CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1.1 History of Computers

1.1.1 Introduction

A computer is a tool and partner in every sphere of human life and

activity. Computers are bringing many changes in industry, government,
education, medicine, scientific research, law, social service and even arts
like music, movies and paintings. The areas of application of computers are
confined only by the limitation on creativity and imagination.

What is a computer? A child might define a computer to be an

instrument capable of producing a combined effect of radio, movie and
television. This definition is close but still does not visualize the power and
capabilities of a computer.

Fig. 1.1 Computer

A computer is an electronic machine, capable of performing basic

operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. The
computer is also capable of storing information, which can
be used later. It can process millions of instructions in a few seconds and at
the same time with high accuracy. Hence a computer can be defined as an
automatic electronic machine for performing calculations or controlling
operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terms. Computers are
very accurate and save time by performing the assigned task very fast. They
don’t get bored.
 Humans have always needed to perform arithmetic like counting and
adding. During the pre-historic period, they counted either on their fingers or
by scratching marks on the bones and then with the help of stone, pebble
and beads. The early civilization had witnessed men develop number
systems to keep track of the astronomical cycles, businesses, etc. The word
‘computing’ means
‘an act of calculating’. After the invention of the manual calculating tools, the
concept of using ‘electronic gadgets’ for computations were introduced which
gave birth to the computers. The evolution of computers has passed
through a number of stages before reaching the present state of
development. During the early development period, certain machines had
been developed and a brief note of them is given below.

1.1.2 Early History

2500 BC – The Abacus

Fig. 1.2 Abacus

Abacus is the first known calculating machine used for counting. It is

made of beads strung on cords and is used for simple arithmetic calculations.
The cords correspond to positions of decimal digits. The beads represent
digits. Numbers are represented by beads close to the crossbar. Abacus was
mainly used for addition and subtraction and later for division and
multiplication.

1614 AD – Napier’s Bones

 Fig. 1.3 Napier’s Bones

The Napier’s Bones was invented by John Napier, a Scottish

mathematician as an aid to multiplication. A set of bones consisted of nine
rods, one for each digit 1 through 9 and a constant rod for the digit ‘0’. A rod
is similar to one column of a multiplication table.

1633 AD – The Slide Rule

Fig. 1.4 The Slide Rule

The Slide Rule was invented by William Oughtred. It is based on the principle
that actual distance from the starting point of the rule is directly proportional
to the logarithm of the numbers printed on the rule. The slide rule is
embodied by the two sets of scales that are joined together, with a marginal
space between them. The suitable alliance of two scales enabled the slide
rule to perform multiplication and division by a method of addition and
subtraction.

1642 AD – The Rotating Wheel Calculator

 Fig. 1.5 The Rotating Wheel Calculator

The Rotating Wheel Calculator was developed by a French philosopher,

Blaise Pascal, using simple components such as gears and levers. This is a
predecessor to today’s electronic calculator. He was inspired by the
computation work of his father’s job and devised the model. He was only 19
years old, when he devised this model.

1822 AD – The Difference Engine

Fig. 1.6 The Difference Engine

The Difference Engine was built by Charles Babbage, British mathematician

and engineer which mechanically calculated mathematical tables.
Babbage is called the father of today’s computer.

1890 AD - Hollerith Tabulating Machine

Fig. 1.7 Hollerith Tabulating Machine

A tabulating machine using punched cards was designed by Herman

Hollerith and was called as the Hollerith Tabulating Machine. This electronic
machine is able to read the information on the punched cards and process it
electronically.
1.1.3 Generation of Computers

The evolution of electronic computers over a period of time can be

traced effectively by dividing this period into various generations. Each
generation is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operated. These helped to develop
smaller, cheaper, powerful, efficient and reliable devices. Now you could read
about each generation and the developments that led to the current devices
that we use today.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory. They were large in size, occupied a lot of
space and produced enormous heat.
They were very expensive to operate and consumed large amount of
electricity. Sometimes the heat generated caused the computer to
malfunction. First generation computers operated only on machine language.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts. First generation computers could solve only one
problem at a time.

Fig. 1.8 Vacuum Tube

The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) and the Electronic

Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC) are classic examples of first-
generation computing devices.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

The second generation of computers witnessed the vacuum tubes

being replaced by transistors. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum
tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-
efficient and more reliable than their first-generation counter parts. The
transistors also generated considerable heat that sometimes caused the
computer to malfunction. But it was a vast improvement over the vacuum
tube. Second-generation computers used punched cards for input and
printouts for output.

Fig. 1.9 Transistor

Second-generation computers moved from the use of machine

language to assembly languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. The
computers stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

Third Generation - 1964-1971 : Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit left its mark in the third
generation of computers. Transistors were made smaller in size and placed
on silicon chips, which dramatically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.

Fig. 1.10 Integrated Circuit

In this generation, keyboards and monitors were used instead of punched

cards and printouts. The computers were interfaced with an operating
system which allowed to solve many problems at a time.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present : Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought forth the fourth generation of computers,

as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.

Fig. 1.11 Microprocessor

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked

together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence,

are still in their developmental stage. Fifth generation computers will come
close to bridging the gap between computing and thinking.

1.2 Data, Information and Program

Computer is a tool for solving problems. Computers accept instructions

and data, perform arithmetic and logical operations and produce information.
Hence the instructions and data fed into the computer are converted into
information through processing.

Data Processing Information

Fig. 1.12 Data, Processing and Information

 Basically data is a collection of facts from which information may be
derived. Data is defined as an un-processed collection of raw facts in a
manner suitable for communication, interpretation or processing.

Hence data are

•Stored facts
•Inactive
•Technology based
•Gathered from various sources.

On the other hand information is a collection of facts from which

conclusions may be drawn. Data that has been interpreted, translated, or
transformed to reveal the underlying meaning. This information can be
represented in textual, numerical, graphic, cartographic, narrative, or
audiovisual forms.

Hence information is

•Processed facts
•Active
•Business based
•Transformed from data.

Algorithm is defined as a step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a

problem i.e. a set of instructions or procedures for solving a problem. It is
also defined as a mathematical procedure that can usually be explicitly
encoded in a set of computer language instructions that manipulate data.

A computer program (or set of programs) is designed to systematically

solve a problem. For example, a problem to calculate the length of a straight
line joining any two given points.

The programmer must decide the program requirements, develop logic and
write instructions for the computer in a programming language that the
computer can translate into machine language and execute. Hence, problem
solving is an act of defining a problem, understanding the problem and
arriving at workable solutions.
 In other words, problem solving is the process of confronting a novel
situation, formulating connection between the given facts, identifying the
goal of the problem and exploring possible methods for reaching the goal. It
requires the programmer to co-ordinate previous experience and intuition in
order to solve the problem.

1.3 Hardware and Software

1.3.1 Introduction

A computer system has two major components, hardware and

software. In practice, the term hardware refers to all the physical items
associated with a computer system. Software is a set of instructions, which
enables the hardware to perform a specific task.

1.3.2 Computer Hardware

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to accept data

(input), and process it into useful information (output). It also stores data for
later reuse (storage). The processing is performed by the hardware. The
computer hardware responsible for computing are mainly classified as
follows:

Main Secondary
Memory Storage

Input CPU Output

Devices
Devices
Fig. 1.13 Computer Hardware
� Input devices allows the user to enter the program and data and send it
to the processing unit. The common input devices are keyboard, mouse and
scanners.

� The Processor, more formally known as the central processing unit (CPU),
has the electronic circuitry that manipulates input data into the information
as required. The central processing unit actually executes computer
instructions.

� Memory from which the CPU fetches the instructions and data is called main
memory. It is also called as primary memory and is volatile in nature.

� Output devices show the processed data – information – the result of

processing. The devices are normally a monitor and printers.

� Storage usually means secondary storage, which stores data and programs.
Here the data and programs are permanently stored for future use.

The hardware devices attached to the computer are called peripheral

equipment. Peripheral equipment includes all input, output and
secondary storage devices.

1.3.3 Computer Software

Software refers to a program that makes the computer to do

something meaningful. It is the planned, step-by-step instructions required
to turn data into information. Software can be classified into two categories:
System Software and Application Software.

Computer Software

System Software Application Software

Fig. 1.14 Software Categories

System software consists of general programs written for a computer.

These programs provide the environment to run the application programs.
System software comprises programs, which interact with the hardware at a
very basic level. They are the basic necessity of a computer system for its
proper functioning. System software serves as the interface between
hardware and the user. The operating system, compilers and utility programs
are examples of system software.

Application Software

System Software

Hardware

Fig. 1.15 System Software

The most important type of system software is the operating system.

An operating system is an integrated set of specialized programs that is
used to manage the overall operations of a computer. It acts like an interface
between the user, computer hardware and software. Every computer must
have an operating system to run other programs. DOS (Disk Operating
System), Unix, Linux and Windows are some of the common operating
systems.

The compiler software translates the source program (user written

program) into an object program (binary form). Specific compilers are
available for computer programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, C, C+
+ etc. The utility programs support the computer for specific tasks like file
copying, sorting, linking a object program, etc.

An Application Software consists of programs designed to solve a user

problem. It is used to accomplish specific tasks rather than just managing a
computer system. Application software are inturn, controlled by system
software which manages hardware devices.
 Some typical examples are : railway reservation system, game
programs, word processing software, weather forecasting programs. Among
the application software some are packaged for specific tasks. The commonly
used Application Software packages are word processor, spread sheet,
database management system and graphics.

One of the most commonly used software package is word

processing software. Anyone who has used a computer as a word
processor knows that it is far more than a fancy typewriter. The great
advantage of word processing over a typewriter is that you can make
changes without retyping the entire document. The entire writing process is
transformed by this modern word processing software. This software lets you
create, edit, format, store and print text and graphics. Some of the
commonly used word processors are Microsoft Word, WordStar, WordPerfect,
etc.

Spreadsheet software packages allow the user to manipulate numbers.

Repetitive numeric calculations, use of related formulae and creation of
graphics and charts are some of the basic tools. This capability lets business
people try different combinations of numbers and obtain the results quickly.
Lotus1-2-3, Excel, etc. are some of the famous spreadsheet applications.

A database management system is a collection of programs that

enable to store, modify and extract information from a database. A database
organizes the information internally. Computerized banking system,
Automated Teller Machine, Airlines and Railway reservation system etc., are
some of the database applications.

Type of Software Functions Examples

Word Processors All personal computers are Microsoft Word
loaded with word processing Word Perfect, Word
software which has the same Star.
function as a typewriter for writing
letters, preparing
reports and printing.
Spreadsheet A table containing text and Microsoft Excel,
figures, which is used to Lotus 1-2-3.
Calculations and draw charts
Database Used for storing, retrieval and Microsoft Access,
Management Manipulation of Information Oracle.
System
1.4 Types of Computers

1.4.1 Introduction

Classification of the electronic computers may be based on either their

principles of operation or their configuration. By configuration, we mean
the size, speed of doing computation and storage capacity of a computer.

1.4.2 Classification based on Principles of Operation

Based on the principles of operation, computers are classified into

three types, analog computers, digital computers and hybrid computers.
Computers

Analog Digital Hybrid

Fig. 1.17 Classification of Computers

Analog Computers

Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous

range of values. The analog computers give approximate results since they
deal with quantities that vary continuously. It generally deals with physical
variables such as voltage, pressure, temperature, speed, etc.

Digital Computers

On the other hand a digital computer operates on digital data such as

numbers. It uses binary number system in which there are only two digits 0
and 1. Each one is called a bit. The digital computer is designed using digital
circuits in which there are two levels for an input or output signal. These two
levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1. Digital Computers can give the
results with more accuracy and at a faster rate.
Since many complex problems in engineering and technology are
solved by the application of numerical methods, the electronic digital
computer is very well suited for solving such problems. Hence digital
computers have an increasing use in the field of design, research and data
processing.

Digital computers are made for both general purpose and special
purpose. Special purpose computer is one that is built for a specific
application. General purpose computers are used for any type of
applications. It can store different programs and do the jobs as per the
instructions specified on those programs. Most of the computers that we see
fall in this category.

Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computing system is a combination of desirable features of
analog and digital computers. It is mostly used for automatic operations
of complicated physical processes and machines. Now-a-days analog-to-
digital and digital-to-analog converters are used for transforming the data
into suitable form for either type of computation.

For example, in hospital’s automated intensive care unit, analog

devices might measure the patients temperature, blood pressure and other
vital signs. These measurements which are in analog might then be
converted into numbers and supplied to digital components in the system.
These components are used to monitor the patient’s vital sign and send
signals if any abnormal readings are detected. Hybrid computers are mainly
used for specialized tasks.

1.4.3 Classification of Computers based on Configuration

Based on performance, size, cost and capacity, the digital computers

are classified into four different types : Super computers, Mainframe
computers, Mini computers and Micro computers.
Digital Computers

Super Mainframe Mini Micro

Computers Computers Computers Computers
Fig. 1.18 Classification of Digital Computers

Super Computers
The mightiest computers but at the same time, the most expensive
ones are known as super computers. Super computers process billions of
instructions per second. In other words, super computers are the computers
normally used to solve intensive numerical computations. Examples of such
applications are stock analysis, special effects for movies, weather
forecasting and even sophisticated artworks.

Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are capable of processing data at very high

speeds – hundreds of million instructions per second. They are large in size.
These systems are also expensive. They are used to process large amount of
data quickly. Some of the obvious customers are banks, airlines and railway
reservation systems, aerospace companies doing complex aircraft design,
etc.

Mini Computers

The mini computers were developed with the objective of bringing out low cost
computers. They are lower to mainframe computers, in terms of speed and
storage capacity. Some of the hardware features available in mainframes
were not included in the mini computer hardware in order to reduce the
cost. Some features which were handled by hardware in mainframe
computers were done by software in mini computers. Hence the performance
of mini computer is less than that of the mainframe. However, the mini
computer market has diminished somewhat as buyers have moved towards
less expensive but increasingly powerful personal computers.

Micro Computers

The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the

micro computers. They are several times cheaper than mini
computers.
 The micro computers are further classified into workstation, personal
computers, laptop computers and still smaller computers.
 Although the equipment may vary from the simplest computer to the
most powerful, the major functional units of the computer system remain
the same : input, processing, storage and output.

Workstations
Workstations are also desktop machines mainly used for intensive
graphical applications. They have more processor speed than that of
personal computers.

Fig. 1.20 Workstation

Workstations use sophisticated display screens featuring high-

resolution colour graphics. Workstations are used for executing numeric
and graphic intensive applications such as Computer Aided Design (CAD),
simulation of complex systems and visualizing the results of simulation.
Personal Computers

Fig. 1.21 Personal Computer

Today the personal computers are the most popular computer systems
simply called PCs. These desktop computers are also known as home
computers. They are usually easier to use and more affordable than
workstations. They are self-contained desktop computers intended for an
individual user. Most often used for word processing and small database
applications.
Laptop Computers

Fig. 1.22 Laptop Computer

Laptop computers are portable computers that fit in a briefcase.

Laptop computers, also called notebook computers, are wonderfully
portable and functional, and popular with travelers who need a computer
that can go with them.
Getting Smaller Still

Fig. 1.23 Personal Digital Assistants

Pen-based computers use a pen like stylus and accept handwritten

input directly on a screen. Pen-based computers are also called Personal
Digital Assistants (PDA). Special engineering and hardware design
techniques are adopted to make the portable, smaller and light weight
computers.
CHAPTER 2

NUMBER SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction

There are several kinds of data such as, numeric, text, date, graphics,
image, audio and video that need to be processed by a computer. The text
data usually consist of standard alphabetic, numeric, and special characters.
The graphics data consist of still pictures such as drawings and
photographs. Any type of sound, including music and voice, is considered
as audio data. Video data consist of motion pictures. The data has to be
converted into a format that the computer understands. Data can be
classified into two forms, analog data and digital data. Analog data can have
any value within a defined range and it is continuous. Sound waves,
telephone signals, temperatures and all other signals that are not broken into
bits are examples of analog data. Digital data can be represented by a series
of binary numbers and it is discrete.

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer performs arithmetic
and logical operations on data. Computer arithmetic is commonly performed
on two different types of numbers, integer and floating point. As the
hardware required for arithmetic is much simpler for integers than floating
point numbers, these two types have entirely different representations. An
integer is a whole number and the floating-point number has a fractional
part. To understand about how computers store data in the memory and
how they handle them, one must know about bits and bytes and the number
systems.

Bits and bytes are common computer jargons. Both the main memory
(Random Access Memory or RAM) and the hard disk capacities are
measured in terms of bytes. The hard disk and memory capacity of a
computer and other specifications are described in terms of bits and bytes.
For instance, a computer may be described as having a 32-bit Pentium
processor with 128
Megabytes of RAM and hard disk capacity of 40 Gigabytes.
2.2 Bits and Bytes

A numbering system is a way of representing numbers. The most

commonly used numbering system is the decimal system. Computer
systems can perform computations and transmit data thousands of times
faster in binary form than they can use decimal representations. It is
important for every one studying computers to know how the binary system
and hexadecimal system work.

A bit is small piece of data that is derived from the words “binary
digit”. Bits have only two possible values, 0 and 1. A binary number
contains a sequence of 0s and 1s like 10111. A collection of
8 bits is called as a byte. With 8 bits in a byte, we can represent 256
values ranging from 0 to 255 as shown below:

0 = 0000
1 = 0000
2 = 0001
0000
3 = 0010
0000
0011 ………….
………….
………….

254 = 1111 1110

255 = 1111 1111

Bytes are used to represent characters in a text. Different types of

coding schemes are used to represent the character set and numbers. The
most commonly used coding scheme is the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII). Each binary value between 0 and 127 is
used to represent a specific character. The ASCII value for a blank character
(blank space) is 32 and the ASCII value of numeric 0 is 48. The range of
ASCII values for lower case alphabets is from 97 to 122 and the range of
ASCII values for the upper case alphabets is 65 to 90.
 Computer memory is normally represented in terms of Kilobytes or
Megabytes. In metric system, one Kilo represents 1000, that is,
103. In binary system, one Kilobyte represents 1024 bytes, that is,
210. The following table shows the representation of various memory sizes.

Name Abbreviation Size (Bytes)

Kilo K M G T P E Z2^10*
Mega Y 2^20
Giga 2^30
Tera 2^40
Peta Exa 2^50
Zetta 2^60
Yotta 2^70
2^80
*Read as 2 power10.

In a 2GB (Gigabytes) storage device (hard disk), totally

21,47,483,648 bytes can be stored. Nowadays, databases having size in
Terabytes are reported; Zetta and Yotta size databases are yet to come.

2.3 Decimal Number System

In our daily life, we use a system based on digits to represent numbers.

The system that uses the decimal numbers or digit symbols
0 to 9 is called as the decimal number system. This system is said to have a
base, or radix, of ten. Sequence of digit symbols are used to represent
numbers greater than 9. When a number is written as a sequence of
decimal digits, its value can be interpreted using the positional value of each
digit in the number. The positional number system is a system of writing
numbers where the value of a digit depends not only on the digit, but also on
its placement within a number. In the positional number system, each
decimal digit is weighted relative to its position in the number. This means
that each digit in the number is multiplied by ten raised to a power
corresponding to that digit’s position. Thus the value of the decimal
sequence 948 is:

94810=9X102 + 4 X 101 + 8 X 100

Fractional values are represented in the same manner, but the

exponents are negative for digits on the right side of the decimal point. Thus
the value of the fractional decimal sequence 948.23 is:

948.23 10
= 9 X 102 + 4 X 101 + 8 X 100 + 2 X 10-1 + 3 X 10-2

2.4 Binary Number System

Ten different digits 0 – 9 are used to represent numbers in the decimal

system. There are only two digits in the binary system, namely, 0 and 1.
The numbers in the binary system are represented to the base two and the
positional multipliers are the powers of two. The leftmost bit in the binary
number is called as the most significant bit (MSB) and it has the largest
positional weight. The rightmost bit is the least significant bit (LSB) and has
the smallest positional weight.

The binary sequence 10111 2 has the decimal equivalent:

10111 10 X 24 + 0 X 23 + 1 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 1 X 20=
2 =1
16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1= 23
 The decimal equivalent of the fractional binary sequence can be
estimated in the same manner. The exponents are negative powers of two for
digits on the right side of the binary point. The binary equivalent of the
decimal point is the binary point. Thus the decimal value of the
fractional binary sequence 0.1011 2 is:

0.1011
2
= 1 X 2-1 + 0 X 2-2 + 1 X 2-3 + 1 X 2-4
= 0.5 + 0 + 0.125 + 0.0625
= 0.6875
10

2.5 Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal representation of numbers is more efficient in digital

applications because it occupies less memory space for storing large
numbers. A hexadecimal number is represented using base
16. Hexadecimal or Hex numbers are used as a shorthand form of binary
sequence. This system is used to represent data in a more compact
manner. In the hexadecimal number system, the binary digits are grouped
into sets of 4 and each possible combination of 4 binary digits is given a
symbol as follows:

0000 = 0 1000 = 8
0001 = 1 1001 = 9
0010 = 2 1010 = A
0011 = 3 1011 = B
0100 = 4 1100 = C
0101 = 5 1101 = D
0110 = 6 1110 = E
0111 = 7 1111 = F

Since 16 symbols are used, 0 to F, the notation is called hexadecimal.

The first ten symbols are the same as in the decimal system, 0 to 9 and the
remaining six symbols are taken from the first six letters of the alphabet
sequence, A to F. The hexadecimal
sequence 2C 16 has the decimal equivalent:

= 2 X 161 + C X 160
2C16

= 32 + 12
10
= 44
 The hexadecimal representation is more compact than binary
representation. It is very easy to convert between binary and hexadecimal
systems. Each hexadecimal digit will correspond to four binary digits
because 24 = 16. The hexadecimal equivalent of
the binary sequence 110010011101 2
is:

1100 1001 1101 = C9D C 9 D 16

2.6 Decimal to Binary Conversion

To convert a binary number to a decimal number, it is required to

multiply each binary digit by the appropriate power of 2 and add the results.
There are two approaches for converting a decimal number into binary
format.

2.6.1 Repeated Division by 2

Any decimal number divided by 2 will leave a remainder of 0 or 1.

Repeated division by 2 will leave a string of 0s and 1s that become the
binary equivalent of the decimal number. Suppose it is required to convert
the decimal number M into binary form, dividing M by 2 in the decimal
system, we will obtain a quotient M1 and a
remainder r 1,
where1 r can have a value of either 0 or 1.

ie., M = 2 * 1M +
1
r r1 = 0 or 1

Next divide the quotient M 1 by 2. The new quotient will

2 be and
M
the new remainder r . 2

ie., 1 M = 2 * M + = 0 or 1
r 2 2 r2

so that 2 M = 2 (2 * M +r)+r 2 1

2
2 M + r * 21 + r * 20
= 2

3
 2 1

Next divide the quotient M 2 by 2. The new quotient will be and

M
the new remainder r . 3
 i.e.,2 M = 2 3* M3 + r
so
3 that M = 2 (2 * (2 * M 3 + r2) +1r ) + r
= 22(2 * M + r ) + * 21 + r * 20
r
= 2 M +r *3
3 3 2 1
22 * 21 + r * 20
3 3 + r2 1

The above process is repeated until the quotient becomes 0, then

M = 1 * 2k + r k * 2k-1 + …. * 22 + * 21 + r * 20
+ r 3
r 2 1

Example:

Convert 23 10 into its equivalent binary number.

Quotient Remainder
23/2 11 1 (LSB)
11/2 5 1
5/2 2 1
2/2 1 0
1/2 0 1 (MSB)

To write the binary equivalent of the decimal number, read the

remainders from the bottom upward as:

2310 = 10111
2

The number of bits in the binary number is the exponent of the smallest
power of 2 that is larger than the decimal number. Consider a decimal
number 23. Find the exponent of the smallest power of 2 that is larger than
23.

16 < 23 < 32
24 < 23 < 25
Hence, the number 23 has 5 bits as 10111. Consider another example.
 Find the number of bits in the binary representation of the decimal
number 36 without actually converting into its binary equivalent.

The next immediate large number than 36 that can be

represented in powers of 2 is 64.

32 < 36 < 64
25 < 36 < 26

Hence, the number 36 should have 6 bits in its binary

representation.

2.6.2 Sum of Powers of 2

A decimal number can be converted into a binary number by adding up

the powers of 2 and then adding bits as needed to obtain
the total value of the number. For example, to convert1036 to binary:

a. Find the largest power of 2 that is smaller than or equal to 36

3610 > 32
10

b. Set the 32’s bit to 1 and subtract 32 from the original number.
36 – 32 = 4

c. 16 is greater than the remaining total. Therefore, set the 16’s bit to 0
d. 8 is greater than the remaining total. Hence, set the 8’s bit to 0 e. As the
remaining value is itself in powers of 2, set 4’s bit to 1
and subtract 4
4–4=0

Conversion is complete when there is nothing left to subtract. Any

remaining bits should be set to 0. Hence
36 = 100100
2
The conversion steps can be given as follows:

32 16 8 4 2 1
1 36 – 32 = 4
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 4–4= 0
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 36
10 = 100100
2
Example:

Convert 91 10 to binary using the sum of powers of 2 method.

The largest power of 2 that is smaller than or equal to 91 is 64.

64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 91-64 = 27 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 91-(64+16) = 11

(Since 32 > 27, set the 32’s bit 0 and 16 < 27. set the 16’s bit 1)

64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 91-(64+16+8) = 3

64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 91-(64+16+8+2) = 1

64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 91-(64+16+8+2+1) = 0
Hence 9110 = 1011011
2
2.7 Conversion of fractional decimal to binary

The decimal fractions like 1/2, 1/4, 1/8 etc., can be converted into exact
binary fractions. Sum of powers method can be applied to these fractions.

0.5
10 = 1 * 2-12 = 0.1

0.25
10 = 0 * 2-1 + 1 * 22-2 = 0.01

0.125
10 = 0 * 2-1 + 0 * 2-2 + 1 *2 2-3 = 0.001

The fraction 5/8 = 4/8 + 1/8 = 1/2 + 1/8 has the binary equivalent:

5/8 = 1 * 2-1 + 0 * 2-2 + 1 * 2-3

= 0.101
2
Exact conversion is not possible for the decimal fractions that
cannot be represented in powers of 2. For example, 0.2 10 cannot be
exactly represented by a sum of negative powers of 2. A method of repeated
multiplication by 2 has to be used to convert such kind of decimal fractions.

