UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY

Biglang Awa St., Corner Catleya St., EDSA, Caloocan City

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

ART APPRECIATION
SUBJECT CODE: GEC 006

TOPIC OR LESSON: History of Art

WEEK: 11
SUB-TOPIC/S: Art history, art movements/periods

 INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC

Studying art history is essential in developing our appreciation of the arts. In

this unit, we will not only focus on the aesthetic significance of the artforms but also
its historical, cultural, and social relevance. Through the discussion of the history of
art, we would get to understand the development of art through time, the events that
influenced it, and the major characteristics of the artforms. It also involves studying
the piece of art by looking at its composition and elements such as lines, color, and
style or technique used by the artist. It attempts to answer the question of why these
objects as shown in the painting, sculpture or architecture look the way they do and
have an impact on the audience up until now. Our knowledge of the history of art will
help us interpret the artworks. It will also develop in us a deep sense of appreciation
for the world and will help us see things in a new perspective.

LEARNING OUTCOME(S)

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

Present the history and movements of the arts through a timeline

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE(S)

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. Identify the historical significance, philosophy of the era or movements;

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 2. Classify the various art movements by citing their important characteristics
such as historical background, factors, influential person, socio-political issues,
and prevalent artist, art forms, and media;
3. Cite important characteristics in an artwork based on the era movement and
(document and annotate works)

ENGAGE

Think, Question, and Explore. Answer the following questions posted in each box.

THINK QUESTION EXPLORE

What do you think you What questions do you What do you want to learn
know about the history of have about art history and more about art history
art and art movements? art movements? and art movements?

EXPLAIN

Prehistoric Period

Prehistoric art is classified into four types: petroglyphs, pictographs, prehistoric

sculptures, and megalithic art. Examples of petroglyphs are cupules (cup-like scouring
of the rock surface), rock carvings and engravings. Pictograph includes the cave
paintings and drawings. Prehistoric sculpture includes small statuettes and relief
sculptures. Megalithic art refers to the arrangement of large pieces of stone.

Painting of a Bison (c.15,000 BCE)

from the Altamira Cave

The primitive men depended on hunting of wild animals for food and clothing
and lived mostly in caves. With an attempt to represent their beliefs and their world at
the time, they painted images on cave walls and ceilings. These visual images are later
called as cave art. The cave art has five principal motifs or subjects: animals, human
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figures, tools and weapons, local maps, and symbols. They were either engraved,
sculpted, or painted on rocks.

Red ochre hand stencils in the

Cave of El Castillo (c.37,300 BCE).

One of the earliest cave arts was found at Altamira, Spain. They are paintings of
animals, mostly bison, boar, deer, and horse. These paintings are unique since they
are composed of many different colors and the animals are depicted in life -size
proportions with great accuracy. There were also abstract arts found in the cave, in
the form of signs and symbols.

Another example of cave art is hand art. The prints were obtained by either
pressing the hands smeared with red, black, or white on the walls of the cave or by
outlining the hands on the walls. These hand paintings are found at Catal Huyuk in
Turkey, El Castillo and Altamira in Spain, and Laussel and Gargas in France.

Venus of Willendorf (25,000 BCE)

Aside from cave paintings, there were also rock carvings and engravings done
by early civilization. The subjects were animals and human figures made from bone,
ivory, and stone.

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 Sculptures were also made during this period. One of the first works of sculpture
is fertility statues. Example of this is Venus of Willendorf showing a plump female
figure. The artist emphasized the breasts and hips suggesting a strong connection of
women to fertility.

An early form of architecture was built primarily for religious purposes or as a

place for burying the dead. A large piece of stone, called megalith, were used and
arranged to form some kind of religious symbolism. An example of this is the famous
Stonehenge in Salisbury Plain, England. Its structure suggests that it may have been
a place for religious ceremonies or human sacrifices. It also served as a huge calendar
and could predict the occurrence of lunar and solar eclipses.

Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, England

The Stonehenge stands as a prehistoric stone circle monument also believed to

be a cemetery situated about 8 miles north of Salisbury, England. Scientists believed
that this was built on a six stages for around 3000 and 1520 BCE, from the Neolithic
Period to Bronze Age. This is a unique structure as seen of its artificially shaped
sarsen stones made of blocks of Cenozioc silcrete.

