 - sunrise hour angle
̅𝑜 - inWh/m2 day
𝐻
Isc =1361 W/m2, (Solar constant)
The length of sun shine hours ( ̅

Ns ) are computed from Cooper’s formula
2
̅
Ns = (15) 𝜔𝑠
360
𝛿 = 23.45sin [365 (284 + 𝑁)]
In December 10, 2006 (N=344)

360
𝛿 = 23.45sin [365 (284 + 344)] = -23.05
𝜔𝑠 =cos −1 (− tan ∅ tan 𝛿) = 84.878 (𝐷𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 11.850°)

2
̅
Ns = (15) 84.878 = 11.317
𝑛̅𝑠 11
̅𝑠
= 11.317 = 0.972
𝑁
Isc =1361W/m2 (Solar constant)

Where: N is recommended average days for the month.
Table 4- 1 Recommended Average Days for Months and Values of N by Months [14]
Month N for ith For Average Day of Month

Day of Month Date N δ
January i 17 17 -20
February 31 +i 16 47 -13
March 59 + i 16 75 -2.4
April 90 + i 15 105 9.4
May 120 + i 15 135 18.8
June 151 + i 11 162 23.1
July 181 + i 17 198 21.2
August 212 + i 16 228 13.5
September 243 + i 15 258 2.2
October 273 + i 15 288 -9.6
November 304 + i 14 318 -18.9
December 334 + i 10 344 -23.0

4.9.2 Prediction of Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation on Horizontal

Surface
The monthly average daily diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface can be determined from the
monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface and the number of bright sunshine
hours.
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 𝑛̅
̅𝑜
= 0.931-0.814*(𝑁̅𝑠 ) …………………………..…………………………………….(4.5)
𝐻 𝑠
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑
̅𝑜
= 0.931-0.814× 0.972 = 0.1398
𝐻
𝐻𝑑 = 0.1398 × 30.016MJ/𝑚2 = 4.196MJ/𝑚2
4.10.3 Prediction of Monthly Average Hourly Global Radiation on a

Horizontal Surface
The monthly average hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface can be calculated from the
knowledge of the monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface
𝐼̅ 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑠
̅
= 24(a+b𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔) 𝜋 ………………………………………………………….(4.6)
𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑠 − 𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑠
180 𝑠
𝜔 = (Lst-12)15°
Where: Lst- the standard meridian for the local time zone. take Lst=12 at noon mid-day.
Where: a = 0.409+0.5016sin( 𝜔𝑠 − 60)
b = 0.6609-0.4767sin( 𝜔𝑠 − 60)
therefore;
𝜔 = (12.5-12)×15° = 7.5
: a = 0.409+0.5016sin( 84.878 − 60) = 0.6198
b = 0.6609-0.4767sin( 84.878 − 60) = 0.4604
𝐼̅ 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7.5−𝑐𝑜𝑠 84.878
then, ̅
= 24(0.6198+0.4604𝑐𝑜𝑠 7.5) 𝜋 = 0.14715
𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛 84.878− (84.878) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 84.878
180
𝐼 ̅ = 0.14715𝐻
̅ = 0.14715× 20.402MJ/𝑚2 = 3.0022MJ/𝑚2

4.10 Total absorbed energy on collector

❑ Average total radiation (isolation) on horizontal surface is calculated by taking by
considering the average radiation and average sun rise hour of 12 hours of the month of the
year by taking the metrological data of Debre Tabor.
I = Average total radiation on horizontal surface is

Insolation, kWh/m²/day 𝐼 = (𝐽𝐴𝑁 + 𝐹𝐸𝐵 + 𝑀𝐴𝑅 + 𝐴𝑃𝑅 + 𝑀𝐴𝑌 + 𝐽𝑈 + 𝐽𝑈𝐿 + 𝐴𝑈𝐺 +
𝑆𝐸𝑃𝑇 + 𝑂𝐶𝑇 + 𝑁𝑂𝑉𝐸 + 𝐷𝐸𝐶)/12
136,288 + 138,439 + 170,906 + 172,893 + 176,442 + 167,735 + 175,074 + 178,174 + 174,338 + 153,691 + 135,489 + 130,485
12
= 159210.08𝑊ℎ/𝑚2
159210.08
I= = 13267.508𝑊/𝑚2
12
❑ After then we are going to find solar isolation Considering the time at stronger solar
radiation between 8:00 to 9:00 local time which have highest solar intensity using the
equation,
12×3600 360𝑁 𝜋
𝐼𝑂̇ = [ 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ] [1.0 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 365 )] [𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛∆𝜔 + 180 ∆𝜔 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛∅] ………(4.7)
𝜋
12×3600 360×344 𝜋
= [ × 1361] [1.0 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] [𝑐𝑜𝑠11.850 cos(−23.05) 𝑠𝑖𝑛7.5 + 180 7.5 ×
𝜋 365
sin(−23.05) 𝑠𝑖𝑛11.850]/24 =86033.33W/𝑚2
Considering the time at stronger solar radiation between 2 to 3 pm
𝐼 13267.508𝑊/𝑚2
𝐾𝑇 = = = 0.1542
𝐼𝑂 86033.33W/𝑚2
1.0 − 0.249𝐾𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝐾𝑇 ≤ 0.35