The steps involved in the method of repeated multiplication by 2:

· Multiply the decimal fraction by 2 and note the integer part. The
integer part is either 0 or 1.

· Discard the integer part of the previous product. Multiply the

fractional part of the previous product by 2. Repeat the first step until the
fraction repeats or terminates.

The resulting integer part forms a string of 0s and 1s that become

the binary equivalent of the decimal fraction.
Example:
Integer part
0.2 * 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 * 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 * 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 * 2 = 1.2 1

0.2 * 2 = 0.4 0

(Fraction repeats, the product is the same as in the first step)

Read the integer parts from top to bottom to obtain the equivalent
fractional binary number. Hence 0.2 10 = 0.00110011…
2

2.8 Conversion of Decimal to Hexadecimal

Decimal numbers’ conversion to hexadecimal is similar to binary

conversion. Decimal numbers can be converted into hexadecimal format by
the sum of weighted hex digits method and by repeated division by 16. The
sum of weighted hex digits method is suitable for small decimal numbers of
maximum 3 digits. The method of repeated division by 16 is preferable for
the conversion of larger numbers.

The exponent of the smallest power of 16 that is greater than the given
decimal number will indicate the number of hexadecimal digits that will be
present in the converted hexadecimal number. For example, the decimal
number 948, when converted into hexadecimal number has 3 hexadecimal
digits.

(163 = 4096) > 948 > (162 = 256)

Hence, the hexadecimal representation of 948 has 3 hex digits. The
conversion process is as follows:

162 161 160

3 948 – (3 * 256) = 180
162 161 160
3 B 948 – (3 * 256 + 11 * 16) = 4

162 161 160

3 B 4 948 – (3 * 256 + 11 * 16 + 4) = 0

Hence, 94810 = 3B4

16

The steps involved in the repeated division by 16 to obtain the

hexadecimal equivalent are as follows:

· Divide the decimal number by 16 and note the remainder.

Express the remainder as a hex digit.

· Repeat the process until the quotient is zero

Example:
Process quotient remainder

948 / = 59 4(LSB)
16
59 / 16 = 3 11 (B)
3 / 16 = 0 3 (MSB)
948= 3B4
10 16

2.9 Octal Representation

An octal number is represented using base 8. Octal representation

is just a simple extension of binary and decimal representations but using
only the digits 0 to7. To convert an octal number to a decimal number, it is
required to multiply each octal digit by the appropriate power of 8 and add
the results.
Example

What is the decimal value of the octal number 711

8 ?

7 * 82 + 1 * 81 + 1 * 80 =
10 457

The steps involved in the repeated division by 8 to obtain the octal

equivalent are as follows:

· Divide the decimal number by 8 and note the remainder.

Express the remainder as an octal digit.

· Repeat the process until the quotient is zero

What is the octal representation of the decimal number 64

10 ?

Quotient Remainder
64/8 8 0 (LSB)
8/8 1 0
1/8 0 1 (MSB)

Hence 6410 = 100

8

2.10 Representation of signed numbers

If computers represent non-negative integers (unsigned) only, the

binary representation is straightforward, as we had seen earlier. Computers
have also to handle negative integers (signed). The normal convention that
is followed to distinguish between a signed and unsigned number is to treat
the most significant (leftmost) bit in the binary sequence as a sign bit. If the
leftmost bit is 0, the number is positive, and if the leftmost bit is 1, the
number is negative.
 2.10.1 Sign+magnitude representation

The simplest form of representing a negative integer is the

sign+magnitude representation. In a sequence of n bits, the leftmost bit is
used for sign and the remaining n-1 bits are used to hold the magnitude of
the integer. Thus in a sequence of 4 bits,

0100 = +4
1100 = -4

As there are several drawbacks in this representation, this method has

not been adopted to represent signed integers. There are two
representations for 0 in this approach.
0000 = +0 10
1000 = -0 10

Hence it is difficult to test for 0, which is an operation, performed

frequently in computers. Another drawback is that, the addition and
subtraction require a consideration of both the sign of the numbers and their
relative magnitude, in order to carry out the required operation. This
would actually complicate the hardware design of the arithmetic unit of the
computer. The most efficient way of representing a signed integer is a
2’s-complement representation. In 2’s complement method, there is only
one representation of 0.

2.10.2. 2’s-complement representation

This method does not change the sign of the number by simply changing
a single bit (MSB) in its representation. The 2’s-complement method used
with -ve numbers only is as follows:

a. Invert all the bits in the binary sequence (ie., change every 0 to1 and every
1 to 0 ie.,1’s complement)
b. Add 1 to the result

This method works well only when the number of bits used by the system
is known in the representation of the number. Care should be
taken to pad (fill with zeros) the original value out to the full representation
width before applying this algorithm.

Example:

In a computer that uses 8-bit representation to store a number, the

wrong and right approaches to represent –23 are as follows:

Wrong approach:

The binary equivalent of 23 is 10111. Invert all the bits => 01000
Add 1 to the result => 01001
Pad with zeros to make 8-bit pattern => 00001001 => +9

Right approach:

The binary equivalent of 23 is 10111

Pad with zeros to make 8-bit pattern => 00010111
Invert all the bits => 11101000
Add 1 to the result => 11101001 => -23

2.10.3 Manual method to represent signed integers in 2’s

complement form

This is an easier approach to represent signed integers. This is for -ve

numbers only.

Step 1: Copy the bits from right to left, through and including the first 1.

Step 2: Copy the inverse of the remaining bits.

Example 1:

To represent –4 in a 4-bit representation:

The binary equivalent of the integer 4 is 0100
As per step1, copy the bits from right to left, through and including the first
1 => 100

As per step2, copy the inverse of the remaining bits => 1 100 => -4

Example 2:

To represent –23 in a 8-bit representation: The binary equivalent of 23 is

00010111

As per step 1: 1

As per step 2: 11101001 => -23

2.10.4 Interpretation of unsigned and signed integers

Signed number versus unsigned number is a matter of

interpretation. A single binary sequence can represent two different values.
For example, consider a binary sequence 11100110 . 2

The decimal equivalent of the above sequence when considered as

an unsigned integer is:

11100110 2 = 230
10

The decimal equivalent of the sequence when considered as a signed

integer in 2’s complement form is:

11100110 2 = -26
10 (after 2’s complement and add negative sign).
 When comparing two binary numbers for finding which number is
greater, the comparison depends on whether the numbers are considered as
signed or unsigned numbers.

Example:

X = 1001
Y = 0011
Is ( X > Y) /* Is this true or false? */
It depends on whether X and Y are considered as signed or unsigned. If X
and Y are unsigned:
X is greater than Y
If X and Y are signed: X is less than Y.

2.10.5 Range of unsigned and signed integers

In a 4-bit system, the range of unsigned integers is from 0 to

15, that is, 0000 to 1111 in binary form. Each bit can have one of two values
0 or 1. Therefore, the total number of patterns of 4 bits will be 2 X 2 X 2 X
2 = 16. In an n-bit system, the total number of patterns will be 2n..
Hence, if n bits are used to represent an unsigned integer value, the range is
from 0 to 2n-1, that is, there are 2n different values.

In case of a signed integer, the most significant (left most) bit is used
to represent a sign. Hence, half of the 2n patterns are used for positive
values and the other half for negative values. The range of positive values is
from 0 to 2n-1-1 and the range of negative values is from –1 to –2n-1. In a
4-bit system, the range of signed integers is from –8 to +7.
2.11 Binary Arithmetic

Digital arithmetic usually means binary arithmetic. Binary arithmetic

can be performed using both signed and unsigned binary numbers.

2.11.1 Binary Addition – Unsigned numbers

When two digits are added, if the result is larger than what can be
contained in one digit, a carry digit is generated. For example, if we add 5
and 9, the result will be 14. Since the result cannot fit into a single digit, a
carry is generated into a second digit place. When two bits are added it will
produce a sum bit and a carry bit. The carry bit may be zero.

Example:

0+0=0 0
0+1=0 1

carry bit sum bit

1+1=1 0

carry bit sum bit

The sum bit is the least significant bit (LSB) of the sum of two
1-bit binary numbers and the carry bit holds the value of carry (0 or
1) resulting from the addition of two binary numbers.
Example 1:

Calculate the sum of the numbers, 1100 and 1011:

1100
1011
—————
1 0 1 1 1 carry bit —————

sum bits
Example 2:

Calculate 10111 + 10110

Carry bits
111
10111
10110
———————
101101
———————

In unsigned binary addition, the two operands are called augend and
addend. An augend is the number in an addition operation to which
another number is added. An addend is the number in an addition operation
that is added to another.

2.11.2 Binary addition – signed numbers

Signed addition is done in the same way as unsigned addition. The only
difference is that, both operands must have the same number of magnitude
bits and each must have a sign bit. As we have already seen, in a signed
number, the most significant bit (MSB) is a sign bit while the rest of the bits
are magnitude bits. When the number is negative, the sign bit is 1 and when
the number is positive, the sign bit is 0.
Example 1:
Add +2 10 and1 Write the operands and the sum as 4-bit signed
+5 0
.
binary numbers.
+2 0 0 1 0
+5 0 1 0 1
—— —————
+7 0111
—— —————
magnitude bits sign bit

If the result of the operation is positive, we get a positive number in ordinary

binary notation.

Example 2: (Use of 2’s complement in signed binary addition)

Add –7 10
+ 510 using 4-bit system.

In 2’complement form, -7 is represented as follows: In binary form, 7 is

represented as: 0111

Invert the bits (1 to 0 and 0 to 1) 1000

Add 1 1

Hence, -7 in 2’s complement form is 1 0 0 1 (-7)

+ 0 1 0 1 (5)
——————
1 1 1 0 (-2)
——————
 If the result of the operation is negative, we get a negative number in
2’s complement form. In some cases, there is a carry bit beyond the end of
the word size and this is ignored.

Example 3:

Add -4 10 + .410Use 4-bit system.

1100 (-4 in 2’s complement form)

0100 (+4)
——————
1 0000 =0
——————

In the above example, the carry bit goes beyond the end of the word
and this can be ignored. In this case both operands are having different
signs. There will be no error in the result. On any addition, the result may
be larger than can be held in the word size being used and this would result
in overflow.

The overflow condition is based on the rule:

If two numbers are added and if they are either positive or negative,
then overflow occurs if and only if the result has the opposite sign.

Example 4:

Add (-7 10 ) + (-5

10 ) using the word size 4.

1 0 0 1 (-7 in 2’s complement form)

1 0 1 1 (-5 in 2’s complement form)

——————
1 0 1 0 0 (The result is wrong)
——————
 In the above example both operands are negative. But the MSB of the
result is 0 that is the result is positive (opposite sign) and hence overflow
occurs and the result is wrong.

2.11.3 Binary Subtraction

Subtrahend and minuend are the two operands in an unsigned binary

subtraction. The minuend is the number in a subtraction operation from
which another number is subtracted. The subtrahend is the number that is
subtracted from another number. Simple binary
subtraction operations are as follows:

0–0 = 0
1–0 = 1
1–1 = 0
10 – 1 = 1

When subtracting 1 from 0, borrow 1 from the next most significant bit
(MSB). When borrowing from the next most significant bit, if it is 1, replace
it with 0. If the next most significant bit is 0, you must borrow from a more
significant bit that contains 1 and replace it with 0 and all
0s up to that point become 1s.

Example 1:

Subtract 1101 – 1010

borrow
01
1101 (minuend)
-1010 (subtrahend)
—————
0011
—————
 When subtracting the 2nd least significant bit (1 in the subtrahend) from
0 (in the minuend), a 1 is borrowed from the more significant bit (3rd bit
from right in the minuend) and hence 10 – 1 = 1. The 3rd least significant
bit is made as 0.

Example 2:

Subtract 1000 – 101

011 after borrowing, the minuend will become

1000 0 1 1 10
-101 1 0 1 (subtrahend)
———
0011 difference as per the basic operations for subtraction

To subtract one number (subtrahend) from another (minuend), take the

2’s complement of the subtrahend and add it to the minuend.

Example 3:
Subtract (+2) – (+7) using 4-bit system

0 0 1 0 (+2)

0 1 1 1 (+7)

1 0 0 1 ( -7 in 2’s complement form)

0 0 1 0 (2)
+ 1 0 0 1 (-7)
——————
1 0 1 1 (-5)
——————
Example 4:
Subtract (-6) – (+4) using 4 bit system
Minuend -6 1 0 1 0
2’s complement of the Subtrahend -4 1 1 0 0
——————
1 0 1 1 0
——————

Both numbers are represented as negative numbers. While adding

them, the result will be : 10110. As the word size is 4, the carry bit goes
beyond the end of the word and the result is positive as the MSB is 0. This
case leads to overflow and hence the result is wrong. The overflow rule
works in subtraction also.