The name of the monument probably derives from the Saxon stan-hengen,
meaning “stone hanging” or “gallows.” It is together with more than 350 nearby
monuments and henges (ancient earthworks consisting of a circular bank and ditch).
In 1986, this site was designated a UNESCO World Heritage distinction.

Egyptian

Ancient Egypt is one of the earliest important civilizations (Ortiz, 1976). Ancient
Egypt is closely knit with religion, and they believe in immortality or life after death.
They also give importance to the spirit (ka) that is why they make sure to shelter it
after death to ensure its continued existence. Thus, they preserve the image of the
dead in painting and sculpture and through mummification.

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 Anubis weighing the soul of the scribe Ani,
from the Egyptian Book of the Dead, c. (1275 BCE.)

Egyptian art is based on perfection, reflecting the ideal world of the gods. Most
of its art is functional, mainly to serve as the home for a spirit of their loved ones, their
kings or their gods. An example of their art is Pyramids. The pyramid is one of the
greatest ancient architecture. It is made of huge stones quarried and transported for
miles. Its base is a perfect square, showing their belief in perfection. They build
pyramids to house the remains of their dead kings or pharaohs. Inside these pyramids
are the treasures of the Pharaohs, images of the king surrounded by his family, Osiris
(the god of the underworld), Isis (wife of Osiris) and other deities.

Egyptian art is not meant to be seen. Most of its art was discovered inside the
pyramids and temples. Inside their temples are paintings, and sculptures and
architectural designs designed to venerate their gods and the dead. Their temples also
serve as the chapel for the deceased where they perform festival in honor of their dead
and where they offer flowers and incense to help their dead through the afterlife.

Egyptian architecture uses the post-and-lintel system, one of the oldest

methods of construction. The columns of their buildings have lots of lotus and
papyrus motifs. Their obelisk, tall and slender monolith with four sides culminating in
a small pyramid at the top, were inscribed with hieroglyphic characters recording the
deeds of the Pharaoh. The hieroglyphics almost always accompany their art, serving as
a caption.

Their paintings are representational, showing the image or object at its most
recognizable angle. The drawings of the human figure show the face, waist, and limbs
in profile while their eye and shoulders in frontality. The statues show a frontal image,
designed to face the ritual being performed before them. On the other hand, the
figures of the lower class showed actions which benefitted the elite owner. Kings are
placed on the same scale as the deities, larger than the elite and average Egyptian.
This shows the importance of the king in their society. Scenes in their paintings were
separated in parallel lines known as registers. Registers serve to convey information
about the scenes - the higher the scenes, the higher the status.

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Greek

Greek art is divided into three periods: Archaic Period, Classical or Hellenic
Period and Hellenistic Period.

In the Archaic Period, the arts are in linear, geometric designs and a human
figure. These geometric designs are painted in their vases. Their famous sculpture is
the kouros and the kore. Kourus is a nude male figure while kore is a fully clad female
figure.

Spear Bearer (Doryphoros) (450-44 BCE).

Polykleitos of Argos. (Roman Copy of bronze original)

The Classical or Hellenic Period is considered the Golden Age of Athens for it is
when there were various cultural achievements. It is the period when the aesthetic
ideals were developed and became the point reference of art. These Greek ideals gave
emphasis on form, intellectual order, harmony, perfect proportion, and balance. –no
facial expression

Greek sculptors in the Hellenic Period showed the human figure in three-
dimensional, and in great detail. It embodies the classical proportion and balance of
physical tensions in the human figure. Their portrayal of the human figure shows no
expression and no imperfection that would make it less ideal. One good example of a
“perfect” sculpture is that of Polykleitos’ Spear-bearer.

In classical architecture, three orders play a central role. These orders or styles
are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These columns were used to support their buildings.
Example of Greek architecture is the famous Parthenon which embodies the ideals of

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balance and proportion; and the open-air theater, the theater of Dionysus, where
theatrical performances were shown.

The period when the Greek culture intermingled with the Oriental culture is
called the Hellenistic Period. Art became dynamic, flexible, and truthful. It showed a
more honest view of humanity, showing the emotions of the subjects. The painting was
largely confined to pottery.