𝐼𝐷
Then from the clearance index, 𝐾𝑇 = = {1.557 − 𝐾𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.35 < 𝐾𝑇 < 0.75
𝐼
0.177 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑇 > 0.75
Then from the clearance index equation we have,
𝐼𝐷
= 1.0 − 0.249𝐾𝑇 = 1 − 0.249 × 0.1542 = 0.96
𝐼
Then; 𝐼𝐷 = I× 0.96 = 13267.508 × 0.96 = 12750𝑊/𝑚2

Then the beam radiation, 𝐼𝑏 =I - 𝐼𝐷 =13267.508 – 12750 = 517.5 𝑊/𝑚2
Geometric factor is given by;
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠65.824
𝑅𝑏 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠66.95 = 1.046
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧
4.11 Heat collecting element (HCE) performance model

The HCE performance model is based on an energy balance on the collector and the HCE. The
energy balance includes the direct normal solar irradiation incident on the collector, optical losses
from both the collector and HCE, thermal losses from the HCE, and the heat gain into the HTF.
Temperature gradient on the receiver can be accounted for by a flow factor RF to allow the use of
inlet fluid temperature in energy balance equation. Thus, it is required to drive appropriate
expression for the collector efficiency factor F', the loss coefficient UL, and the heat removal factor
RF to numerically evaluate the outlet temperature [9]
For short receivers (< 100 m) a one-dimensional energy balance gives reasonable results; for
longer receivers a two-dimensional energy balance becomes necessary. All the equations and
relationships used in one-dimensional HCE performance models are described in the following
sections. [9]
4.11.1 Convective heat transfer coefficient
Assume the speed for natural circulation is 0.01m/s.

The heat transfer coefficient, h1, to the fluid is then evaluated
h1 =
𝑁𝑢𝑓×𝐾𝑓
𝐷1
………………………………………………………(4.8)
The heat transfer from the receiver tube to the fluid (HTF) must be characterized by turbulent or
laminar flow conditions accordingly, to evaluates the Reynolds number, Ref of the fluid.
4𝑚
Ref = 𝐷 …………………………………………………………….………………….(4.9)
1 𝜇𝑓
4∗0.0032735
= 0.020∗8.498×10−4 = 770.4

Nusselt number of the fluid Nuf for laminar flow is given by below equation and for turbulent
flow by
If Ref <2200; Nuf = 3.7 , this value is taken for our case.
𝑓𝑓
⁄ )𝑅𝑒𝑓×𝑃𝑟𝑓
8
If Ref> 2200; Nuf = 𝑓𝑓
2
1.07+12.7√( )[𝑃𝑟𝑓13 ]
8
Friction factor, ff, for smooth pipes is given by;
ff = (0.79ln(Ref - 1.64))-2
𝑣
pr = 𝛿1
1
𝜇 𝐾1
where; 𝑣1 = = ….. and 𝛿1 =
𝜌 𝜌1 𝐶1
3.7×0.45
h1 = = 83.25W/𝑚2 𝑘.
0.020
4.11.2 Collector heat removal factor and Overall loss coefficient
Overall Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)

The overall loss coefficient (UL) combines the thermal losses into one coefficient.
𝐴𝑟 1
UL = [𝐴𝑔(ℎ𝑐, +ℎ ] ………………………………………………….(4.10)
𝑔− 𝑎𝑚𝑏+ℎ𝑟,𝑔− 𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑟,𝑟−𝑔
For the case of no glass cover, we have
𝐴𝑟
UL = [𝐴𝑐(ℎ𝑐, ] ………………………………………………………………(4.11)
𝑡− 𝑎𝑚𝑏+ℎ𝑟,𝑡− 𝑎𝑚𝑏
where, Ar is area of the receiver (absorber) tube, Ag is glass cover area and hc,t-amb= convection
heat transfer coefficient between copper tube and ambient air which is due to wind, and
given by.
𝑁𝑢𝑎𝐾𝑎
hc,g-amb = …………………………………………………………….…………..(4.12)
𝐷𝑔
𝜌𝑎V𝑎𝐷𝑔
Rea = 𝜇𝑎
Where;

