Ethiopian TVET-System

HARDWARE AND NETWORK SERVICING

Level III

LEARNING GUIDE # 1

Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology

Module Title: Determine Best Fit Topology
LG Code: ICT HNS3 LO1 02
TTLM Code: ICT HNS3 TTLM 02 1110

Introduction to Computer Network

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Networks are currently one of the fastest growing and most important developments in the computer
industry. Computer networks require increasingly well-trained network professionals to install and
maintain them. As the computer network industry grows in both size and complexity, the need for proven
ability is becoming more important.
Stand-alone (not networked)computers have the ability to create, edit, save documents but they are not
enough to share information, resources like printer and also they do not have e-mail, chat, website
services, so to solve this problem Network was born.
NB: Mostly we use secondary storage device like CD,Flash in Stand-alone environment to share files from
one computer to another this system is called Sneaker net.

Definition of computer network

A computer network is a group of computers(two or more) and associated peripheral devices(like printer)
connected by a communication channel to share files, electronic message and other resources(like
printers ,Hard disk ,CD-ROM) among several users.
4. A network is a group of connected computers that allows people to share resources.

Figure1. A simple computer network

5. Network minimize communication distance, cost and problems and it gives

authorized user access information anywhere on the network. Computer networking arose as an
answer to the need to share data in a timely fashion.
Advantage /need /benefit of computer network
Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs. Computer networks achieve these goals in four primary
ways:-
1. Sharing Information (or Data)
2. Sharing Hardware(Peripheral Devices)
3. Sharing Programs/Software
4. Centralizing Administration and Support

Sharing information
Data sharing enables different users to work on a certain file concurrently. Few examples of information
sharing are like through database, E-mail, Chat, forums, video conferencing etc.
In a networked banking system, different bank branches can have access to the central
account database. This enables bank clients to carry their transactions on any branch bank
office.
It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file from one system to another, by using a secondary
storage device.
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Sharing Hardware
Computer networks enable us to share hardware resource among several computers like printer, CD-
ROM, Fax machines, modems, Hard disk etc.
A typical example of shared resource is printer. Sharing printer avoids the need to have separate printer
for each computer.
Sharing hardware reduce purchasing ,maintenance cost etc
Sharing Software
4. Application (software) sharing occurs when several users at different locations run application
programs that are installed centrally in one location (application server).
5. Software (applications) that are installed centrally can be managed and upgraded centrally. Such
systems are mostly common in financial (i.e bank) system.
In short sharing programs on a network
 Saves disk space
 Reduces maintenance
 Reduce licensing cost
 Reduce installation, upgrade time and effort.

Centralized administration and support

From just a single location(server), the network administrator can perform administrative tasks on any
computer on the network, remote troubleshooting for technical support.
The network administrator provides each new user with a user ID and starter password. In this way
centralized administration and support can be achieved.
More specifically, computers that are part of a network can share:
1. Documents (memos, spreadsheets, video, images , audio and so on).
2. E-mail messages.
3. Live audio and video broadcasts.
4. printer, CD-ROM, Fax machines, modems, Hard disk , Zip drives etc.

Disadvantage of a computer network

4. Security Issue: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues involved. If a
computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if a
computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get unauthorized access (i.e email , private data,
financial data access etc ) by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various network
security software are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and classified data.
NB: Hacker: A computer hacker is a person who finds out weaknesses in the computer and
exploits it. Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, or
challenge

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5. Rapid spread of computer virus: If any computer system in a network gets affected by computer
virus, there is a possible threat of other computers getting affected too. Viruses get spread on a
network easily because of the interconnectivity of workstations/client PCs connected to the network
or server.
6. Expensive setup: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending on the number
of computers to be connected(specially on the internet). Costly devices like servers, routers, switches,
hubs, etc., can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network. we will also have to
buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for each of the workstations, in case they are not inbuilt.
7. Dependency on the main servers (if it is server based network) : In case the main File Server of a
computer network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File Server
should be a powerful computer, which often makes it expensive.

Types of Computer Network

Based on the area coverage of the network(geographical scope), computer networks can be divides into
two broad categories:
4. Local Area Network (LAN)
5. Wide area Network (WAN)
LANs
4. LAN refers to networks that have small geographical coverage or size usually within building(s), a
school , home, campus or room/lab. Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile apart.
5. LANs are found in most organizations, businesses, government offices, educational institutions, and in
home computing environment.
6. LAN can be managed and installed by an organization so it is a private network.
7. It is cheap(mostly use cables and switch ) and has less service than WAN.