Greek Architecture

The Greeks have pioneered in building temples, and other public buildings and
these are stylistically divided into “orders”. These are the Doric,(male body)
Ionic(female body) and Corinthian(elaborate), respectively. These names manifest the
regional locations of the various Greek areas.

The orders directed the proportion, form, detail and relationship of the columns,
pediment, stylobate, and the entablature. Most of these orders were applied to the
whole range of monuments and structures in Greece.-MORE ON GODS AND
GODDESSES

Specifically, the Temple of Hera at Olympia serves as the good example of the
Doric Order, which structures were also seen on mainland Greece and extends to
Italy. On the other hand, the Greek cities of Ionia, the Aegean Islands and in the Asia
Minor, were identified to have the Ionic Order. While the decorative style of the
Corinthian Order made its existence at the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae. The
last design is commonly noticed with the basket on the root of an acanthus plant
which had grown up around it; these baskets were traced to be basket of offerings that
has been placed on a grave, surrounded with a flat tile on top of it in order to protect
the goods.

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Roman

The Romans admired the Greek civilization so when they conquered the Greeks;
they adopted most of the Greek forms and techniques. But unlike the Greeks, the
Romans were more practical and realistic. They portrayed their art in a more realistic
and natural form. Their paintings showcased their environment. Still life, landscapes,
and architectural motifs were the common subjects of their paintings.

Bust of Julius Caesar

In sculpture, the Romans preferred to sculpt portraits, also called busts. The
sculpted figures served to venerate the authority figures. Examples of these are the
busts of Julius Caesar and the sculpture of Augustus Caesar. Large equestrian
statues were also developed which served as MORE ON symbols of dynamic authority
and power.

The Romans used concrete to reinforce their buildings. Of special significance is

their invention of the vaulting system of construction. The rounded arch, the vault,
and the dome were used in their buildings primarily because it can span a large space
than the post and lintel system of the Greeks. An astounding example of Roman
architecture is the Colosseum.

The Collosseum. Built around 70-80 AD.

Emperor Vespasian started the construction of The Colosseum or Coliseum also

known as the Flavian Amphitheatre in AD 72 and was completed in AD 80 under

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Titus, his successor. Domitian (81-96) made further modifications during his reign.
This was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. such as mock sea
battles, executions, dramas based on Classical mythology. In the early medieval era,
the building ceased to be used for entertainment. After that period, this was utilized
for workshops, housing, quarters for religious order, a quarry, a fortress and even a
Christian shrine.

Medieval

Medieval art is classified into four major periods and styles: 1. Early Christian,
2. Byzantine, 3. Romanesque, and 4. Gothic.

The art of the early Christians emphasized the spiritual and religious. Christian
images (Christ and the saints) and symbols dominate the art in this period. The early
Christian churches were in a basilica type of structure. The first known Christian
church is the old Basilica of St. Peter in Rome.

Mosaic icon of the Virgin Glykophilousa (13th C.)

Byzantine art is a combination of classical and Asian traditions. Byzantine art

aims to create a reflection of heaven. The artists make icons portraying Christ, the
Crucifixion, and Mary and other representational religious works. Examples of art
produced in this period are mosaic, illuminated manuscripts, fresco wall paintings,
and panel painting. Islamic architecture was also built. Hagai Sophia in
Constantinople is the major example of Byzantine architecture.

Romanesque, meaning the manner of the Romans, started in the later part of
the 11th century to the 12th century. Fresco wall paintings and architectural wall
paintings were common during the Romanesque period. Frescoes are paintings made
on the wall or ceiling while the plaster is still wet and when the plaster sets, the
painting becomes part of the wall. Architectural sculpture is one of the most important
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art forms to emerge in this period. These are sculptures used to decorate the
churches. Church buildings were built using the Romanesque style – rounded arches
combined with heavy walls and columns.

The last style of medieval art is Gothic art. Gothic is the period that links
Romanesque art with Renaissance. Architecture is the main form of expression of this
period. A distinctive characteristic of a Gothic cathedral is it has high, pointed spikes
pointing upwards which symbolizes an expression of faith. Pointed arches also
replaced the rounded arch of Romanesque architecture. Stained glass and tapestries
also decorate the interior of the building.