2.12 Boolean algebra

Boolean algebra is a mathematical discipline that is used for designing

digital circuits in a digital computer. It describes the relation between inputs
and outputs of a digital circuit. The name Boolean algebra has been given in
honor of an English mathematician George Boole who proposed the basic
principles of this algebra. As with any algebra, Boolean algebra makes use of
variables and operations (functions). A Boolean variable is a variable having
only two possible values such as, true or false, or as, 1 or 0. The basic
logical operations are AND, OR and NOT, which are symbolically
represented by dot, plus sign, and by over bar / single apostrophe.

Example:
A AND B =A.BA OR B =A+

NOT A = A’ (or A)
 A Boolean expression is a combination of Boolean variables, Boolean
Constants and the above logical operators. All possible operations in
Boolean algebra can be created from these basic logical operators. There are
no negative or fractional numbers in Boolean algebra.

The operation AND yields true (binary value 1) if and only if both of its
operands are true. The operation OR yields true if either or both of its
operands are true. The unary operation NOT inverts the value of its operand.
The basic logical operations can be defined in a form known as Truth Table,
which is a list of all possible input values and the output response for each
input combination.

2.12.1 Boolean operators (functions) AND operator

The AND operator is defined in Boolean algebra by the use of the dot (.)
operator. It is similar to multiplication in ordinary algebra. The AND operator
combines two or more input variables so that the output is true only if all the
inputs are true. The truth table for a 2-input AND operator is shown as
follows:

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The above 2-input AND operation is expressed as: Y = A . B OR operator

The plus sign is used to indicate the OR operator. The OR operator

combines two or more input variables so that the output is true if at least
one input is true. The truth table for a 2-input OR operator is shown as
follows:
 A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

The above 2-input OR operation is expressed as: Y = A + B

NOT operator

The NOT operator has one input and one output. The input is either true
or false, and the output is always the opposite, that is, the NOT operator
inverts the input. The truth table for a NOT operator where A is the input
variable and Y is the output is shown below:

A Y
0 1
1 0

The NOT operator is represented algebraically by the Boolean

expression: Y = A

Example: Consider the Boolean equation: D = A + ( B . C )

D is equal to 1 (true) if A is 1 or if ( B . C ) is 1, that is, B = 0 and C =

1. Otherwise D is equal to 0 (false).

The basic logic functions AND, OR, and NOT can also be combined to
make other logic operators.
NAND operator

The NAND is the combination of NOT and AND. The NAND is generated
by inverting the output of an AND operator. The algebraic expression of the
NAND function is:

Y= A.B

The NAND function truth table is shown below:

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

A NAND B = NOT (A AND B)

NOR operator

The NOR is the combination of NOT and OR. The NOR is generated by
inverting the output of an OR operator. The algebraic expression of the NOR
function is:

Y= A+B

The NOR function truth table is shown below:

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

A NOR B = NOT (A OR B)
2.12.2 Laws of Boolean algebra

Boolean algebra helps to simplify Boolean expressions in order to

minimize the number of logic gates in a digital circuit. This chapter focuses
on the theorems of Boolean algebra for manipulating the Boolean
expressions in order to simplify them.

Boolean Identities

Laws of Complementation

The term complement simply means to change 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s. Theorem

1 : If A = 0,then A = 1

Theorem 2 : If A = 1,then A = 0

Theorem 3 : The complement to complement of A is A itself.

A = A Basic properties of AND operator

Theorem 4 : A.1=A

If A equals 0 and the other input is 1, the output is 0. If A equals 1 and the
other input is 1, the output is 1.

Thus the output is always equal to the A input. Theorem 5 : A.0=0

As one input is always 0, irrespective of A, the output is always 0.

Theorem 6 : A.A=A

The output is always equal to the A input. Theorem 7: A.A=0

Regardless of the value of A, the output is 0.

Basic properties of OR operator

Theorem 8 : A+1=1

If A equals 0 and the other input is 1, the output is 1. If A equals 1 and the
other input is 1, the output is 1.
Thus the output is always equal to 1 regardless of what value A
takes on.

Theorem 9 : A+0=A

The output assumes the value of A. Theorem 10 : A+A=A

The output is always equal to the A input. Theorem 11 : A+A=1

Regardless of the value of A, the output is 1.

2.12.3 Simplification of Boolean expressions

Before seeing the important theorems used in the simplification of

Boolean expressions, some Boolean mathematical concepts need to be
understood.
Literal

A literal is the appearance of a variable or its complement in a

Boolean expression.

Product Term

A product term in a Boolean expression is a term where one or more

literals are connected by AND operators. A single literal is also a product
term.

Example: AB, AC, A C, and E are the product terms.

Minterm

A minterm is a product term, which includes all possible variables either

complemented or uncomplemented. In a Boolean expression of 3 variables,
x, y, and z, the terms xyz, x yz, and x y z are minterms. But xy is not a
minterm. Minterm is also called as a standard product term.

Sum term

A sum term in a Boolean expression is a term where one or more literals

are connected by OR operators.

Example: A+B+D

Maxterm

A maxterm is a sum term in a Boolean expression, which includes all

possible variables in true or complement form. In a Boolean expression of 3
variables, x, y, and z, the terms x + y + z, and x + y + z are the maxterms.
Maxterm is also called as standard sum term.
Sum-of-products (SOP)

A sum of products expression is a type of Boolean expression where one

or more product terms are connected by OR operators.

Example: A+AB+ABC

In an expression of 3 variables, A, B, and C, the expression

ABC + A B C + A B C is also called as a canonical sum or sum of standard
product terms or sum of minterms.

Product-of-sums (POS)

Product of sums is a type of Boolean expression where several sum

terms are connected by AND operators.

Example: (A + B) (A + B) (A + B)

A canonical product or product of standard sum terms is a product of

sums expression where all the terms are maxterms. The above example is a
canonical product in a Boolean expression of two variables A and B.

Theorem 12: Commutative Law

A mathematical operation is commutative if it can be applied to its

operands in any order without affecting the result.

Addition and multiplication operations are commutative.

Example:
A + B = B + A AB = BA
Subtraction is not commutative:

A-B ≠ B-A

There is no subtraction operation in Boolean algebra.

Theorem 13: Associative Law

A mathematical operation is associative if its operands can be grouped

in any order without affecting the result. In other words, the order in which
one does the OR operation does not affect the result.

(A + B) + C = A + (B+C) = (A + C) + B

Similarly, the order in which one does the AND operation does not
affect the result.

(AB)C = A(BC) = (AC)B

Theorem 14: Distributive Law

The distributive property allows us to distribute an AND across several

OR functions.

Example:

A(B+C) = AB + AC

The following distributive law is worth noting because it differs from

what we would find in ordinary algebra.

A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)

The simplest way to prove the above theorem is to produce a truth

table for both the right hand side (RHS) and the left hand side (LHS)
expressions and show that they are equal.
 A B C BC LHS A+B A+C RHS
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Minimum Sum of Products

A minimum sum of products expression is one of those Sum of Products

expressions for a Boolean expression that has the fewest number of terms.

Consider the following Boolean Expression:

A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C Using Associativity Law

= (A B C + A B C) + (A B C + A B C) + A B C

= A B(C+C) + A B(C+C)+ABC Using Theorem 11

= A B (1) + A B (1) + ABC Using Theorem 4

= A B + A B + ABC
 The above expression is in the minimum sum of products form. The
given Boolean expression can be rewritten as follows using theorem 10.

A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C (A B C + A B C = A B C)

= (A B C + A B C) + (A B C + A B C) + (A B C + A B C)

= A B (C + C) + A B (C + C) + A C(B + B)

=AB+AB+AC

The same Boolean expression can be simplified into many minimum

sum of products form.

Examples:

Simplify the following Boolean Expression

A B C + A B C Let x = A B and y = C

The above Boolean expression becomes x y + x y

= x(y + y)

= x=AB

Prove that A + A B = A + B

According to Distributive Law

A + A B = (A + A)(A + B) = 1 · (A + B) = A + B
Simplify the following Boolean Expression

ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC

= A C(B + B) + A B C + A B C

=AC+ABC+ABC

= A(C + BC) + A B C

= A(C + B)(C + C) + A B C

= A(C + B) + A B C

=AC+AB+ABC (one minimal form)

In the given Boolean Expression, if the second and third terms are
grouped, it will give

A B C + (A B C + A B C) + A B C

= A B C + A B(C + C) + A B C

=ABC+AB+ABC

= B C(A + A) + A B

=BC+AB (most minimal form)

2.12.4 DeMorgan’s Theorems Theorem 15: A+B =AB

Theorem 16: AB = A + B
 The above identities are the most powerful identities used in Boolean
algebra. By constructing the truth tables, the above identities can be proved
easily.

Example:

Given Boolean function f(A,B,C,D) = D A B + A B + D A C, Find the

complement of the Boolean function

f (A,B,C,D) = D A B + A B + D A C Apply DeMorgan’s Law (theorem

15)

= (D A B) (A B) (D A C)

Apply DeMorgan’s Law (theorem 16)

= (D + A + B)(A + B)(D + A + C)

In the above problem, the given Boolean function is in the sum of

products form and its complement is in the product of sums form.

The DeMorgan’s theorem says that any logical binary expression

remains unchanged if we,

• change all varibales to their complements

• change all AND operations to OR operations
• change all OR operations to AND operations
• take the complement of the entire expression

A practical operational way to look at DeMorgan’s theorem is that the

inversion of an expression may be broken at anypoint and the operation at
that point replaced by its oppostie ( i.e., AND replaced by OR or vice versa).
 The fundamentals of numbering systems, including examples showing
how numbering systems work, converting values between one numbering
system and another, and performing simple types of binary arithmetic have
been covered in this chapter. Boolean algebra has been introduced and
Boolean identities and the laws of Boolean algebra are explained with
examples. The identities and the theorems are used in the simplification of
Boolean expressions.
CHAPTER 3

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

3.1 Basic Components of a Digital Computer

3.1.1 Introduction

Computers are often compared to human beings since both have the
ability to accept data, store, work with it, retrieve and provide information.
The main difference is that human beings have the ability to perform all of
these actions independently. Human beings also think and control their own
activities. The computer, however, requires a program (a predefined set of
instructions) to perform an assigned task. Human beings receive information
in different forms, such as eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and even sensory
nerves. The brain receives or accepts this information, works with it in
some manner, and then stores in the brain for future use. If information at
the time requires immediate attention, brain directs to respond with actions.
Likewise the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called the brain of the
computer. It reads and executes program instructions, performs calculations
and makes decisions.

3.1.2 Components of a Digital Computer

A computer system is the integration of physical entities called

hardware and non-physical entities called software. The hardware
components include input devices, processor, storage devices and output
devices. The software items are programs and operating aids (systems) so
that the computer can process data.

3.1.3 Functional Units of a Computer System

Computer system is a tool for solving problems. The hardware should

be designed to operate as fast as possible. The software (system software)
should be designed to minimize the amount of idle
 computer time and yet provide flexibility by means of controlling the
operations. Basically any computer is supposed to carry out the following
functions.

- Accept the data and program as input

- Store the data and program and retrieve as and when required.
- Process the data as per instructions given by the program and convert it
into useful information
- Communicate the information as output

Based on the functionalities of the computer, the hardware

components can be classified into four main units, namely

- Input Unit
- Output Unit
- Central Processing Unit
- Memory Unit

These units are interconnected by minute electrical wires to permit

communication between them. This allows the computer to function as a
system. The block diagram is shown below.

Fig. 3.1 : Functional Units of a Computer System

Input Unit

A computer uses input devices to accept the data and program.

Input devices allow communication between the user and the computer. In
modern computers keyboard, mouse, light pen, touch screen etc, are some
of the input devices.

Output Unit

Similar to input devices, output devices have an interface between the

computer and the user. These devices take machine coded output results
from the processor and convert them into a form that can be used by
human beings. In modern computers, monitors (display screens) and
printers are the commonly used output devices

Central Processing Unit

Fig. 3.2. Central Processing Unit

CPU is the brain of any computer system. It is just like the human brain
that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
different parts of the computer function by activating and controlling the
operation. It consists of arithmetic and logic units, control unit and internal
memory (registers). The control unit of the CPU co- ordinates the action of
the entire system. Programs (software) provide the CPU, a set of instruction
to follow and perform a specific task. Between any two components of the
computer system, there is a pathway called a bus which allows for the data
transfer between them.
 Control unit controls all the hardware operations, ie, those of input
units, output units, memory unit and the processor. The arithmetic and logic
units in computers are capable of performing addition, subtraction, division
and multiplication as well as some logical operations. The instructions and
data are stored in the main memory so that the processor can directly fetch
and execute them.

Memory Unit

In the main memory, the computer stores the program and data that
are currently being used. In other words since the computers use the stored
program concept, it is necessary to store the program and data in the main
memory before processing.

The main memory holds data and program only temporarily. Hence
there is a need for storage devices to provide backup storage. They are
called secondary storage devices or auxiliary memory devices. Secondary
storage devices can hold more storage than main memory and is much less
expensive.

3.1.4 Stored Program Concept

All modern computers use the stored program concept. This concept is
known as the Von – Neumann concept due to the research paper published
by the famous mathematician John Von Neuman. The essentials of the
stored program concept are

- the program and data are stored in a primary memory (main memory)
- once a program is in memory, the computer can execute it automatically
without manual intervention.
- the control unit fetches and executes the instructions in sequence one by
one.
- an instruction can modify the contents of any location inThe stored program
concept is the basic operating principle for every computer.
3.2 Central Processing Unit

3.2.1 Functions of a Central Processing Unit

The CPU is the brain of the computer system. It performs arithmetic

operations as well as controls the input, output and storage units. The
functions of the CPU are mainly classified into two categories :

- Co – ordinate all computer operations

- Perform arithmetic and logical operations on data

The CPU has three major components.