In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the server( stores the hardware and
software that controls the network and shared on the network).

WANs
Wide area networks are networks that cover very large geographical area such as a country or the whole
world. Typical WANs are the telephone networks operated by most long distance telephone companies.
Large companies(i.e banks) having offices scattered around the world use WAN to connect their
computers.
4. When data communication is necessary or desired beyond the reach of a LAN , a wide area network
(WAN) is established.
4. Institutions transferring large amounts of data between offices often decide to lease dedicated
transmission lines from public carriers, in what is termed an enterprise-wide private network.
5. NB: WAN is not managed and installed by a single organization so it is a public network.
6. WAN usually use combination of several types of communication media such as cables, satellites,
microwaves, and fiber-optics.
7. Probably the ultimate /largest WAN is called Internet (network of networks),it is made of many
connected LANs.
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 8.
9. Figure2. A Wide Area Network

There are also further categories of network

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
It is a network that transmits data and information over citywide distance and at a greater speed than
LAN.
4. A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings
to entire cities.
5. Metropolitan area networks can span up to 50km commonly connected by Optical fiber
4. Example: networks among Addis Ababa sub city administrations (Kefle Ketemas)
Intranet
4. An "intranet" is the generic term for a collection of private computer networks within an
organization(inside network).
5. Briefly, an intranet can be understood as "a private version of the Internet in the organization" has
similar service as web .
6. Intranet is a very common service in large networked organizations.

Extranet(extension of Intranet): Although similar to intranet, extranet provides selected users

from outside the organization to access data from the internal network. Extranets are
commonly used by suppliers to provide data to company clients.
An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to selected users
outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).
4. Extranet can be accessed through user-id/password login authentication

Types of networks based on configuration (Node Relationship or based on how they share data,
administration) categorized as Peer to Peer and Server based network.
In general, all networks have certain components, functions, and features in common, as shown in Figure
4. These include:
4. Servers—powerful computers that provide shared resources to network users or Clients and used to
manage the whole network.
5. Clients normal computers that request and access shared network resources provided by a server.
6. Media/communication channel—The wires/wireless that make the connections for Network
components.
7. Shared data—Files provided to clients by servers across the network.
8. Shared peripherals(i.e printers):hardware resources provided by servers.

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9. Resources—Any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available for use by
members of the network

Figure 4. Common network elements

The distinction between peer-to-peer and server-based networks is important because each type has
different capabilities. The type of network you choose to implement will depend on factors such as the:-
4. Size of the organization.
5. Level of security required.
6. Type of business.
7. Level of administrative support available.
8. Amount of network traffic.
9. Needs of the network users.
10. Network budget.
Peer-to-Peer Network/P2P or workgroups
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers.
5. Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for
the entire network.
6. Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for
the entire network
7. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the network.

Figure 5. Peer-to-peer network computers act as both clients and servers

Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
4. There are 10 users or fewer.
5. Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
6. Security is not an issue.

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7. The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable future.
8. If the organization has limited network budget.
Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice than a server-based
network.
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Network
1.No need of dedicated servers and software for it so it is cheaper than server based.
2.Easy to implement and configure
3.Little Network knowledge may be enough to implement and configure it
4.No need of skilled manpower/Network administrators
5.There is no dependency b/n computers for functioning ,if one or more computers fail other can
communicate/ the network does not halt/stop totally.

Disadvantage/Limitation of Peer to peer network

1.There is a big problem of performance, administration and Security(Shared resources can be accessed
by everyone)
2.It is not scalable it usually support <10 users/computers.
3.There is no centralized control/management b/c no dedicated server.

Server Based network (client/server network)

In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network—with computers acting as both
servers and clients—will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers. A
dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client or workstation. Server
based network is also known as Domain. Server based networks have at least one dedicated server, have
hierarchy design and central control.

Figure 8 Server-based network

As networks increase in size (as the number of connected computers, and the physical distance and traffic
between them, grows), more than one server is usually needed to handle the additional load. Spreading
the networking tasks among several servers ensures that each task will be performed as efficiently as
possible.
Specialized Servers
Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. Servers for large networks have become specialized to
accommodate the expanding needs of users.