Renaissance

Renaissance comes from the French word which means ‘rebirth.’ In this period,
there were discoveries in art and sciences. Religious images were commonly depicted
in their paintings and sculptures. It was during this period that easel paintings
became popular. Renaissance artists portray their subjects as natural as possible,
seeking to capture the beauty and mystery of the natural world. Modeling, shading,
and geometrical/linear perspective were also used in their paintings to achieve a
three-dimensional effect.

Michelangelo, (c. 1511) The Creation of Adam, from the Sistine Chapel ceiling

Famous artists during this period are Giotto, Massaccio, and the three Great
Masters – Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael Sanzio. Giotto
and Massaccio were the first artists to portray their subjects realistically, with
expression and gestures. Leonardo da Vinci is named the “Renaissance Man” because
of his intellect, wide range of interest, and talent. Both da Vinci and Michelangelo
showed astounding details of the human body in their paintings and sculptures.
Raphael is the youngest of the three, who is popularly known for his masterpiece,
“Madonnas.” William Shakespeare also gained popularity in this period. He was the
greatest dramatist who produced tragedies (Hamlet and Macbeth) and comedies
(Merchant of Venice). During the early Renaissance, artists explored on chiaroscuro
effect in their paintings. They employed perspective, showed volume in their works,
and stressed simple forms and geometric structure. In the high renaissance,
landscape art became common. The pictorial plane was divided into foreground,

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middle ground, and background. Figures were set at the center to achieve a single
point of view. Towards the end of the period, figures were depicted in dramatic
postures, foreshortening was employed, and marble blocks were used as a medium for
sculpture. The paintings were considered closed composition, where objects are
contained within the frame, and there is a single focus.

School of Athens, (1509-1511) by Raphael

The Renaissance architecture palazzos (aristocratic residences) and churches

and monasteries observed the ideals of balance, symmetry, and proportion.

ELABORAT
E
Mannerism

Also known as Late Renaissance, Mannerism comes from the Italian word
maniera which means ‘style or stylishness.’ This art movement which originated in
Florence, Italy refers to a stylized, exaggerated approach in painting and sculpture.
Mannerist artists stressed the individual way of painting, the personal vision and
pictorial understanding of things. They were followers of Renaissance masters but set
their own goals, created their style, and turned against traditional conventions.

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 Madonna with Long Neck (1534) by Parmigianino

Subjects are portrayed in a more artificial and less naturalistic way. Mannerists
put a high value on the portrayal of the human body. Human figures are represented
gracefully but with oddly positioned bodies, elongated limbs, and stylized facial
features. Their paintings are in flat perspective.

Baroque

Baroque comes from the Portuguese word barocco meaning “irregular pearl or
stone.” The theme of its paintings and sculptures is religious, more of the element of
the Catholic dogma. This is the Catholic churches’ way of counter-reformation against
the rise of the Protestant Christians. The artworks, depicting religious symbols and
some mythological themes, are monumental wall paintings and huge frescoes. These
serve to educate the people about Catholicism.

The Ecstasy of St. Theresa (1652)

by Gian Lorenzo Bernini

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 Baroque art is characterized by drama, movement, energy, and restlessness. A
new technique, chiaroscuro, was developed in this period. Chiaroscuro is achieved by
contrasting light and shade in painting and management of shadow to create an
illusion of depth. The paintings are open composition, meaning the lines, shapes and
elements make the image dynamic. There is a sense of movement in the picture – the
eyes of the viewer moves from one area of the painting to another. Painters portray
strong movement using spirals and upward diagonals, and strong color schemes to
dazzle and surprise their audience.

In the area of architecture, Baroque buildings are highly ornamented which

creates spectacle and illusion. Churches, mainly, were adorned with statues to
accentuate their glory. Domes and roofs were also enlarged. The best example of
Italian Baroque is San Carlo alla Quattro Fontane by Francesco Borromini. Borromini
used complex geometric designs to create the shape of the building. He experimented
with complex curves more than anyone else in his time. On the other hand, Gian
Lorenzo Bernini is the greatest Baroque architect who designed the St. Peter’s Square
and St. Peter’s Basilica.

The music of the baroque is one of the richest and most diverse periods in
music history. The different forms of Baroque music are cantata, concerto, sonata,
oratorio, and opera which originated in Italy. Other nations such as Germany and
France also has a distinct style. Some of the best-known composers are Monteverde,
Corell, and Vivaldi from Italy, and Bach and Handel from Germany.