ka, ρa, υa, and μa are thermal conductivity, density, velocity and viscosity of air
respectively.
Where; Nusselt number (Nua) of air can be defined by two equations.
Nua=0.4 * 0.54 * Rea0.53 for 0.1 < Rea < 1000
Nua=0.3 * Rea0.6 for 1000 < Rea< 5000
Reynolds number (Rea) of air is calculated by following equation,
𝜌𝑎V𝑎𝐷𝑔
Rea =
𝜇𝑎
1.2∗1.388∗0.044
= = 3923.255
1.868×10−5
For no glass cover,
𝜌𝑎V𝑎𝐷𝑝
Rea = 𝜇𝑎
1.2∗1.388∗0.022
= = 1961.627
1.86×10−5
Nua = 0.3*3923.2550.6 = 42.984
And = 0.3*1961.6270.6 = 28.359
42.984∗0.02624
hc,g-amb = = 25.6𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
0.044
and for no glass cover
𝑁𝑢𝑎𝐾𝑎
ℎc,t−amb = 𝐷𝑟
28.359∗0.02624
= = 33.8256𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
0.022
The Nusselt number depends on whether the convection heat transfer is natural (no wind) or
forced (with wind).
ℎr−amb = radiation heat transfer coefficient between glass cover and the ambient air by assuming
5° temperature allowance.

ℎr−amb =εg× δ(Tg + 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 )(Tg2 + Tamb2) …………………………………..…………..…….(4.13)
= 0.9× 5.67x10-8W/m2k4 (30+ 25)(302 + 252 )
= 0.00428𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
ℎr,t−amb = radiation heat transfer coefficient between copper tube and the ambient air for no
glass cover and assuming that entire absorber surface is at the mean fluid temperature.
ℎr,t−amb =εr× δ(Tr + Tamb)(Tr2 + Tamb2) ………..……………………………………….……(4.14)
= 0.96× 5.67x10-8W/m2k4 (80+ 25)(802 + 252 )
= 0.04 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
where;
Tr is temperature of the receiver, and Tg is the glass temperature.
εr and εg are emittance of receiver tube and glass and δ is Stefan Boltzmann constant
which is 5.67x10-8W/m2k4.
hr,r-g = radiation heat transfer coefficient between receiver tube and glass tube and given by;
𝛿(𝑇𝑟+𝑇𝑔)(𝑇𝑟2 +𝑇𝑔2 )
hr,r-g = 1 𝐴𝑟 1 ……………………..……………………….………(4.15)
+ ( −1)
𝜀𝑟 𝐴𝑔 𝜀𝑟
5.67x10−8(80+30)(802 +302 )
hr,r-g = 1 0.06912 1 = 0.04285 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
+ ( −1)
0.96 0.13823 0.9
0.06912 1
UL = [ + ] =23.357 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
0.13823(25.6+0.00428) 0.04285
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient and Factors
The overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) is the coefficient for heat transfer from the surroundings to the
fluid, based on the outer diameter of the receiver tube Dr,o, this is given by following equation;

𝐷𝑟,𝑜 −1
𝐷𝑟,𝑜 ln( )
1 𝐷𝑟,𝑜 𝐷𝑟,𝑖
UO= [𝑈 + ℎ + ] ………………….………………………………………..(4.16)
𝐿 1×𝐷𝑟,𝑖 2𝑘
0.022 −1
1 0.022 0.022 ln( )
UO= [23.357 + 83.25×0.020 + 0.020
] = 17.85 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
2×400
Where: K is the thermal conductivity of receiver tube material
4.12 Solar Irradiation Absorption and Thermal Efficiency of a

PTSC
The instantaneous thermal efficiency ηth, of a solar concentrator may be calculated from an energy
balance on the receiver. The useful heat gain, Qu, delivered by the receiver can be written in
terms of optical and thermal losses, where optical losses are represented by the optical
efficiency, ηo. We calculated above.
collector efficiency factor (F')

The ratio of actual useful energy collected to the useful energy collected if the entire absorber
surface is at the mean fluid temperature. [44]
𝑈𝑂
F’ = , …………………………………….…………………………….……………….(4.17)
𝑈𝐿
17.85
F’ = 23.357 = 0.764
Where; 𝑈𝑂 and 𝑈𝐿 are given from the above equation.
This value of the collector efficiency factor mainly implies that the overall loss coefficient (UL)
that combines the thermal losses into one coefficient is much less than the overall heat transfer
coefficient (Uo) and is in the best range of value.
The heat removal factor or correction factor, FR