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Servers can be non-dedicated/non specialized(used for more than one tasks like used as file, print etc
server)or specialized servers(used for one/special task).
Examples of specialized servers:-
File Servers
File servers offer services that allow network users to share files. This type of service is probably the most
important reason companies invest in a network.
Print Servers
4. Allow users to share an d manage printers on network
Application Servers
Application servers make the server side of client/server applications, as well as the data, available to
clients. An application server differs from a file and print server. With a file and print server, the data or
file is downloaded to the computer making the request. With an application server, the database stays on
the server and only the results of a request are downloaded to the computer making the request.
Mail Servers
Used to manage message on the network
Web Servers
Manage Web based services.
Fax Servers
Fax servers manage fax traffic into and out of the network
Proxy Server
A Proxy Server implements Internet connectivity and network security for an entire organization.
is a server which services the requests of its clients by forwarding requests to other servers on behalf of
the client.

Advantages of Server-Based Network

1.There is centralized Sharing Resources control and management
Server-based data sharing can be centrally administered and controlled.
2. It has high Security and reliability
3. It Has good Backup mechanism
Backups can be scheduled several times a day or once a week depending on the importance and value of
the data. Server backups can be scheduled to occur automatically, according to a predetermined
schedule.
4.It support large Number of Users or Scalable
A server-based network can support thousands of users.
5. It has high performance and administration

Disadvantages of Server based Network

1.It is expensive b/c it needs servers.
2.It is complex to implement and configure
3.It needs Network administrator
4.There is dependency (Clients depends on server)
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 Network Topology
Generally, there are two types of topologies: Physical and Logical.
The physical topology of a network refers to the layout/arrangement of cables, computers and other
peripherals.
you will find several other terms that are used to define a network's design: physical layout /Design
Diagram / network Map
Try to imagine yourself in a room with a small network, you can see network cables coming out of every
computer that is part of the network, then those cables plug into a hub or switch.
What you're looking at is the physical topology of that network
Logical topology:- refers the method used to pass/transfer the information between the computers.
In other words, looking at that same room, if you were to try to see how the network works with all the
computers talking (think of the computers generating traffic and packets of data going everywhere on the
network) you would be looking at the logical part of the network.
The physical topology describes the layout of the network, just like a map shows the layout of various
roads, and the logical topology describes how the data is sent across the network or how the cars are
able to travel (the direction and speed) at every road on the map.
The choice of physical topology is dependent upon :-
4. type and number of equipment being used
5. planned applications and rate of data transfers
6. required response times
7. cost /money
8. Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter length of cable.
9. Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
10. Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used
with star topologies.
The most common types of standard physical topologies, which we are going to analyze, are:-
Bus, Star and Ring and Mesh

Bus Topology
is fairly oldest and you probably won't be seeing much of modern office .
In Bus topology All Nodes are connected directly to the main cable/backbone that carries the data. This
works well in a small network of 2-5 computers, but as the numbers of computers increases so will the
network traffic.
The cable is terminated at each end.
When the main cable fail the entire network will halt/stop.
NB: A node can be any device connected to a computer network. Nodes can be computers(server/client),
cell phones, switches, modems,routers or various other networked devices.

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. Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of computers
attached to the bus will affect network performance. The more computers there are on a bus, the more
computers will be waiting to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be.
Signal Bounce: Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from one
end of the cable to the other.
1. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and forth along the
cable and prevent other computers from sending signals(it is called Signal Bounce). Therefore, the
signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination address.
Terminator: To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each end of
the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send
data.
Star Topology

The Star topology is one of the most common network topologies found in most offices and home
networks. It has become very popular in contrast to the bus type, because of ease of troubleshooting.
In the star topology, cable from each computer are connected to a centralized component or device
called a Hub/Switch. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all
computers on the network.

each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a great deal of cable in a large
network installation. Also, if the central point /hub fails, the entire network goes down/Halt.

Figure 9. Simple star network

Ring Topology
In the ring topology, computers are connected on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there
are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop and pass through each computer, which acts
as a repeater( to regenerate/boost the signal and send it to the next computer).