Rococo

Rococo is a continuation of the Baroque but in a lighter, more graceful tone and
has a more decorative effect. Rococo comes from the word rocaille meaning “shell.”
Artists would mix seashells, pebbles, and other organic elements to create a
naturalistic inspired work. Rococo art is a French -style distinguished because of its
elaborately designed artworks that aimed to please rather than to instruct.

The Pleasures of the Ball, (1717)

by Jean Antoine Watteau
The paintings are detail-oriented, ornate, and elaborately decorative and in
pastel tone. Jean Antoine Watteau is considered the father of Rococo art. Its subject is

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aristocratic; people are depicted socializing in pastoral landscapes. Other artists,
however, like Francois Boucher is famous for his erotic imagery.

Great Hall at Stupinigi Palace (from 1729-1733)

by Filippo Juvara

Rococo architecture has no particular meaning. It is mainly a style of ornament

and interior design. Painted ornaments decorate the interior. Color harmonies based
on gold, white, pink, blue, green and white are used to generate sunny, light-hearted
feeling. The salon, a room for entertaining guests, was a major innovation in
architecture. The furniture and architecture are focused on secular, asymmetrical
design and maintained the decorative style of the Baroque.

Romanticism

The Romantic movement came about because of the renewed interest in

Medieval stories of heroism and emotion. It originated in Europe in 18th century as a
rebellion against the intellectualization brought about by Neo-Classicism. Neo-
Classicists established its style and restrictions for painting, sculpture, and
architecture; thus, independent artists reacted to it and created the Romantic
movement.

Liberty Leading the People (1830)

by Eugene Delacroix

Romantic art stressed the individuality and creativity of the artist. The artists
are free to express his/her view of the world in whatever medium or technique he/she
is comfortable with. Romantics valued originality, inspiration, and imagination,

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promoting a variety of style in their artworks. Romantic artists emphasized that sense
and emotion, as well as reason, were equally important in understanding the world.

Romantic painters favored coloristic and painterly techniques over the linear,
cool tone of the neoclassical style. The common Romantic subjects are nature, the
past, and the inner world of human nature. Nature emphasized beauty and mystery.
Artists see it as continually changing and developing. Artists connected nature with
human imagination. Another Romantic subject is the incidents from history. The inner
world of man is also a favorite subject of Romantic artists. They are interested in the
depths of human nature and they believe that this inner world is not ruled by reason.

The façade of the Palais Garnier opera house (1875)

Romantic architecture draws inspiration and is influenced by Greek, Gothic,

Renaissance, and Baroque style. Different elements are lifted from any source. A
famous Romantic architecture is the Paris Opera, made by Charles Garnier.

Like other Romantic artforms, the sculptures are also inspired by ancient
Greek, Medieval times and Michelangelo. The Statue of Liberty by Auguste Bartholdi is
an example of a Romantic sculpture.

Impressionism

The movement of impressionism was inspired by Monet’s painting “Impression

Sunrise.” It developed in France in the 19th century as a rebellion against
conventional and academic standards. Mannerist art is characterized by the use of
vibrant and fresh colors and favors spontaneity. Artists paint outdoors to capture the
natural color and light. They are concerned with the effect of light on objects because
they see the light as an important element. How it is captured is a key to the
impressionist’s work. Artists tend to work quickly to capture what they see at the
moment. They prefer on-the-spot painting rather than painting in a studio.

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 Sunrise (1873) by Claude Monet

Impressionism focuses more on the artist’s perception of the subject, rather

than the subject itself; thus they paint pictures with less detail but with bold colors.
Its subjects are outdoor scenes, nature, and contemporary everyday life. The
pioneering impressionist artists are Claude Monet – Father of Impressionism, Eduardo
Manet, Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas.

Later in the century, a new movement emerged. Post-impressionism is an

extension and rejection of Impressionists’ limitations. Post- impressionists portray
more realistic subjects but gave more importance to geometrical forms to express their
inner vision. Pointillism, which makes use of tiny dots of color, was developed. This is
pioneered by George Seurat. Other post-impressionist artists are Paul Cezanne,
Gauguin, and Vincent van Gogh.