Having a value between 0<FR<1, can be interpreted as the ratio of the actual useful energy
collected to that which would be collected if the entire absorbed surface is at the temperature
of the fluid entering the collector. FR is a measure of the efficiency of the receiver when
viewed as a heat exchanger, that is, the effectiveness with which the absorber radiation

energy is transferred to the working fluid. Its value is governed by the working fluid flow rate and
its properties as well as the thermal properties of the receiver material.
𝑚′𝑓 ×𝐶𝑃 𝐴 𝑈𝐿 𝐹′
FR = [1 − exp (− 𝑚𝑟′ )] …………………...…………………..………………….(4.18)
𝐴𝑟 𝑈𝐿 𝑓 ×𝐶𝑃
0.0032735×3581.5 0.06912×23.357×0.764
= [1 − exp (− ) = 0.725
0.06912×23.357 0.0032735×3581.5
Where: cp is the specific heat of the fluid.
 The useful heat gain, Qu, delivered by the receiver can be written in terms of optical
and thermal losses, where optical losses are represented by the optical efficiency, ɳo.
𝑈𝐿 (𝑇𝑓,𝑖 −𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 )
𝑄𝑢= 𝐴𝑎 𝐹𝑅 [S− ]
𝐶
23.357 (30−25)
𝑄𝑢= 𝐴𝑎 × 0.725[124.57− ]=9660.2 W/m2
23.1482
𝐴𝑎 = 111.48𝑚2
This is the total area based on our demand to produce that amount of heat. The area of the trough
for testing is taken as 1.6 𝑚2 .
1. Optical Efficiency of the PTSC; The optical efficiency, ɳo is the fraction of solar radiation
incident on the aperture of the collector which is absorbed at the surface of the receiver
tube.
𝑆
ηo = ; …………………………………………………………………………………(4.19)
𝐼𝑏
S = 𝐼𝑏 (𝜌𝑎 𝜏𝑔 𝛼𝑟 𝛾)𝐾(𝜃)𝑋𝐸𝑁𝐷
Where, 𝑋𝐸𝑁𝐷 is end loss and is given by
𝑓 200
𝑋𝐸𝑁𝐷 = 1 − 𝐿 tan 𝜃 = 1 − 2000 tan 65.82 = 0.7773
𝐾(𝜃) is the incident angle modifier and is given by
𝐾(𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 0.000884(𝜃) − 0.00005369(𝜃 2 ) = 0.4105
S = 517.5(0.94 × 0.88 × 0.96 × 0.95)0.4105 × 0.7773 = 124.57 W/m2

124.57
ηo = = 0.2407; this is mainly for the test model of the project that works with natural
517.5
circulation.
Intensity of radiation on receiver; Ir = 0.2407× 124.57 = 29.986𝑊/𝑚2
S, is the absorbed radiation,
For an incident intensity of 29.986 W/m2 and mass flow rate of 0.0032735 kg /s, the
temperature rise for a single pass can be found out as follows;
Assume the speed for natural circulation is 0.01m/s and density 1042kg/m3 and mass flow rate
is given by;
𝑚∙ = ρ× 𝐴 × 𝑉 ………………………………..…………………(4.20)
= 1042× 𝐴0.00031416 × 0.01 = 0.0032735Kg/s
Ir
ΔT = ………………………………………………………………………………..(4.21)
m. c p
29.986
ΔT = ≈ 3°C
0.0032735∗3581.5
The exit fluid temperature, Tf,o the temperature rise, (Tf,o-Tf,i) and the efficiency can be
calculated using the following equation;
Qusefull = m° *Cp(Tout − Tin ) ……………………………………………………….………….(4.22)
Where, Tin is the inlet water temperature and is taken as 30°C based on the local atmospheric
temperature.
Qusefull = 0.0032735*3581.5*(Tout -30) = 179𝑊 for the test model
Tout = 45°C, for the shower water
And out let temperature from the collector is, Tout = 74.02°C and is calculated based on the useful
heat gain.
Thermal Efficiency of a PTSC model

The thermal efficiency of the solar thermal collector can also be simplified and defined as

the ratio of useful heat Qu, delivered per Aa, and the insolation, Ib, which is incident on
the aperture.
QU
ηth = A …………………………………………………………………………………….(4.23)
a Ib
The exit fluid temperature, Tf,o the temperature rise, (Tf,o-Tf,i) and the efficiency can be
calculated using the following equation;
mCP (Tf,o – Tf,i)

ηth = ……………………………………………………………………….(4.24)
A a Ib
516.15
= = 44.8%
2×0.8×720
The thermal efficiency of the collector based on the calculation result is much dependent on the
inlet temperature and it increases with the increased inlet temperature. The thermal efficiency of
the collector is also depending on the operating conditions of the collector.
4.13 Thermal storage