- Arithmetic and Logic Unit

- Control Unit
- Registers (internal memory)

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the part of CPU where actual
computations take place. It consists of circuits which perform arithmetic
operations over data received from memory and are capable of comparing
two numbers.

The control unit directs and controls the activities of the computer
system. It interprets the instructions fetched from the main memory of the
computer, sends the control signals to the devices involved in the execution
of the instructions.

While performing these operations the ALU takes data from the
temporary storage area inside the CPU named registers. They are high-
speed memories which hold data for immediate processing and results of the
processing.
Fig. 3.3 : Functions of a CPU

3.2.2 Working with Central Processing Unit

The CPU is similar to a calculator, but much more powerful. The main
function of the CPU is to perform arithmetic and logical operations on data
taken from main memory. The CPU is controlled by a list of software
instructions. Software instructions are initially stored in secondary memory
storage device such as a hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, or magnetic tape.
These instructions are then loaded onto the computer’s main memory.

When a program is executed, instructions flow from the main memory

to the CPU through the bus. The instructions are then decoded by a
processing unit called the instruction decoder that interprets and implements
the instructions. The ALU performs specific operations such as addition,
multiplication, and conditional tests on the data in its registers, sending the
resulting data back to the main memory or storing it in another register for
further use.
 To understand the working principles of CPU, let us go through the
various tasks involved in executing a simple program. This program
performs arithmetic addition on two numbers. The algorithm of this program
is given by

(i) input the value of a (ii) input the value of b (iii) sum = a + b
(iv) output the value of sum

This program accepts two values from the keyboard, sums it and
displays the sum on the monitor. The steps are summarized as follows :

1. The control unit recognizes that the program (set of instructions) has been
loaded into the main memory. Then it begins to execute the program
instructions one by one in a sequential manner.

2. The control unit signals the input device (say keyboard) to accept the input
for the variable ‘a’.

3. The user enters the value of ‘a’ on the keyboard.

4. The control unit recognizes and enables to route the data (value of a) to the
pre-defined memory location (address of ‘a’).

5. The steps 2 to 4 will be repeated for the second input ‘b’. The value of ‘b’ is
stored in the memory location (address of ‘b’).

6. The next instruction is an arithmetic instruction. Before executing the

arithmetic instruction, the control unit enables to send a copy of the values
stored in address of ‘a’ and address of ‘b’ to the internal registers of the ALU
and signals the ALU to perform the sum operation.

7. The ALU performs the addition. After the computation, the control unit
enables to send the copy of the result back to the memory (address of
‘sum’).
8. Finally, the result is displayed on the monitor. The control unit enables to send
the copy of the values of the address of ‘sum’ to the monitor (buffer) and
signals it. The monitor displays the result.

9. Now this program execution is complete.

The data flow and the control flow of CPU during the execution of this
program is given as,

Fig. 3.4 : Working Principles of a CPU

 3.3 Arithmetic and Logic Unit - ALU

The ALU is the computer’s calculator. It executes arithmetic and

logical operations. The arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. The logical operation compares numbers,
letters and special characters. The ALU also performs logic functions such as
AND, OR and NOT.

The ALU functions are directly controlled by the control unit. The control
unit determines when the services of the ALU are needed, and it provides the
data to be operated. The control unit also determines what is to be done with
the results.

3.3.1 Arithmetic Operations

Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. While performing these operations, the ALU
makes use of the registers. Data to be arithmetically manipulated are copied
from main memory and placed in registers for processing. Upon completion
of the arithmetic operation, the result can be transferred from the register
to the main memory. In addition to registers, the arithmetic unit uses one or
more adders that actually perform arithmatic operations on the binary digits.

The arithmetic operation in adding two numbers can be

demonstrated through following steps :

Step 1 : The numbers (5 and 8) to be added up are put into two separate memory
locations.
Step 2 : The control unit fetches the two numbers from their memory
locations into the data registers.
Step 3 : The arithmetic unit looking at the operator (+) uses the accumulator
and adds the two numbers.
Step 4 : The ALU stores the result (13) in memory buffer register.
Step 5 : Then the control unit stores the result into a user desired
memory location, say ‘sum’.
Fig. 3.5 Arithmetic Logic Unit

3.3.2 Logical Operations

The importance of the logic unit is to make logical operations. These

operations include logically comparing two data items and take different
actions based on the results of the comparison.

3.3.3 Functional Description

Some of the basic functions performed by the ALU are - add, subtract,
logical AND, logical OR, shift left and shift right on two’s complement binary
numbers. The inputs to be calculated are stored in the input register (AREG)
and the input / output register (ACCUM) for add, AND and OR functions. The
shift left and shift right functions operate on the value in the ACCUM
Fig. 3.6 : Functional Description of ALU

The above figure illustrates the functional level block diagram of the
ALU. The control unit controls the operations of the ALU by giving
appropriate control signals to select a specific function and then enable the
operation after the data are fed into the registers. The enable bit is made 1
after the data to be operated are transferred from main memory.

3.4 Memory Unit

Memory units are the storage areas in a computer. The term

“memory” usually refers to the main memory of the computer, whereas,
the word “storage” is used for the memory that exists on disks, CDs, floppies
or tapes. The main memory is usually called a physical memory which refers
to the ‘chip’ (Integrated Circuit) capable of holding data and instruction.
 Fig. 3.7 Memory Unit

There are different types of memory. They are Random Access Memory
(RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read- Only Memory
(PROM), Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM), Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM).

Random Access Memory - RAM

RAM is the most common type of memory found in the modern

computers. This is really the main store and is the place where the program
gets stored. When the CPU runs a program, it fetches the program
instructions from the RAM and carries them out. If the CPU needs to store
the results of the calculations it can store them in RAM. When we switch off a
computer, whatever is stored in the RAM gets erased. It is a volatile form of
memory.

Read Only Memory - ROM

In ROM, the information is burnt (pre-recorded) into the ROM chip at

manufacturing time. Once data has been written into a ROM chip, it cannot
be erased but you can read it. When we switch off the computer, the
contents of the ROM are not erased but remain stored permanently. ROM is
a non-volatile memory. ROM stores critical programs such as the program
that boots the computer.
Programmable Read Only Memory - PROM

PROM is a memory on which data can be written only once. A variation

of the PROM chip is that it is not burnt at the manufacturing time but can be
programmed using PROM programmer or a PROM burner. PROM is also a
non-volatile memory.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory - EPROM

In EPROM, the information can be erased and reprogrammed using a

special PROM – programmer. EPROM is non-volatile memory. A EPROM
differs from a PROM in that a PROM can be written to only once and cannot
be erased. But an ultraviolet light is used to erase the contents of the
EPROM.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

- EEPROM

EEPROM is a recently developed type of memory. This is equivalent to

EPROM, but does not require ultraviolet light to erase its content. It can be
erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. It is also non-volatile in nature.
EEPROM is not as fast as RAM or other types of ROM. A flash memory is a
special type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed.

The main memory must store many data items and have some way of
retriving them when they are needed. The memory can be compared to the
boxes at a post office. Each box-holder has a box with a unique number
which is called its address. This address serves to identify the box. The
memory has a number of locations in its store. Each location in a memory
has a unique number called its memory address. This serves to identify it for
storage and retrival.

Operations on memories are called reads and writes, defined from the
perspective of a processor or other device that uses a memory: a write
instruction transfers information from other device to
 memory and a read instruction transfers information from the memory to
other devices. A memory that performs both reads and writes is often called a
RAM, random access memory. Other types of memories commonly used in
systems are read-only memory.

Data Representation

The smallest unit of information is a single digit called a ‘bit’ (binary

digit), which can be either 0 or 1. The capacity of a memory system is
represented by a unit called a byte, which is 8 bits of information. Memory
sizes in modern systems range from 4MB (megabytes) in small personal
computers up to several billion bytes (gigabytes, or GB) in large high-
performance systems.

The performance of a memory system is defined by two different

measures, the access time and the memory cycle time. Access time, also
known as response time or latency, refers to how quickly the memory can
respond to a read or write request. Memory cycle time refers to the
minimum period between two successive requests.

The following terminology is used while discussing hierarchical

memories:

� The registers (internal memory) are used to hold the instruction and data for
the execution of the processor. Eventually the top of the hierarchy goes to
the registers.

� The memory closest to the processor is known as a cache. It is a high speed

memory that is much faster than the main memory.

� The next is the main memory which is also known as the

primary memory.

� The low end of the hierarchy is the secondary memory.

 The secondary memory is the memory that supplements the main
memory. This is a long term non-volatile memory. It is external to the
system nucleus and it can store a large amount of programs and data. The
CPU does not fetch instructions of a program directly from the secondary
memory. The program should be brought into the main memory from the
secondary memory before being executed.

The secondary memory is cheaper compared to the main memory and

hence a computer generally has limited amount of main memory and large
amount of secondary memory.

3.5 Input and Output Devices

The main function of a computer system is to process data. The data

to be processed by the computer must be input to the system and the result
must be output back to the external world.

3.5.1 Input Devices

An input device is used to feed data into a computer. For example, a

keyboard is an input device. It is also defined as a device that provides
communication between the user and the computer. Input devices are
capable of converting data into a form which can be recognized by
computer. A computer can have several input devices.

Keyboard

The most common input device is the keyboard. Keyboard consists of a

set of typewriter like keys that enable you to enter data into a computer.
They have alphabetic keys to enter letters, numeric keys to enter numbers,
punctuation keys to enter comma, period, semicolon, etc., and special keys
to perform some specific functions. The keyboard detects the key pressed
and generates the corresponding ASCII codes which can be recognized
by the computer.
 Fig. 3.8 Keyboard

Mouse

Mouse is an input device that controls the movement of the cursor on

the display screen. Mouse is a small device, you can roll along a flat surface.
In a mouse , a small ball is kept inside and touches the pad through a hole
at the bottom of the mouse. When the mouse is moved, the ball rolls. This
movement of the ball is converted into signals and sent to the computer. You
will need to click the button at the top of the mouse to select an option.
Mouse pad is a pad over which you can move a mouse. Mouse is very
popular in modern computers.

Fig. 3.9 Mouse

Scanner

Scanner is an input device that allows information such as an image or

text to be input into a computer. It can read image or text printed on a
paper and translate the information into a form that the computer can use.
That is, it is used to convert images (photos) and text into a stream of data.
They are useful for publishing and multi-media applications.

Fig. 3.10 Scanner

Bar Code Reader

The barcode readers are used in places like supermarket, bookshops,

etc. A bar code is a pattern printed in lines of different thickness. The bar-
code reader scans the information on the bar- codes and transmits to the
computer for further processing. The system gives fast and error-free entry
of information into the computer.

Fig.3.11 Bar Code and Reader

Digital Camera

The digital camera is an input device mainly used to capture images.

The digital camera takes a still photograph, stores it and sends it as digital
input to the computer. It is a modern and popular input device.

Fig. 3.12 Digital Camera

Touch Sensitive Screen

Touch Sensitive Screen is a type of display screen that has a touch-

sensitive panel. It is a pointing device that enables the user to interact with
the computer by touching the screen. You can use your fingers to directly
touch the objects on the screen. The touch screen senses the touch on the
object (area pre-defined) and communicate the object selection to the
computer.

Fig. 3.13 Touch Sensitive Screen

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Fig. 3.14 MICR Cheque

MICR is widely used by banks to process cheques. Human readable

numbers are printed on documents such as cheque using a special magnetic
ink. The cheque can be read using a special input unit, which can recognize
magnetic ink characters. This method eliminates the manual errors. It also
saves time, ensures security and accuracy of data.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

Fig. 3.15 OCR Sheet

The OCR technique permits the direct reading of any printed character
like MICR but no special ink is required. With OCR, a user can scan a page
from a book. The computer will recognize the characters in the page as
letters and punctuation marks, and stores. This can be edited using a word
processor.
Optical Mark Reading and Recognition (OMR)

Fig. 3.16 OMR Reader

In this method special pre-printed forms are designed with boxes

which can be marked with a dark pencil or ink. Such documents are read by a
reader, which transcribes the marks into electrical pulses which are
transmitted to the computer. They are widely used in applications like
objective type answer papers evaluation in which large number of candidates
appear, time sheets of factory employees etc.

Light Pen

A light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a

monitor. The tip of the light pen contains a light- sensitive element which,
when placed against the screen, detects

Fig. 3.17 Light Pen

the light from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the
pen on the screen. Light pens have the advantage of ‘drawing’ directly onto
the screen, but this can become uncomfortable, and they are not accurate.

Magnetic Reader

Magnetic reader is an input device which reads a magnetic strip on a

card. It is handy and data can be stored and retrieved. It also provides quick
identification of the card’s owner.

All the credit cards, ATM cards (banks), petro cards, etc. stores data in
a magnetic strip which can be read easily by the magnetic reader.