Art Nouveau

Art nouveau, though very prominent in architecture, pervaded all arts. It

includes great variety of fine and decorative arts, like painting, graphic art, interior
design, jewelry, furniture, textiles, ceramics, glass art, and metal work. Despite of its
translation as “new art,” but its style was already in circulation a decade earlier before
it gained a specific recognition when in the mid-1890’s Siegfried Bing, a German-born
art dealer, critic and entrepreneur established a store and showroom called La Maison
del”Art Nouveau (The House of New Art).

With this, Bing took the lead in a movement towards design reform which
advanced stylistic unity and relative simplicity. He believed that all artists should be
equally concerned with the creation of interior spaces of beauty – that is to create
domestic environments inside which people could find relief from the pressures and
ugliness they encountered in the outside world (Honour, 2009).

Chu (2006) testified that this art movement aimed to achieve a truly
contemporary and modern style – one that does not copy, revive nor imitate styles of
previous art movements. As a protest to the mainstream academic art of the 19th
century, it was the first conscious and successful attempt to halt succession of
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historical revival and replace them with something which no obvious links with the
past.

Although Art Nouveau suggests that this type is entirely new and
unprecedented, the style has several sources. First, its early proponents found were
inspired by natural forms for their complexity and irregularity - particularly the curved
lines of plants and flowers. The second source of art nouveau was Rococo design
which was similarly inspired by forms of nature. The third source of inspiration for Art
Nouveau was Japanese Prints. Siegfried Bing, himself, had contributed greatly
towards cultivating a taste for all things Japanese in France (Chu, 2006). But an
essential ‘New Style’ was achieved by the more extreme Art Nouveau designers
especially in the field of architecture whose buildings combined entirely free,
asymmetrical, jagged planes with fiercely extravagant and arbitrary forms that there
were no straight walls, and no right angles.

Wave at Kanagawa (1831) by Katsushika Hokusai

Along with William Morris, Art Nouveau was also influenced by non-Western art
that was being imported into Europe. Simple use of line, flat areas of color, pattern
and a flat use of the picture frame were all refreshing to the western artist’s eye. In
this wood block by Hokusai a giant wave manages to be both beautiful and terrifying.

Constructivism

Constructivism, as an artistic philosophy, was started in Russia in 1913 by

Vladimir Tatlin who rejected the idea of autonomous art. He wanted ‘to construct’ art
by advocating the philosophy that It is a practice for social purposes. Constructivism
had a greatly influenced modern art movements of the 20th century, as manifested in
major trends such as the Bauhaus and De Stijl. Its influence was widespread, with
major impacts on architecture, sculpture, graphic design, industrial design, theatre,
film, dance, fashion and, to some extent, music.

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 Tatlin’s design became a symbol of revolutionary modernism and of the
constructivist spirit of utilitarian simplicity and respect for the logic of materials.
Constructivist ideology was largely anti -aesthetic, reflecting Marx’s contention that
the mode of production of material life determines social, political and intellectual
processes. Its aims primarily social, utilitarian and materialist. The artist mission was
to express the aspirations of the revolutionary working class and enhance the physical
and intellectual conditions of society as a whole. Hence, constructivists had eager
acceptance of machine production, architectural engineering, manufactured materials,
photographic and other modern means of mass communication. Much of their best
and most influential work, apart from architecture was to be in typography and
publicity and exhibition design.

Project for the Monument of the Third International (1919-20)

by Vladimir Tatlin

However, constructivist utopia was short lived. After the introduction of Lenin’s
New Economic Policy in 1921, the movement’s usefulness began to be seriously
questioned. Leading proponents migrated to other European countries. The new order
established in the Soviet Union opened up more market opportunities in the Soviet
economy. Constructivists like Alexander Rodchenko who believed in the role of art as a
catalyst for social change worked as a photographer and advertiser for the co-
operatives that were now in competition with other commercial businesses. Together
with other constructivists, they combined bright colors, geometric shapes, and bold
letterings to create attention- grabbing images intended to solicit emotional responses
or reactions. Several other artists tried to work in garment design with varying degrees
of success. In these conditions, Constructivists showed a willingness to engage in
fashion and the mass market, which they tried to balance with their Communist
ideologies.

In architecture, constructivists aim for a clear organic architecture whose

structureis concerned with space and rhythm; the second represented the need for
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function and the need for the people’s lifestyle. Constructivists want an architecture
adapted to the world of machines, radios and fast motor cars, an architecture whose
function is recognizable in relation to its form.