The thermal storage system uses potassium chloride salt as a heat storage media in order to use
when solar energy is not available. Means must be provided to add energy to and remove it from
the medium. This is done by circulating heat transfer fluids through pipe arrays in the ground. The
pipes may be either coiled or vertical U-tubes inserted in wells that are spaced at appropriate
intervals in the storage field or they may be horizontal pipes buried in trenches. The rates of
charging and discharging are limited by the area of the pipe arrays and the rates of heat transfer
through the ground surrounding the pipes.
Energy collected in the receiver unit is transferred to a thermal storage tank by circulating heat
transfer fluid in a closed loop.
Assumptions; thermally insulated storage.
Storage media = potassium chloride salt
Demand of hot water = 20 litter per student
No. of student in one block = 204

The total hot water demand can be evaluated as = 204*20 =4080liter
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The volume flow rate of the circulation, 𝑄 . = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
4080
= 0.00005𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
24 × 3600 × 1000
The mass flow rate is given by;
𝑘𝑔
𝑚. = 𝜌 × 𝑄 . = 1000× 0.00005 = 0.05 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Therefore the total amount of heat will be;
𝑄𝑈 = 𝑚. × 𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 0.05 × 4180(74.02 − 30)
𝑄𝑈 = 9200.18𝑊
Taking the allowance of 5% for the different heat losses
𝑄𝑈 = 9200.18𝑊 × 1.05 = 9660.20𝑊
4.14 Insulation material

The best, locally available and most cost-effective insulation material that is taken to this
project is Sheep wool insulation. sheep’s wool insulation is safe to handle without protective
clothing. Some man-made mineral fiber materials are unpleasant to handle and require the use of
protective garments, masks and eyewear to be safely installed or removed. Sheep’s wool insulation
can be recycled or incinerated to produce additional energy, having thermal conductivity of 0.039
W/mK whereas man-made mineral fiber materials currently have no practical recycling system in
place and can only be properly disposed of into landfill sites
4.15 pressure drops

Pressure drop across the connecting pipes can be evacuated using the following relationship,
The pressure loss for all types of internal flows (laminar or turbulent, in circular or noncircular pipes,
smooth or rough surfaces) are expressed as
𝜌𝐿𝑉 2
∆𝑃𝐿 = 𝑓 2𝐷
……………………………………………………………………………….(4.25)

Where, f is the friction factor and for the laminar flow it is given by;
64 64
F= = = 0.0831
𝑅𝑒 770.4
1042×5×0.012
Therefore, ∆𝑃𝐿 = 0.0831 × 2×0.02
= 1.0823pa
4.15.1 Pressure drop across the collector piping
For the inclined pipes across the collector can be expressed as

32𝜇𝐿𝑉
∆𝑝𝐿2 − 𝜌𝑔𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝐷2
32𝜇𝐿𝑉
∆𝑝𝐿2 = + 𝜌𝑔𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐷2
32 × 8.498 × 10−4 × 2.2 × 0.01
∆𝑝𝐿2 = + 1042 × 9.81 × 2.2𝑠𝑖𝑛26.85 = 10153𝑝𝑎
0.022
4.15.2 Pressure drop across the storage coils
The pressure drop In the storage coil can be expressed as follow;

the pressure drop of fluid following inside the coil tube is calculated as
𝐿𝑉 2
∆𝑝𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐 𝜌 2𝑑
……………………………………………………………………………….(4.26)
The friction factor for the laminar flow inside helical coiled tube
−0.6
−0.6 0.375
fc= 5.22(𝑁𝑅𝑒√𝐷/𝑑 ) = 5.22(770.4√ ) = 0.04
0.02
Where D is coil diameter and d is the inner pipe diameter.

2.5×0.012
∆𝑝𝑐 = 0.04 × 1042 2×0.02
= 0.2615pa
Total Pressure drop including the loss that occur in piping components such as fittings, valves,
bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and contractions which are called minor losses can
be expressed as
𝑗 𝑉2
= ∆𝑃𝐿 + ∆𝑝𝐿2 + ∆𝑝𝑐 + (∑𝑖=1 𝑘𝐿 ) 2𝑔
Where; 𝑘𝐿 is the pipe bend, fitting and elbow loss coefficient

0.012
1.83 + 10.15𝐸3 + 0.2615 + (6 × 0.9) × = 10152𝑝𝑎
2 × 9.81
The pumping power to overcome the pressure loss is given by;
P = 𝑄 . × ∆𝑃 ,where ∆𝑃 is the total pressure loss.
∆𝑃 = 10152 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1042× 9.81 × 0.82 +10152 = 18534.06pa
0.0032735
Power = × 18534.06pa = 0.06watt. therefore, it works on the thermo siphon principle.
1042

CHAPTER FIVE
5. FABRICATION PROCEDURE
After Design calculation of closed type PTC, fabrication of closed type PTC in mechanical
workshop was done. Firstly supporting structure was made in which rectangular cross section
of RHS pipe was done. The design of supporting structure was, according to the SOLIDWORKS
software. The dimensions used in the supporting structure are as follows: -
5.1 Support Fabrication Process
Figure 5- 1 Trough support with the trough arrangement

Table 5- 1 collector dimension
SN COMPOMENT DIMENSION QUANTITY

1 For base structure 2000mmx820mm 1
2 For parabola holder 500mmx900mm, 2
3 For base structure to parabola holder 500mmx40mm, 3
Once the cutting of pipes was completed, connecting the pipes according to the drawing was the
next step. A hole was made in parabola holder pipe 25mm diameter. This hole was made in the
middle of the pipe for rib or nut..