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 Figure 10. Simple ring network
Mesh Topology
A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each computer
is connected to every other computer by separate cabling. This configuration provides redundant paths
throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. Advantages;-
4.1.1. decreased traffic problem ( congestion)
4.1.2. robust; a failure of a link has no effect on others
It increase reliability but it is expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling.

Figure 11. Mesh topology

Hybrid Topology
With the hybrid topology, two or more standard topologies are combined to form a complete network.
For example, a hybrid topology could be the combination of a star and bus or ring topology.
Common hybrid topology are:-
A.Star-Bus
In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked to a bus connection. In this topology, if a
computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network. However, if the central component, or hub, that
attaches all computers in a star, fails, then you have big problems since no computer will be able to
communicate.

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 Figure 12. Star-bus network

B.Star-Ring
In the Star-Ring topology, the computers are connected to a central component as in a star network.
These components, however, are wired to form a ring network.
Like the star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network.

Figure 13. Star-ring network

Topology Summery
There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an organization.
The following table provides some guidelines for selecting a topology.
Table 1.1: Topology Advantages and Disadvantages

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus 1. Use of cable is economical/ the  Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
least cheap.  Problems are difficult to
2. Media is inexpensive and easy to isolate/troubleshot.
work with.
3. Simple to implement and reliable.  Terminators are required at both ends of
the backbone cable
4. Is easy to extend or add nodes  Not advisable to install in a large
building(not used for large network)
5. Easy to connect a node to a  Lacks central control
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 bus/trunk  As main cable fail/break the entire network halt
6. Cheaper than other topologies.  It is slower than the other topologies.

Ring 7. Use less cable than Star Topolgy  Failure of one computer can impact the rest
8. provides equal access for all of the network, because each computer acts
computers. as a repeater to boost the signal and send it
9. There is no reliance on a central to the next computer.
hub. all messages pass through all  Problems are hard to isolate/troubleshoot.
devices.  Require more cable than Bus topology
 Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
Star  Easy to install and wire.  If the centralized point/Hub fails, the
 Modifying system and adding new network fails. Hence the network
computers is easy. vulnerable to breakdown as it is essentially
 Centralized Hub monitoring and controlled by one device.
management are possible.  Require more cable length than Bus and
 Failure of one computer does not Ring, so it is expensive in terms of cable and
affect the rest of the network. Hub.
 Faults are easier to locate and
isolate/easy to troubleshoot

NETWORK COMPONENTS /REQUIREMENTS

Computer Network needs both Software and Hardware network components.
4.1. Software Components of Network
Includes software that manage, control the network(Network operating system) and application software
like Ms-word, Peachtree, DBMS etc
Unlike operating systems, such as DOS and Windows, that are designed for single users to control one
computer, network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of multiple computers across a
network. The network operating system acts as a director to keep the network running smoothly.
The two major types of network operating systems are:
4. Peer-to-Peer network OS and Client/Server Network OS

Peer-to-Peer network OS
Allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access shared resources found
on other computers. However, they do not have application server, file server or a centralized
management source .
Eg. Windows for Workgroups like Windows 98, 2000 professional /Xp , windows 7 etc are examples of
as peer-to-peer network operating systems.

Client/Server Network OS
Are very powerful OS that allows to manage users, groups, resources and the whole network centrally
and securely.
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Client/Server Network OS are very powerful than Peer-to-peer network OS.
Eg. Novell Netware and Windows 2000 /2008 Server are examples of client/server network operating
systems.
B. Hardware Requirements for Network
Network hardware components includes different devices like Computers(Client/Server), Network
Interface Card ,Peripherals (i.e printer), Hub, Router ,Switch, Bridge, repeater, Cables,
Wireless media etc
A. Servers
server stands at the heart of most networks. It is a very fast computer with multiple processors .with a
large amount of RAM and storage space, along with a fast network interface card. The network
operating system software resides on this computer, along with any software applications, hardwares
and data files that need to be shared.
A server, like any computer, consists of two parts, the hardware and the software.
4.2. Network Interface Cards/NIC or Network Adapter Card
The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network media/cable
and the computer.

It used for moving data from the computer to the cable or network and vice versa.