Fig. 3.18 Magnetic Reader

Smart Cards

This input device stores data in a microprocessor embedded in the

card. This allows information, which can be updated, to be stored on the
card. These data can be read and given as input to the computer for further
processing. Most of the identification cards use this method to store and
retrieve the vital information.

Fig. 3.19 Smart Card Reader

Notes Taker

Notes taker is a device that captures natural handwriting on any surface

onto a computer. Using an electronic pen, the notes taker displays the
user’s handwritten notes, memos or drawings on the computer, and stores
the image for future use.

Fig. 3.20 Notes Taker

Microphone

Microphone serves as a voice input device. It captures the voice data

and input to the computer. Using the microphone along with speech
recognition software can offer a completely new approach to input
information into your computer.

Speech recognition programs, although not yet completely exact, have

made great strides in accuracy as well as ease of use. The voice-in or speech
recognition approach can almost fully replace the keyboard and mouse.
Speech recognition can now open the computer world to those who may
have been restricted due to a physical handicap. It can also be a boon for

those who have never learned to type.

Fig. 3.21 Microphone
3.5.2 Output Devices

Output is anything that comes out of a computer. An output device is

capable of presenting information from a computer. There are many output
devices attached with the computers. But the monitors and printers are
commonly used output devices.

Monitors

Monitor is a commonly used output device, sometimes called as display

screen. It provides a visual display of data. Monitors are connected with the
computer and are similar in appearance to a television set.

Fig. 3.22 Monitor

Initially there were only monochrome monitors. But gradually, we have

monitors that display colour. Monitors display images and text. The smallest
dot that can be displayed is called a pixel (picture element) The resolution
of the screen improves as the number of pixels is increased. Most of the
monitors have a 4 : 3 width to height ratio. This is called ‘aspect ratio’.

The number of pixels that can be displayed vertically and horizontally

gives the resolution of the monitor. The resolution of the monitor
determines the quality of the display. Some popular resolutions are 640 x
480 pixels, 800 x 600 pixels and 1024 x 768 pixels. A resolution of 1024 x
768 pixels will produce sharper image than 640 x 480 pixels.
 Printers

Printer is an output device that prints text or images on paper or other

media (like transparencies). By printing you create what is known as a ‘hard
copy’. There are different kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and
print quality. The two main types of printers are impact printers and non-
impact printers.
Printers

Impact Non-impact

Line printer Serial Thermal Laser Inkjet printer

printer (fax) print
(Dot matrix printer er
printer)

Fig. 3.23 Types of Printers

Impact printers include all printers that print by striking an ink ribbon.
Impact printers use a print head containing a number of metal pins which
strike an inked ribbon placed between the print head and the paper. Line
printers, dotmatrix printers are some of the impact printers.

Characteristics of Impact Printers

Ø In impact printers, there is physical contact with the paper to produce an

image.
Ø Due to being robust and low cost, they are useful for bulk printing.
Ø Impact printers are ideal for printing multiple copies (that is, carbon copies)
because they can easily print through many layers of paper.
Ø Due to its striking activity, impact printers are very noisy.
Ø Since they are mechanical in nature, they tend to be slow. Ø Impact
printers do not support transparencies.

Non-impact printers are much quieter than impact printers as their

printing heads do not strike the paper. Non-impact printers include laser
printers, inkjet printers and thermal printers.

Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers

Ø Non-impact printers are faster than impact printers because they have
fewer moving parts.
Ø They are quiet than impact printers because there is no striking mechanism
involved.
Ø They posses the ability to change typefaces automatically. Ø These
printers produce high-quality graphics
Ø These printers usually support the transparencies
Ø These printers cannot print multipart forms because no impact is being made
on the paper.

Line Printer

Line printers are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line

at a time. A line printer can print 150 lines to 3000 lines per minute. The
limitations of line printer are they can print only one font, they cannot print
graphics, the print quality is low and they are noisy to operate. But it can
print large volume of text data very fast compared to the other printers. It is
also used to print on multipart stationaries to prepare copies of a document.
 Fig. 3.24 Line Printer

Dot Matrix Printer

The most popular serial printer is the dot matrix printer. It prints one
line of 8 or 14 points at a time, with print head moving across a line. They
are similar to typewriters. They are normally slow. The printing speed is
around 300 characters per second. It uses multipart stationaries to prepare
copies of a document.

Fig. 3.25 Dot Matrix Printer

Thermal Printer

Thermal printers are printers that produce images by pushing

electrically heated pins against special heat-sensitive paper. They are
inexpensive and used widely in fax machines and calculators.

Fig. 3.26 Thermal Printer

Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due to exposure to

sunlight and heat. So the printed matters on the paper fade after a week or
two. It also produces a poor quality print.

Laser Printers

Laser printers use a laser beam and dry powdered ink to produce a
fine dot matrix pattern. It can produce very good quality of graphic images.
One of the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution – how
many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down. The available resolutions range
from 300 dpi at the low end to around
1200 dpi at the high end.

Fig. 3.27 Laser Printer

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers use colour cartridges which combine magenta, yellow

and cyan inks to create colour tones. A black cartridge is also used for crisp
monochrome output. Inkjet printers work by spraying ionizing ink at a sheet
of paper. Magnetized plates in the ink’s path direct the ink onto the paper in
the described shape.

Fig. 3.28 Inkjet Printer

Speakers

The computer can also give produce voice output(audio data). Speaker
serves as a voice output device. Using speakers along with speech
synthesizer software, the computer can provide voice output. Voice output
has become very common in many places like airlines, banks, automatic
telephone enquiry system etc. Users can also hear music/songs using the
voice output system.

Fig. 3.29 Speakers

Plotters

Apart from the output devices like printers, plotters are also used to
produce graphical output. Although printer output is very convenient for
many purposes, the user needs to present the information graphically in
order to understand its significance.

3.5.3 Storage Devices

The computer may need to store data, programs etc. in a computer

readable medium . This is called the secondary storage. Secondary storage is
also called backup storage. Secondary stor- age can be used to transmit
data to another computer either imme- diately or a latter time. This provides
a mechanism for storing a large amount of data for a long period of time.
Some of the com- monly used storage devices are hard disks, magnetic
tapes, floppy disks and CD-ROM.

To understand the physical mechanism of secondary storage devices

one must have knowledge of magnetism, electronics and electro mechanical
systems. The average time required to reach a storage location and obtain
its contents is called its access time. In electromechanical devices with
moving parts such as disks and tapes, the access time consists of a seek
time required to position the read write head to a location and transfer time
required to transfer the data to or from the device.

Hard Disk
Hard disk is a magnetic disk on which you can store computer data.
The hard disk is a direct-access storage medium. This means you can store
and retrieve data randomly.

Disk storage systems are essentially based on magnetic properties.

The magnetic disk consists of high speed rotating surfaces coated with a
magnetic recording medium. The rotating surface of the disk is a round flat
plate. When writing data, a write
head magnetizes the particles on the disk surface as either north or south
poles. When reading data, a read head converts the magnetic polarisations
on the disk surface to a sequence of pulses. The read and write heads are
generally combined into a single head unit. There may be more than one
read/write head.

Data is arranged as a series of concentric rings. Each ring (called a

track) is subdivided into a number of sectors, each sector holding a specific
number of data elements (bytes or characters).

Fig. 3.30 A track subdivided into sectors

The smallest unit that can be written to or read from the disk is a
sector. Once a read or write request has been received by the disk unit,
there is a delay involved until the required sector reaches the read/write
head. This is known as rotational latency, and on average is one half of
the period of revolution.

The storage capacity of the disk is determined as (number of

tracks * number of sectors * bytes per sector * number of
read/write heads) Thus,the data is stored as magnetized spots arranged
in concentric circles (tracks) on the disk. Each track is divided into sectors.
The arrangement of tracks and sectors on a disk is known as its ‘format’.
 High data rates demand that the disk rotates at a high speed (about
3,600 rpm). As the disk rotates read/write heads move to the correct track
and fetch the desired data.

Fig. 3.31 Hard Disk Drive

The storage capacity of a hard disk can be Gigabytes (GB), i.e.

thousands of Megabytes of information.

Magnetic Tape
A recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine
magnetic strip, used for recording digital data. The tape itself is a strip of
plastic coated with a magnetic recording medium.

Fig. 3.32 Magenatic Tape Reader

Bits are recorded as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks.
Usually, seven or nine bits are recorded simultaneously to form a character
together with a parity bit. Read /write heads are mounted one in each track
so that data can be recorded and read as a sequence of characters.
 Data is stored in frames across the width of the tape. The frames are
grouped into blocks or records which are separated from other blocks by
gaps. Magnetic tape is a serial access medium, similar to an audio cassette,
and so data cannot be randomly located. This characteristic has prompted its
use in the regular backing up of hard disks.

Floppy Disk

Fig. 3.33 Floppy Disk

The floppy drive uses a thin circular disk for data storage. It is a soft
magnetic disk. It is a thin magnetic-coated disk contained in a flexible or
semi-rigid protective jacket. The disk rotates at 360rpm. A read/write head
makes physical contact with the disk surface. Data is recorded as a series of
tracks subdivided into sectors.

The floppy disks are usually 3.5" in size. However, older floppy disks
may be in use; these would be 5.25" in size or even 8" in size. A 3.5" floppy
disk can hold 1.44 MB of data. Once data is stored on a floppy disk it can be
‘write protected’ by clicking a tab on the disk. This prevents any new data
being stored or any old data being erased. Disk drives for floppy disks are
called floppy drives. Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and
have less storage capacity. It is less expensive and are portable. It can be
accessed randomly.
 Optical Disk

Optical disks are a storage medium from which data is read and to
which it is written by lasers. The optical disk is a random access storage
medium; information can be easily read from any point on the disk. CD-
ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read Only Memory.

Fig. 3.34 Compact Disk

It is now possible to have CD-ROMs where tracks of information can

be written onto them by the user. These are called read/write CD-ROMs and
these are becoming a popular and cheap method for storage.

Summary

* Computers are often compared to human beings since both have the ability
to accept data, store, work with it, retrieve and provide information.

* A computer system is the integration of physical entities called hardware and

non-physical entities called software.

* The hardware components include input devices, processor, storage devices

and output devices.
* The software items are programs and operating aids so that the computer
can process data.

* A computer uses input devices to accept the data and program.

* In modern computers, monitors and printers are the commonly used output
devices.

* CPU is the brain of any computer system. It consists of arithmetic and logic
units, control unit and internal memory (registers).

* Control unit controls all the hardware operations, ie, those of input units,
output units, memory unit and the processor.

* The arithmetic and logic units in computers are capable of performing

addition, subtraction, division and multiplication as well as some logical
operations.

* In the main memory, the computer stores the program and data that are
currently being used.

* All modern computers use the stored program concept. This concept is due
to John Von Neuman.

* The smallest unit of information is a single digit called a ‘bit’ (binary digit),
which can be either 0 or 1.

* The secondary memory is the memory that supplements the main memory.
This is a long term non-volatile memory.

* The most common input device is the keyboard.

* Mouse is an input device that controls the movement of the cursor on the
display screen.

* Monitor is a commonly used output device.

* Some of the commonly used storage devices are hard disks, magnetic tapes,
floppy disks and CD-ROM.
 Chapter 5

SOFTWARE
Software

Computer software provides instructions that tell the computer how to operate.

� Softwares are also called programs

� Programs are usually created using other Softwares called programming

languages

There are two main types of software. They are System software
and

Application software
� System Software

o Used by the computer to accomplish a task

o System software

• controls the internal function of the computer

• controls other devices connected to the CPU

� Application Software

o Used by people to accomplish a specific task

o Some common kinds of application software - Word Processor software,
Database software, Spreadsheet software, Games, Web Page Browsers

Copyright and Open Source

i. Copyright – symbolized "©"
Copyright is a legal concept enacted by most national
governments, that gives the creator of an original work
exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited period of time.

It is literally "the right to copy", but also gives the copyright holder the
right to be credited for the work, to determine who (if anyone) may adapt
the work to other
forms, to determine who may perform the work, to benefit financially from
 the work, and other related rights. It is one form of intellectual property
(distinct from patents, trademarks, and trade secrets), and applies to any
particular expression of an idea or information, which is substantial and self-
contained in a fixed form

� Copyright is generally enforced by the creator as a civil matter, though

some jurisdictions also apply criminal sanctions
� Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic

forms, or "works". Specifics vary by jurisdiction, but these can include poems,
theses, plays, other literary works, movies, dances, musical compositions,
audio recordings, paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, software, radio
and television broadcasts, and industrial designs

ii. Open source software

Open Source software has two properties:

(a) the "source code'' (the programs themselves) is freely distributed, and

(b) it is generally illegal to convert this into a proprietary version.

When the source code of a program is available (e.g. the C or C++ files which
make up the program), the consequences that follow are
• Anyone can read the source code and learn the technology

• Anyone can contribute by improving the code -- adding new features,

correcting errors, etc.
• Hidden trapdoors cannot be introduced

• The waste of resources involved in reinventing the wheel is avoided. This

brings down the cost of development.

Open source sounds idealistic and impractical to many. However, it

has succeeded in building some of the best software in the world. Today,
open source programs such as Apache (web server), Linux (operating system),
Netscape (web browser), and send mail (mail transport) are the dominant
products in their categories with over 10 million copies in use for each. This
demonstrates that open source is a viable strategy for obtaining high
quality,
high volume solutions to complex problems.
 Categories of Software

� Commercial Software

o The software is to be bought before using it and is copyrighted

o It is allowed to make one copy of the software as a backup copy.