5.2 Collector Fabrication Process
The collector material should be fabricated properly in order to get the desired amount of hot
water from the system, for this sake the reflective material should be prepared properly
Figure 5- 2 collector
• Parabolic trough is manufactured using different operations. first the required sheet metal is
changed in to the desired dimension with desired operation In the workshop with the available
tools and equipment’s.
• Cutting sheet metals based on the dimension and proper utilization of sheet metal., then after
we need to cut the RHS and angle section metal based on dimensions for frame.
• Then bend the sheet metal by bending machine in the work shop.
• The aluminum foil is ready to adhere on the trough
• Copper pipe was used as a receiver (20mm diameter, thickness 2mm and length
2000mm). This copper pipe was inserted at focal axis of the parabolic trough.
• The absorber coper tube is painted black.
• Then it is installed on the trough frame.
• The tracking mechanism have to be prepared with the desired dimensions.
• The tracking mechanism have been installed with frame and the absorber tube.

5.3 Storage Fabrication Process
The storage materials also should prepare properly for the efficient heat storage in the system. The
heat storage barrels should be cut for the proper dimensions and the heat transfer coils, stand
should be prepared in the required dimension.
❖ Two barrels of different dimeter (500mm and 400mm) with height of 500 and 450mm have
been prepared.
❖ Two copper coiled tubes of different wire dimeter and a coil diameter of 20mm with the
above dimension have been prepared.
❖ Four holes of dimeter 20mm have been drilled on the barrel.
❖ Then after the stand have been welded with the drawing dimension.
❖ Ash is prepared for thermal insulation mechanism
After we finish all this, we prepared the connecting pipes and different flow control valves for the
next assembly process.
Figure 5- 3 storage system

5.4 Assembling process and drawing

When we are assembling the collector and the storage parts of the machine first, we need to
weld and bolted and riveted each part based on their dimension and specification. We adhere the
aluminum foil on the parabolic shaped stainless sheet metal.
After we weld, bolted and riveted we need assemble the heat transfer fluid pipe to both side of the
collector and bolt with nut then, we need to assemble, the frame for the collector.
▪ The support and the collector are assembled together by inserting the copper pipe through
the holes provided on the support.
▪ The fluid transfer connecting pipes are assembled to the copper pipe with 90 degree and
180 degree pipe connections.
▪ The storage is assembled and the coiled copper coils and heat storage salt is put under the
barrels.
▪ The heat transfer and water lines are connected as the design specifications
Figure 5- 4 . Assembly drawing

5.5 Working principle

The solar collector absorbs radiation and converts it into heat. This heat is then transferred to a
fluid which is usually water or a glycol mixture, flowing through the collector. The energy that is
collected from the process just described is then transferred from the fluid to a solar water heating
storage tank from which it can be used when necessary. The heat is stored with the help of
potassium chloride salt and it is proven that it is possible to save 12 up to 15 hours. the water can
be circulated through the water lines to hot water for the desired application.
5.6 Used Equipment and their operation

Equipment’s, hand tools, and operation, what we have used when we are fabricating the machine
are:
Table 5- 2 Equipment’s, hand tools, and operation
S. No Hand tools Equipment’s Operation

1 Scriber Bending machine Welding
2 Meter Drill machine Bending
3 Hacksaw Welding machine Drilling
4 T – square Grinding machine Grinding
5 Brush Cutting machine Filing
6 Sand paper Measuring
7 Rasp Painting
8 Verner caliper
9 Steel ruler
10 Marker
11 wrench
By using those equipment’s, hand tools, and operations, we have done fabricating of the
machine exactly based on their dimension.