Constructivism also exerted influence in Cinema, as they act, wrote

screenplays, made and design costumes and intertitles.

Constructivist Martian set in Aelita(1924),

a science fiction film.

De Stijl (The Style)

This Dutch group is considered as the most idealistic of the abstract movement,
founded in Amsterdam in 1917 by painters Piet Mondrian (1872-1944) and Theo van
Doesburg (1883-1931) and the architect Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud (1890-1963).
De Stijl may refer to the body of artworks from 1917-1931 from the Netherlands
(Linduff, et al, 1994).

Having passed through Impressionism and Symbolism, and was familiar with
the Cubists in Europe, particularly those in France, Mondrain claimed that the reason
for starting the movement was the inability of cubism to develop its ultimate goal.
Theo van Doesburg, on the other hand, claimed that the Stijl’s movement otherwise
referred to as Neoplasticism was a reaction to the Modern Baroque of the Amsterdam
School movement.

Mondrian wrote that reality is obscured when particular forms and natural
colors particularities of form and natural color cause subjective feelings. Natural forms
must be reduced to constant elements of forms and natural color to primary color to
plastically produce reality. Thus, Stijl artists are inspired by high-minded ideals of
purity, harmony, and sobriety. Hence, according to Honour (2009) Stijl artists
advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form

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and color; they simplified visual compositions to vertical and horizontal, using only
black, white and primary colors.

Composition with Yellow, Blue, and Red (1937-42)

by Piet Mondrian

Optical Art (Op Art)

It is an artistic movement that flourished during the 1960s that practiced more
overt exploitation of the physiology of seeing. In optical art, the recognizable object is
eliminated in favor of geometric abstraction and the experience is primarily visual.
Optical artists produce moving or motion effect by using an arrangement of elements
like color, lines, shapes, or combinations of these elements. Adams (1994) cited that
when an artist makes creative use of these elements, optical arts may be utilized to
make metaphors of human emotions and experiences.

Doble progresión azul y negra (1975)

Paint on metal by Jesu s-Rafael Soto

Popular Art (Pop Art)

The main reaction provoked by abstract expressionism in the late 1950s and
1960s was Pop Art. In contrast to the nonfigurative and seemingly subjective
character of Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art took the form of a return to the object.
Though it became popular in the US in the 1960s, its origins are to be traced from
England in the 1950s. Its imagery was derived from commercial sources, mass, and
everyday life (Adams, 1994).

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 The objective of Pop Art is to use images of popular culture in art, emphasizing
the common elements of any culture through sarcasm or irony. It uses unrelated
materials visually removed from its known context, isolated, or combined with
materials to create its intended message.

Just What Is It That Makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing? (1956)

by Richard Hamilton

The work of painter Richard Hamilton, “Just What Is It That Makes Today’s
Homes So Different, So Appealing?” may be considered as the first Pop work of art. It
showcases male and female poster models, TV, car logos, theater, cassette player, and
even the word “POP” on the label of the giant lollipop held by the male model.

In the United States, Pop Art took a bolder form. Whereas mass media had an
exotic appeal for the European, it was simply banal for the Americans who see British
Pop Art too tamed. American Pop art was presented in extreme and subversive forms
characterized by commercial imagery and repetition, which echoed the process on
American media which render incidents trivial and meaningless references to the same
people and facts and by constantly replaying of recorded events.

Among the notable Pop Artist were Robert Rauschenberg, Andy Warhol, Roy
Lichtenstein, Tom Wesselman, Wayne Thiebaud, George Segal, and Claes Oldenburg.

Minimalism

Minimalism is an artistic movement in painting and sculpture where any sense

of the artist’s role in the work is kept to an apparent minimum, to give it “a completely
literal presence.” This results in an extremely simple and pure form, reducing the art
to a state intrinsic to its medium with a deliberate lack of expressive content.

Honour (2009) supported this fact when he said that the point is to emphasize
that it is not the artist’s expression, but the medium and materials of the work are its
reality. In other words, a work of art should not refer to anything other than itself. As
minimalist painter Frank Stella once stated, “All I want anyone to get out of my
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paintings is the fact that you can see the whole idea without any confusion. What you
see is what you see”.