• A backup copy is used in case something goes wrong with the original software
• The backup copy cannot be shared or sold

o It is not possible to copy, look at the program's code, change, or use the
software in another program without the copyright holder's permission
� Public Domain Software

o Has no copyright and is free for use

o It can be copied, used in other programs, or changed by anyone

� Freeware

o Has a copyright - someone owns the right to determine who can make copies
of the software
o Its free for use but it is possible to give away only exact copies of the software
o Cannot be changed or used in another program without the copyright holder's
permission

� Shareware

o Has a copyright

o Allowed to use the software before paying for it

• A demo of the software - which limits some major features

• Software could be used for free for a certain period of time

o Can only give away exact copies of the software

o Cannot be changed or used in another program without the copyright holder's
permission.

System Software
The operating system and utility programs are the two major
categories of system software. Just as the processor is the important part of
the computer system, the operating system is the core of all software
activity.

Operating system (Kernel):

The operating system is the core software component of computer. It performs

many functions and is, in very basic terms, an interface between computer and
the outside world. A computer is described as consisting of several component
parts including your monitor, keyboard, mouse, and other parts. Operating
systems are responsible for everything from the control and allocation of
memory to recognizing input from external devices and transmitting output to
computer displays. They also manage files on computer hard drives and
control peripherals, like printers and scanners. The operating system
provides an interface to these parts using what is referred to as "drivers". This
is why sometimes when you install a new printer or other piece of hardware,
your system will ask you to install more software called a driver.
Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as
• recognizing input from the keyboard
• sending output to the display screen
• keeping track of files and directories on the disk
• Controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers
It is the first program loaded into memory when the computer is turned
on and, in a sense, brings life to the computer hardware. Without it, you
cannot use your word processing software, spreadsheet software, or any other
applications.

Without an operating system, you cannot communicate with your computer.

When you give the computer a command, the operating system relays the
instructions to the 'brain' of the computer, called the microprocessor or CPU.
You cannot speak directly to the CPU because it only understands machine
language. When you are working in an application software program, such
as Word processing, commands that you give the application are sent
through the operating system to the CPU.
Types of Operating Systems

i. Microsoft suite of operating systems. They include from most recent

to the oldest:
• Windows XP Professional Edition - A version used by many businesses
on workstations. It has the ability to become a member of a corporate
domain.
• Windows XP Home Edition - A lower cost version of Windows XP which
is

for home use only and should not be used at a business.

• Windows 2000 - A better version of the Windows NT operating
system which works well both at home and as a workstation at a business. It
includes technologies which allow hardware to be automatically detected and
other enhancements over Windows NT.
• Windows ME - An upgraded version from windows 98

• Windows 98 - This was produced in two main versions.

• Windows NT - A version of Windows made specifically for businesses.

It has better control over workstation capabilities to help network
administrators.
• Windows 95 - The first version of Windows after the older Windows
3.x versions

ii. UNIX

UNIX is an operating system which was first developed in the 1960s, and
has been under constant development ever since. By operating system, we
mean the suite of programs which make the computer work. It is a stable,
multi-user, multi-tasking system for servers, desktops and laptops.

iii. Linux

Linux is similar to Unix in operation but it is also a open source.

iv. Apple MacIntosh

Most recent versions are based on Unix. It has a good graphical interface and
so it is both stable (does not crash often or have as many software problems
as other systems may have) and easy to learn. It can only be run on
Apple produced hardware.
V. BOSS GNU/Linux, Indian Linux

BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions), Indian Version of BNU/Linux, is

the result of the efforts initiated by NRCFOSS for promoting the use of
Free/Open Source Software in the country, made specifically for the Indian
environment, it consists of a pleasing Desktop environment coupled with
Indian Languages support and other packages that are most relavent for use in
the government domain as well. The ultimate goal is to localise it into all 22
official Indian languages so that Information Technology can reach even the
non-english speaking masses who are denied its benefits today.
BOSS provides an Indian version of OpenOffice i.e BharateeyaaOO which is
localised into Indian languages and in the future releases there will be a
completely localised openoffice into 22 different Indian Languages

Programming Languages

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for

computers to run. They are purely written languages and are often difficult
to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine language by a
compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time
by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of
the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages
—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly
specialized applications.

Commonly used High BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp,
level languages Pascal
Commonly used Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl
Scripting languages

Application Software Programs

Applications are programs that are installed on computers to give users

the ability to do specific tasks. For example, Microsoft Word is a program that
gives the user the ability to write documents. Some program packages come
in a set with multiple programs included to provide multiple capabilities such
as the Microsoft Office suite of programs. This suite of programs also includes
Microsoft Outlook which is used to send and receive e-mail. It also
includes other programs with more capabilities.

Application software programs work with the operating system software to

do specific types of work such as word processor to type a letter.

� Application Softwares are used by people to solve general problems. It can

be used to do a wide variety of tasks. Some common tasks done by general
purpose application software include - planning, Writing, Record keeping,
Calculating, Communicating, Drawing, Painting

Examples of general purpose application software

i. Word Processor:

A word processor (more formally known as document preparation

system) is a computer application used for the production (including
composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of printable
material.
Word processor may also refer to a stand-alone computer unit similar to a

typewriter, but often including technological advancements such as a screen,

advanced formatting and printing options, and the ability to save documents
onto memory cards or diskettes
Examples : Microsoft Word, OpenOffice.org Writer

Writer is the word processor component of the OpenOffice.org software

package. Writer is a word processor similar to Microsoft Word, with a roughly
equivalent range of features. Writer is a free software.

ii. Spreadsheet:

A spreadsheet is a computer application that displays multiple cells that

together make up a grid consisting of rows and columns, each cell containing
either alphanumeric text or numeric values. A spreadsheet cell may
alternatively contain a formula that defines how the content of that cell is to be
calculated from the contents of any other cell (or combination of cells) each
time any cell is updated.

Examples : Microsoft Excel (full name Microsoft Office Excel) is a

spreadsheet application written and distributed by Microsoft for Microsoft
Windows and Mac OS X. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables
and a macro programming language called VBA (Visual Basic for Applications).

OpenOffice.org Calc is the spreadsheet component of the OpenOffice.org

software package. Calc is similar to Microsoft Excel, with a roughly equivalent
range of features. Calc is capable of opening and saving spreadsheets in

Microsoft Excel file format. It also provides a system which automatically

defines a series for graphing based on the layout of the user's data. Calc is also
capable of writing spreadsheets directly as PDF files.

iii. Presentation software:

A presentation program is a computer software package used to display

information, normally in the form of a slide show. It typically includes three
major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a
method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system
to display the content.

Examples : Microsoft PowerPoint, OpenOffice.org Impress, Apple's Keynote

Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation program developed by Microsoft. It

is part of the Microsoft Office system.

OpenOffice.org Impress, a part of the OpenOffice.org office suite is

developed by Sun Microsystems. In addition to being able to create PDF files
from presentations, it is also possible to export presentations to Adobe Flash
(SWF) files allowing them to be played on any computer with the Flash player
installed

iv. Database:

A computer database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored

in a computer system. A database relies upon software to organize the storage
of the data and to enable a person or program to extract desired information.
The term "database" refers to the collection of related records, and the
software should be referred to as the database management system (DBMS);
this is sometimes shortened to database manager or database system.
Examples : Oracle, DB2, Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL Server, Firebird,
PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQLite, FileMaker and Sybase.
CHAPTER 6

COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

6.1 Introduction

Communication is the desire of man. When human voice

became inadequate, ancient civilizations devised drum codes and
smoke signals to send information to far off distances. These
primitive methods have given way to sending messages through
electronic pulses. A stand-alone computer communicates very
efficiently by connecting it with other computers. Data in a
computer is transmitted to another computer located across
continents almost instantaneously using telephone, microwaves
or radio links. The long distance communication link between a
computer and a remote terminal was set up around 1965. Now
networking has become a very important part of computing activity.

6.2 Network

A large number of computers are interconnected by copper

wire, fiber optic cable, microwave and infrared or through satellite.

A system consisting of connected nodes made to share

data, hardware and software is called a Computer Network.

6.3 Some Important Reasons for Networking

* Sharing of resources: Primary goal of a computer network is

to share resources. For example several PCs can be
connected to a single expensive line printer.

* Sharing information: Information on a single computer can

be accessed by other computers in the network. Duplication
of data file on separate PCs can be avoided.
 * Communication: When several PCs are connected to each
other, messages can be sent and received. From a remote
location, a mobile salesman can relay important messages to
the central office regarding orders. Relevant databases are
updated and the business commitments are fulfilled.

6.4 Applications of Network

The following are the areas where computer networks are

employed.

· Electronic data interchange

· Tele-conferencing
· Cellular telephone
· Cable Television
· Financial services, marketing and sales
· Reservation of Airlines, trains, Theatres and buses
· Telemedicine
· ATM
· Internet banking

Several educational institutions, businesses and other

organizations have discovered the benefits of computer networks.
Users can share data and programmes. They can co-operate on
projects to maximize the usage of available expertise and talent.

6.5 Benefits of Network

· Effective handling of personal communications

· Allowing several users to access simultaneously
Important programs and data:
· Making it easy for the users to keep all critical data on
shared storage device and safeguard the data.
· Allowing people to share costly equipment.
 The computer communication should ensure safe, secure
and reliable data transfer.

Safe : The data received is the same as the data sent

Secure : The data being transferred cannot be damaged
either will fully or accidentally.
Reliable: Both the sender and the receiver knows the
status of the data sent. Thus the sender knows
whether the receiver got the correct data or
not.

6.6 Types of Network

The following are the general types of networks used today.

· Local Area Network (LAN)

· Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
· Wide Area Network (WAN)

A network connecting systems and devices inside a single

building or buildings close to each other is called Local Area
Network (LAN) (Fig.6.1). Generally LANs do not use the telephone
network. They are connected either by wire or wireless. Wired
connection may be using twisted pairs, coaxial cables or Fiber
Optic cables. In a wireless LAN, connections may be using infrared
or radio waves. Wireless networks are useful when computers are
portable. However, wireless network communicates slowly than a
wired network.
Fig. 6.1 Local Area Network
 The number of Computers in the network is between
two to several hundreds. LAN is generally used to share
hardware, software and data. A computer sharing software
package and hard disk is called a file server or network server.

A Network that spans a geographical area covering a

Metropolitan city is called Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A WAN is typically two or more LANs connected

together across a wide geographical area. The individual LANs
separated by large distances may be connected by dedicated
links, fiber- optic cables or satellite links.

6.7 Network Topology

The network topology is the structure or layout of the

communication channels that connects the various computers
on the network. Each computer in the network is called a
node.

There are a number of factors that determine the

topology suitable for a given situation. Some of the important
consideration is the type of nodes, the expected performance,
type of wiring (physical link) used and the cost.

Network can be laid out in different ways. The five

common topologies are star, ring, bus, hybrid and FDDI.

Star Network : In a star network all computers and other

communication devices are connected to a central hub.
(Fig.6.2) Such as a file server or host computer usually by a
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables.
 Fig. 6.2 Star network

Ring Network: In a ring network computers and other

communication devices are connected in a continuous loop (Fig.
6.3). Electronic data are passed around the ring in one direction,
with each node serving as a repeater until it reaches the right
destination. There is no central host computer or server.

Fig. 6.3 Ring Network

Bus Network: In a bus network all communication devices are
connected to a common cable called bus (Fig. 6.4). There is no
central computer or server. The data transmission is bidirectional.

Fig 6.4. Bus Network

Hybrid Network: A hybrid network is a combination of the above

three networks suited to the need.

FDDI Network: A FDDI network (pronounced as fiddy short for

Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a high-speed network using fiber
optic cable. It is used for high tech purposes such as electronic
images, high-resolution graphics and digital video. The main
disadvantage is its high cost.

6.8 Basic Elements in Networking

All networks require the following three elements

1. Network services

Network services are provided by numerous combinations of

computer hardware and software. Depending upon the task,
network services require data, input/output resources and
processing power to accomplish their goal.
2. Transmission media

Transmission media is the pathway for contacting each

computer with other. Transmission media include cables and
wireless Technologies that allows networked devices to contact
each other. This provides a message delivery path.

3. Protocols

A protocol can be one rule or a set of rules and standards

that allow different devices to hold conversations.

6.9 Common Network Services

The following common network services are available.

6.9.1 File Services

Those are the primary services offered by the computer

networks. This improves the efficient storage and retrieval of
computer data. The service function includes.

· File transfer –Rapidly move files from place to place

regardless of file size, distance and Local operating system.

· File storage and data migration – Increasing amount of

Computer data has caused the development of several
storage devices. Network applications are well suited to
control data storage activity on different storage systems.
Some data becomes less used after certain time. For
example higher secondary examination result posted on the
web becomes less used after a week. Such data can be
moved from one storage media (say hard disc of the
computer) to another, less expensive media (say an optical
disk) is called data migration.
 · File update synchronization – Network service keeps track of
date and time of intermediate changes of a specific file.
Using this information, it automatically updates all file
locations with the latest version.