5.7 Cost analysis

The cost of the materials and machine components used in the design is basically based on the
current market price.
Table 5- 3 Cost analysis
S ITEM OR MEASUREMENT QUA UNINT TOTAL
no MATERIALS NTIT PRICE PRICE
Y
Diameter Mass V0lume Area Length Thickness
(mm) (kg) (litter) (mm2) (mm) (mm)
1 Copper Coiled 20 5000 2 500 1000
tubes
2 Potassium 100 800
chloride salt
3 Ethyl glycol 5 140 700
4 Aluminum foil 2000x 3000 600
3000
5 Stainless steel 0.2-0.5 2 500 1000
sheet metal
6 bolts 10 20 10 200
7 valves 4 50 200
8 Pipe connection 18 50 900
totall
y
9 Copper tube 20 2500 1 300 300
internal
22
external
10 RHS 40x40 6000 3 320 960
11 screw 2 80 160
12 chipud 1000 2000 1 300 300
x200
0
13 Cast iron tube 20 5000 500
internal
22
external
14 Others 460
total 8080

5.8 Result and Discussion

The final numerical results of the water heater system have been presented as follows;
• focal point = 200mm

• concentration ratio of the collector = 23.1482
• Area of the absorber of the collector = 0.06912 m2
• Intensity of radiation on receiver = 270𝑊/𝑚2
• Rim angle = 90°
• Slope of the concentrator = 26.85°
• temperature rise for a single pass = 23
• Convective heat transfer coefficient = 83.25W/𝒎𝟐 𝒌.

• convection heat transfer coefficient between copper tube and ambient air
= 33.8256𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
• radiation heat transfer coefficient between receiver tube and glass tub
= 0.04285 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
• radiation heat transfer coefficient between copper tube and the ambient air for no glass
cover = 0.04 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
• Overall Heat transfer Coefficient (UL) = 23.357 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
• Overall heat loss coefficient from the absorber (UO) = 17.85 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
• Absorptivity of the absorber = 0.96
• Emissivity of the absorber = 0.96
• heat removal factor = 0.725
• collector efficiency factor = 0.764.
• useful heat Qu = 9660.2W/m2

• out let temperature from heat transfer fluid, Tout = 74.02°
• Total Pressure drop = 10152𝑃𝑎
• Thermal Efficiency of a PTSC = 48.8%
• The total hot water demand per day = 4080liter
In this section, the thermal performance of parabolic trough solar collector is discussed using the
calculated and measured data of the inlet and outlet temperature of the working fluid, ambient
temperature, wind speed and global radiation around Debre tabor area. The final outlet
temperature of 74.02° is obtained.
Generally, in the test setup, HTF is circulated through the absorber tube, then to the heat exchanger,
finally to the HTF reservoir tank and again back to the absorber tube by thermosyphon principle.
A flow regulating mechanism which is a flow control valve is used to start and stop the flow of
the HTF in the system. The efficiency of the machine is slightly less than expected as it works with
natural circulation principle.
A mild steel absorber tube copper winding to increase the heat transfer is tested in this project; The
test results are listed below based on the pipe type. The test is conducted 14 Jun, 2011. Among
different tests, the inlet water temperature the outlet water temperature with the available absorber
tube.

5.9 CONCLUSION
This paper has attempted to highlight the following issues:
• Based on the current status of the Country a new method of a solar energy application has
been evaluated and new technical and technological opportunities of a solar energy
application in water heating system has been established.
• stainless sheet material bends easily into the required parabolic trough shape. Black
painted aluminum pipe is used as absorber tube. Daily data were collected from each
material used as the absorber. HTF temperature does increase in the absorber.
• On the average, the efficiency of the copper-absorber parabolic trough is about 44.8%
while for the galvanized steel pipe the efficiency is about 30% from different results.
• From the result, it can be observed that the parabolic trough is very efficient generating
high temperature water for about five and a half working hours, from 10:00 to 15:30.
• The environmental factor plays a major role in the performance analysis of the solar
collector. Environmental or weather conditions such as wind and scattered clouds
conditions are factors that bring down the efficiency of the solar collector.
• The result of this study gives guidance for the possible use of parabolic trough application
for energy generation.

5.10 Recommendation
• The parabolic trough is tested using water and ethyl glycol solution as heat transfer fluid.
For future work, it is recommended that oil be used as heat transfer fluid, if oil pump is
available. Covering the absorber tube with glass tube would result in better performance.
This increases the efficiency of the parabolic trough by reducing convection heat loss from
the absorber tube and prevent the reflector from dust particle.
• Mechanical or electrical solar tracking system should be used to reduce the error that is
created by manual tracking system.
• The utilization of renewable energy in Ethiopia should be increased, as there is a global
concern that the developing nations could be faced with energy crisis and global warming.
It is expected that more damage and pollution of the environment will continue. Parabolic
trough solar collector is one of the options for renewable energy and this technology should
be adopted in industries that utilize fossil fuel for water heating and steam generation.
• The government as well as the university has to support further research works in this area
financially and allocating large area to test large grids of the parabolic trough system for
steam generation and power production.