Minimalism emerged as an art movement in the 1960s as a reaction to Abstract

Expressionism which minimalist find to be too personal, pretentious and
insubstantial. Minimalist opposed the idea that art should reflect the personal
expression of its creator. Rather, they advanced the principle of eliminating all sense
of the artist’s role in the work, leaving only the medium for viewers to contemplate in
its absence of narrative and content beyond the medium itself. (Adams, Laurie
Schneider. A History of Western Art Revised 4th ed McGraw Hill. New York 1994 p.
541)

A historic moment for Constructivist was the exhibit “Primary Structures,” held
at the Jewish Museum, New York in 1966 which, amongst others, featured the works
of Donald Judd, Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Sol LeWitt, Robert Morris, and Tony Smith
and put Minimal Art on the map.

Untitled by Dan Flavin (1963)

Material: Ultraviolet, blue fluorescent tubes and fixtures
Size: 8 x 96 x 4 inches

Conceptualism/Conceptual Art

Conceptualism is an art which emerges out of the growing investigation into

Western art and the political and economic institutions that support it. It was an
attack on the visual formalism of the 1950s and 1960s. It advances the notion that the
concepts or ideas involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic,
technical, and material concerns. Conceptualism downplays the dependence upon the
craft skill of the artist but emphasizes the character of the relationship between the
artist’s ideas and the material facts of the world.

In Installation Art, which is also considered as conceptual art, an exhibit may

just be mounted by anyone by simply following a set of written instructions. This
method justifies American artist Sol LeWitt’s definition of Conceptual art, one of the
first to appear in print:”
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 “In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work.
When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and
decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair. The idea
becomes a machine that makes the art.”

Marcel Duchamp is considered as a pioneer of conceptualism. His relevance

and theoretical importance for future «conceptualists» were acknowledged in 1969 by
US artist Joseph Kosuth in his essay, Art after Philosophy, by agreeing with Duchamp
that “All art is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually.”

Duchamp provided conceptualists examples of prototypically conceptual works

through his collection called “the readymades.” “Fountain” (1917), which was a
standard urinal-basin signed by the artist with the pseudonym “R. Mutt,” and
submitted for inclusion in the annual, un-juried exhibition of the Society of
Independent Artists in New York (which rejected it), is considered as his most famous
“readymade.”

Installation Art

Installation art as a new genre of contemporary art involves the configuration or

“installation” of objects in a space, such as a room or a warehouse. The setup of
material and space comprises the “artwork” which allows the viewer to roam around
and interact with some of its elements, thus offering the viewer a very different
experience from traditional painting or sculpture which only provides a single
reference point. Furthermore, an installation may engage the viewer’s senses including
touch, sound, and smell, as well as vision.

Installation art is different from traditional art forms because it is a complete

unified experience, rather than a display of separate, individual artworks. The focus is
to provide the viewers with an intense experience a dominant theme. As artist Ilya
Kabakov said:

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 “The main actor in the total installation, the main center toward which
everything is addressed, for which everything is intended, is the viewer.”

An installation is a form of conceptual art where “ideas” and “impact” are

regarded as being more important than the quality of a finished “product” or “work of
art”. Hence, installation artists are more concerned with the presentation of their
message than with the material used. Honour (2009) said that although some
installation might present complex imagery greater emphasis remains to be placed on
its compelling message.

Orisha/Santos: An Artistic Interpretation of

the Seven African Powers (1985)

EVALUATE

Test Yourself!

Identify what is described in each statement.

1. Late 19th century French school dedicated to defining transitory visual impressions
painted directly from nature, with light and color of primary importance

2. Pictographs, engravings, petroglyphs, and megalithic art belong in this period

3. The art forms are mostly functional, to protect the spirit and to revere their kings
and gods

4. They prefer to sculpt busts and figures of their leaders, and equestrian statues as a
symbol of dynamic authority and power
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5. It is an abstract art which means “the style” in Dutch. It makes use of geometric
forms and primary colors.

REFERENC
E
Sonsona, R., Pamintuan, M., Balabagno, J., Echem, E. (2020). An Eye for Art Appreciation: Perception
and Expression. C and E Publishing. Quezon City

Prepared by:

BINGO L. ALIGO

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