· File archiving – All organizations create duplicate copies of

critical data and files in the storage device. This practice is
called file archiving or file backup. In case of original file
getting damaged, Computer Operator uses the Network to
retrieve the duplicate file. File archiving becomes easier and
safe when storage devices are connected in the Network.

6.9.2 Print services

Network application that control manage access to printers

and fax equipments. The print service function includes

· Provide multiple access (more than one user, use the network)
– reduce the number of printers required for the organization.
· Eliminates distance constraints – take a printout at a
different location.
· Handle simultaneous requests – queue print jobs reducing
the computer time.
· Share specialized equipments-Some printers are designed
for specific use such as high-speed output, large size
formals or colour prints. Specialised equipments may be
costlier or may not be frequently used by the user, when
numerous clients are using the network, printer use is
optimized.
· Network fax service – Fax service is integrated in the network.
The computer in the network sends the digital document
image to any location. This reduces the time and paper
handling.
6.9.3 Message services

Message services include storing, accessing and delivering

text, binary, graphic digitized video and audio data. Unlike file
services, message services deal actively with communication
interactions between computer users applications, network
applications or documents.

6.9.4 Application Services

Application services are the network services that run

software for network clients. They are different from file services
because they allow computers to share processing power, not just
share data.

Data communication is the process of sending data

electronically from one location to another. Linking one computer to
another permits the power and resources of that computer to be
tapped. It also makes possible the updating and sharing of data at
different locations.

6.10 Co-ordinating Data Communication

The device that coordinates the data transfer is called

Network interface card (NIC). NIC is fixed in the computer and
communication channel is connected to it. Ethernet, Arcnet and
token ring are the examples for the NIC. Protocol specifies the
procedures for establishing maintaining and terminating data
transfer.

In 1978, the International Standards organization proposed

protocol known as open system interconnection (OSI). The OSI
provided a network architecture with seven layers. Fig.6.5 gives
the seven layers and the respective functions. This architecture
helps to communicate between Network of dissimilar nodes and
channels.
6.11 Forms of Data Transmission

Data is transmitted in two forms

1. Analog data transmission

2. Digital data transmission

Analog data transmission is the transmission of data in a

continuous waveform. The telephone system, for instance, is
designed for analog data transmission. Analog signals are
sometimes modulated or encoded to represent binary data.

Digital data transmission is the widely used communication

system in the world. The distinct electrical state of ‘on’ and ‘off’ is
represented by 1 and 0 respectively. Digital data transmission as
shown in Fig.6.6 is faster and more efficient than analog. All
computers understand and work only in digital forms

7 Application
Purpose for communicating:
e-mail, file transfer,
client/server
1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0
6 Presentation
Rules for data conversion

5 Session
Starts, stops and governs
Transmission order.

4 Transport
Ensures delivery of
Complete message
Fig 6.6. Digital Data Transmission

3 Network
Routes data to
different networks

2 Data link
Transmits data to
Different networks

1 Physical
Passes bits on to
Connecting median

Fig 6.5. Seven Layers of Protocols

6.12 Modem

Computers at different parts of the world are connected by

telephone lines. The telephone converts the voice at one end into
an electric signal that can flow through a telephone cable. The
telephone at the receiving end converts this electric signal into
voice. Hence the receiver could hear the voice. The process of
converting sound or data into a signal that can flow through the
telephone wire is called modulation.

The reverse process is called demodulation. The telephone

instrument contains the necessary circuit to perform these
activities. The device that accomplishes modulation –
demodulation process is called a modem. It is known that the
electrical and sound signals are analog - which continuously vary
with time.

The figure 6.7 shows the relationship of modem to communication

link

Fig . 6.7 Communication Using Modem

Equipments (DTE) are connected through modem and

Telephone line. The modems are the Data Circuit Terminating
Equipments (DCE). DTE creates a digital signal and modulates
using the modem. Then the signals relayed through an interface.
The second modem at the receiving end demodulates into a form
that the computer
can accept. A modem that has extra functions such as automatic
answering and dialing is called intelligent Modems.

6.13 Data Transmission Rate

The speed at which data travel over a communication

channel is called the communication rate. The rate at which the
data are transferred is expressed in terms of bits per second (bps)

6.14 Transmission Mode

When two computers are in communication, data

transmission may occur in one of the three modes (Fig.6.8).

Fig. 6.8 Transmission modes

6.14.1 Simplex mode

In simplex mode, data can be transmitted in one direction as

shown in the figure. The device using the simplex mode of
transmission can either send or receive data, but it cannot do both.
An example is the traditional television broadcast, in which the
signal
is sent from the transmitter to the TV. There is no return signal. In
other words a TV cannot send a signal to the transmitter.

6.14.2 Half duplex mode

In Half duplex mode data can be transmitted back and forth

between two stations. But at any point of time data can go in any
one direction only. This arrangement resembles traffic on a one-
lane bridge. When traffic moves in one direction, traffic on the
opposite direction is to wait and take their turn. The common
example is the walky-talky, wherein one waits for his turn while the
other talks.

6.14.3 Full duplex mode

In full duplex mode a device can simultaneously send or

receive data. This arrangement resembles traffic on a two-way
bridge, traffic moving on both directions simultaneously. An
example is two people on the telephone talking and listening
simultaneously. Communication in full duplex mode is faster. Full
duplex transmission is used in large computer systems. Products
like “Microsoft Net Meeting’ supports such two way interaction

6.15 Internet

Several networks, small and big all over the world, are
connected together to form a Global network called the Internet.
Today’s Internet is a network of about 50 million or more computers
spread across 200 countries. Anyone connected to the Internet can
reach, communicate and access information from any other
computer connected to it.

Some of the Internet users are

· Students
· Faculty members
· Scientists
 · Executives and Corporate members
· Government employees.
The Internet protocol (IP) addressing system is used to keep
track of the million of users. Each computer on net is called a host.
The IP addressing system uses the letter addressing system and
number addressing systems.

6.16 Communication Protocol

Internet is a packet-switching network. Here is how packet-

switching works: A sending computer breaks an electronic
message into packets. The various packets are sent through a
communication network-often by different routes, at different
speeds and sandwiched in between packets from other messages.
Once the packets arrive at the destination, the receiving computer
reassembles the packets in proper sequence. The packet
switching is suitable for data transmission. The software that is
responsible for making the Internet function efficiently is TCP/IP.
TCP/IP is made up of two components. TCP stands for
transmission control protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.

TCP breaks up the data to be sent into little packets. It

guarantees that any data sent to the destination computer reaches
intact. It makes the process appear as if one computer is directly
connected to the other providing what appears to be a dedicated
connection.

IP is a set of conventions used to pass packets from one

host to another. It is responsible for routing the packets to a
desired destination IP address.

6.17 Who Governs The Internet ?

The Internet as a whole does not have a single controller.

But the Internet society, which is a voluntary membership
organization, takes the responsibility to promote global information
exchange through the Internet technology. Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN) administers the domain name registration. It
helps to avoid a name which is already registered.

6.18 Future of Internet

The popularity of Internet is growing ever since its

evolution 20 years ago. This will bring out

· New standard protocol

· International connections
· Consumer civilization
· Data sharing in research and Engineering

6.19 Uses of Internet

The following are some of the popular Internet tools,

used by the million of the users.

World Wide Web

Web is a multimedia portion of the Internet. It consists

of an interconnection system of sites or servers all over the
world that can store information in the multimedia form. The
Multimedia sites include text, animated graph, voice and
images.

The World Wide Web is the most graphically inviting

and easily navigable section of the Internet. It contains
several millions of pages of information. Each page is
called a web page. A group of related web pages linked
together forms a web site. The first page of the website is
called a Home page. The Home page usually contains
information about the site and links to other pages on that site.
The Fig.6.9 gives the home page of Indian Space Research
Organization ( ISRO ).
 Fig. 6.9. Home Page of ISRO

Every web page has a unique address called the Uniform

Resource Locator or URL. The URL locates the pages on the
Internet. An example of URL is

http:// www.country-watch.com/India

where http stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

This protocol is meant for transferring the web files. The www
portion of the address stands for “world wide web” and the next
part country- watch.com is the domain name. Generally, the
domain name will be followed by directory path and the specific
document address separated by slashes. Looking for
information on the Internet is called surfing or browsing. To browse
the Internet, a software called web browser is used. Web browser
translates HTML documents of the website and allows to view it on
the screen. Examples of web browsers are Internet Explorer and
Netscape Navigator. The mouse pointer moves over a underlined
or highlighted words and images
change to a hand icon. This is called an hyperlink. This indicates
the link to other sites. To go to one of the linked sites, just click the
mouse on the hyperlink.

E-mail - The World Wide Web is getting a lot of attention due

to its main attraction of Electronic mail. Electronic mail is usually
used to exchange messages and data files. Each user is
assigned an electronic mail box. Using mail services, one can
scan a list of messages that can be sent to anyone who has the
proper email identification. The message sent to any one resides in
the mailbox till it is opened. Many other features of standard mail
delivery are implemented in email.

Usenet News Groups: Electronic discussion groups. User

network abbreviated as usenet is essentially a giant disbursed
bulletin board. Electronic discussion groups that focus on specific
topic forms, computer forums.

Mailing list: Email based discussion groups combining E-

mail, news groups and mailing lists send messages on a particular
subject. Automatically messages reach the mailbox of that group.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol, abbreviated as FTP is used for

the net user for transferring files around the world. The transfer
includes software, games, photos, maps, music and such other
relevant materials.

Telnet: Telnet is a protocol that allows the user to connect

to a remote computer. This feature is used to communicate a
microcomputer with mainframe.

6.20 Getting connected to Internet

To use an Internet in the simplest way, we

need

· A Computer
· A Telephone line
 · A Modem
· Internet Service Provided or ISP

The ISPs are the companies which allows the user to use
the Internet for a price. One has to register with the ISP for an
Internet account. ISP provides the following:

· User name - An unique name that identifies the user

· Password - A secret code that prevents other users from
using your account
· E-mail address- Unique address that you can send or receive
E-mails.
· Access telephone number - Internet users can use this
number to connect to the service provider.

Fig.6.10 shows dialog boxes on the computer screen

wherein the user name (Govt. Higher Secondary School, Chennai
-600 003 abbreviated as a ghssch3), a password (alpha numeric of
word length
8 characters appearing as ‘x’) and access telephone number are
entered. By clicking on the dial button, the modem establishes a
connection with the ISP.
Fig.6.10. Dialogue Box for Connecting to the Internet
 There are two ways to look for the information on the Web.
If the URL of the website is known, enter it on the address bar
(Fig.6.11). If URL is not known, then ‘Search Engines’ will help us
to get the information. Search Engines are tools that allow the user
to find specific document through key words or menu choices.
Some of the popular Search engines are Yahoo, Lycos, AltaVista,
Hotbot , Google and Askjeeves.

Fig.6.11. Entering the URL

Internet explorer helps to use the net more effectively with

the navigation buttons (Fig.6.12) on the toolbar.

1 2 3 4 5

Fig.6.12. Navigation Buttons

1. Back button: This button helps to go back to the

previous link. The small triangle adjacent to it displays a
dropdown list of several recently used pages. Instead of pressing
the back button several times, select a page from the list.
2. Forward button: This is a similar to the back button.
One can jump forward by one page or several pages.
 3. Stop button: After clicking on a link, some times we
may realize that the link is not necessary. The click stop button
and move back without wasting time.

4. Refresh button: Sometimes a page may take longer

time or may not load properly. Click on the refresh button, helps
reload the page faster.

5. Home button: While following the hyperlink, it is very

easy to get lost. The home button reverts to the home page of the
website.

6.21 Popular uses of the web

Research: The web provides research materials from libraries,

research institutions, encyclopedia, magazines and newspapers.
Some sample sites
www.encarta.com the Internet Public Library site www.ipl.com and
Library of Congress www.loc.gov.

Chatting: Some websites proved chat rooms to interact with an

individual or a group.

Free-wares: Some sites provide free download of software’s,

tutorials and benchmarks.

Education online: Educational institutions offer courses via the

web. Student can attend and interact in a class from home using a
computer.

Online services: Online shopping, online booking for travels and

entertainments managing investments are the upcoming areas of
Internet that reaches every home.

Job searches: The digital revolution is changing everything it

touches and the job market is no exception. Several web sites are
assisting people in finding internship, jobs and helps companies
to fill job
vacancies. There are sites relating to specific job and profession also. Some of
these sites charge a fee for the services while others are free.

6.22 Intranet and Extranet

Many organizations have Local Area Network that allows their computers
to share files, data, printers and other resources. Sometimes these private
network uses TCP / IP and other Internet standard protocols and hence they are
called intranet. All the Internet services such as web pages, email, chat; usenet
and FTP are provided on the intranet to serve the organization. Creating a web
page on the intranet is simple because they use only Word- Processing
Software One of the main consideration of the intranet is security. The
sensitive company data available on the intranet is protected from the outside
world.

Taking intranet technology a few steps forward extranets are useful in the
business world. Intranet connecting selected customers, suppliers and offices in
addition to the internal personnel, is called extranet. By using extranet
business organizations can save telephone charges. For example a can
manufacturing company can extend their intranet to their dealers and customers
for support and service.