Reference
[1] Tadvi Sachin Vinubhai and Dr. Keyur Thakkar, Gujarat, A Review of Solar Water Heating
Systems; April 2014 by -INDIA
[2] Parabolic-Trough Solar Water Heating; The U.S. Department of Energy the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory April 1998
[3] Pradeep Kumar K, Srinath, Venkatesh Reddy. "Design, Fabrication and Experimental Testing
of Solar Parabolic Trough Collectors with Automated Tracking Mechanism." INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(Vol.1 Issue.4, August 2013; Pgs: 37-55).
[4] S. P. Sukhatme et al. Solar Energy. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education, 2008.
[5] Donald Jeremy Gaitan. Design, Construction, and Test of a Miniature Parabolic Trough Solar
Concentrator. Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, CA. Fall Quarter 2012.
[6] Ricardo Vasquez Padilla, Simplified Methodology for Designing Parabolic Trough Solar
Power Plants. University of South Florida, 2011.
[7] G. T. Machinda, S. P. Chowdhury, S. Chowdhury y S. Kibaara, «Concentrating Solar Thermal

Power Technologies: A review,» de India Conference (INDICON), Hyderabad, 2011
[8] A. Steinfield y R. Palumbo, «Solar Thermochemical Process Technology,»

the ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, R. A Meyers, Academic
Press, 2001, pp. 237-256.
[9] D. Mills, «Advances in solar thermal electricity technology,» the Solar Energy, ELSEVIER,
2004, pp. 19-31. . (Kalogirou, S.A, 2004).
[10] Yidnekachew Messele, Thermal Analysis, Design and Experimental Investigation of

Parabolic Trough Solar Collector Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering, February 2012

[11] Matthias Günther, Michael Joemann, Simon Csambor, Parabolic Trough TechnologyInstitute
for Electrical Engineering, Rational Energy Conversion, University of Kassel, Wilhelmshöher
Allee 73, 34121 Kassel.
[12] Energy Plus Weather (EPW). Available
at:http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data.cfm, Last accessed: June

25, 2009
[13] Mekuannint Mesfin, Modeling, Simulation and Performance Evaluation of Parabolic Trough
Solar Collector Power Generation System, Department of Mechanical Engineering Addis Ababa
University, September 2009
[14] Sohanpal Bansal, Design, Fabrication and Performance Analysis of Close Type Parabolic
Trough Collector, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYHAMIRPUR HP 177005
INDIA, JULY 2016
[15] Duffie, J. and Beckman, W., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. (3rd Edn), J. Wiley &
Sons, Inc.(2013)
[16] Energy,US department of. Energy basics. www.eere.energy.gov
http://www.eere.energy.gov/basics/renewable_energy/solar_resources.html#.[accesed
date12/04/2019]
[17] Rolim et al, International, Pilkington Solar.Status Report on Solar Trough Power Plants.
Cologne : Pilkington Solar International GmbH, 1996. ISBN 3-9804901-0-6.

Appendix
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DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

Design and Fabrication of Multipurpose Parabolic

Advisor; Mr. Yonas T.

DEBRE TABOR ETHIOPIA

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC i

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC ii

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC iii

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC iv

CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 18

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC v

4.14 Insulation material .......................................................................................................................... 45

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC vi

figure 3- 1 flow chart................................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 4- 1 parabolic trough........................................................................................................................ 24

Figure 5- 1 Trough support ........................................................................................................................ 48

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC vii

Table 3- 1 material for the collector material ............................................................................................. 20

Table 5- 1 collector dimension ................................................................................................................... 48

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC viii

Nomenclature and Abbreviations

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC ix

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC x

F collector efficiency factor

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC xi

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 1

The technology of parabolic-trough solar water-heating and absorption-cooling systems, the

1.1 Theoretical Concept of The Project

1.1.1 The solar Energy resource

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 2

Global radiation is radiation energy incident on a surface, which is comprised of a diffuse

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 3

figure 1- 1 Direct normal, diffuse and global radiation [16]

1.2 Solar thermal water heater

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 4

The main components of a CSP system are:

A. The solar collector field:

B. The solar receiver

C. The energy conversion system

1.3 Classification of solar thermal water heaters and collectors

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 5

Table 1- 1 Classification of solar collectors according to the temperature obtained by the

Solar collector Temperature (0c)

1.4 Classification depending their geometric configuration

1.4.1 Parabolic trough solar collector

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 6

2-central pipe 4-piping connection

figure 1- 2 parabolic through type collector [6]

1.4.2 Parabolic dish-type collector

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 7

figure 1- 3 Parabolic dish type collector. [9]

1.4.3 Solar receptor systems or Central tower

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 8

figure 1- 4 Central tower system and heliostat. [8]

1.4.4 Linear Fresnel collector systems (LFR)

figure 1- 5 Linear Fresnel collector [8]

PREPARED BY: GROUP MEMEBERS 2011EC 9

1.5 Statement of the problems

1.6 Design Objective and Requirement

1.6.1 General objective