Figure14. A sample NIC

4.3. Modem
5. Is a devise used for Modulation & Demodulation process
Modulation: the process of converting the digital signal(PC signal) to analog signal (like telephone
line /voice signal)
4. Demodulation: Conversion of analog signal to digital signal
4.1. Modem is used for internet dial-up connection(connect the computers to the internet using fixed
telephone line) .

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 Figure15. Modem Converting Digital Signal into Analog and Analog back to Digital.
NB: there are also network connectivity hardware components such as Hub, Router ,Switch,
Bridge, repeater etc we will discuss them later.

4.4. Network Transmission media

Transmission Media is the medium through which data is transmitted between source and destination
in a data communication system.
It used to transport network signals/data on the network system.
The speed or rate at which data transmitted over a communication channel/media is called Bandwidth.
Transmission media can be two types:-
A. Cable/Wired transmission media
B. Wireless transmission media
Cable/Wired /Guided Transmission Media
In Cable Transmission Media Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system)
Many cable types are available to meet the varying needs and sizes of networks, from small to large.
Generally, three major groups of cabling connect the majority of networks:
4. Twisted-pair cable
5. Coaxial cable
6. Fiber-optic cable

Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted around each other.
The cables are twisted to reduce interference and crosstalk (a phenomena where one wire causes
interference on another ,twisting cancels out electrical noise or EMI/ElectroMagnetic Interference/ from
adjacent pairs)
4. The oldest, least expensive, and most commonly used media
5. Highly susceptible to electrical noise, interference, and ‘tapping’ of the signal as compared to the
other guided media
6. Arrangement of twisted pairs into group used for high-speed (10-100 Mbps) LAN
7. Most commonly used for LANs, Telephone system or voice communication.

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Advantage of Twisted pair cable
1.It is relatively cheap
2.It can be installed easily and easily available
3.Commonly used for many network like Telephone system
Disadvantage of Twisted pair cable
1.It is highly susceptible/sensitive for EMI specially UTP.
2.It is limited to small data transmission speed/bandwidth
3.It covers less distance or limited to 100 meters
There are two type of twisted pair cable:-
 Unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP cables)
 Shielded twisted-pair cables (STP cables)

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

UTP is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming the most popular LAN cabling.
4. The maximum data transmission length is 100 meters.
5. Commonly made up of up to four twisted pairs enclosed in a plastic jacket
6. UTP is highly subjected to external electromagnetic interference.
7. The major popularity is b/c it used in Telephone system.

UTP
STP
Figure 16. UTP and STP cable
        There are 7 standard categories/Types of UTP cables:
4. Category 1(Cat-1) This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry only voice
information not used for other data transmissions unlike other category. It contains 2 twisted
pairs/4wires
5. Category 2 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 megabits per second
(Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire/8 wires.

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6. Category 3 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It consists of four
twisted pairs of copper wire.
7. Category 4 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 20 Mbps. It consists of four
twisted pairs of copper wire.
8. Category 5 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 100 Mbps. It consists of four
twisted pairs of copper wire.
9. Category 5e Improved version of cat 5 category. The bandwidth is 1000MBPS
10. Category 6 Similar to CAT5 wire, but contains a physical separator between the 4 pairs to further
reduce electromagnetic interference
NB: The most common types of UTP are Cat-5e and Cat-6
Cat-6 has high bandwidth and expensive than Cat-5
As category increase the bandwidth and cost also increase.

Figure 17. Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line bleed into another line
4. Twisted-pair cable uses RJ-45 (Registered Jack-45) connectors(used like for Cat-3,5 with 8wires) to
connect to a computer, and RJ-11 connectors(used to connect Cat-1 cable/Telephone cable with
4wires).
5. The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector.
4. A device called crimper is used to attach RJ-45 connectors to the twisted cables by the process
called crimping

RJ-45 Connector
Figure 18.RJ-45 connector and jack
Twisted-Pair advantages/disadvantages
UTP advantages
1. It has a large installed base and is a familiar technology.
2. It is relatively cheaper than STP.
3. Most LAN systems are readily capable of running over UTP/it is common.
4. It does not require bonding and grounding.
5. Easy to install and flexible.
UTP disadvantages
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 6. High-quality UTP systems require specialized installation procedures.
7. UTP is potentially more sensitive to external electromagnetic interference, crosstalk, and
attenuation than other media.
NB: attenuation is the loss of signal strength that begins to occur as the signal travels farther
along a copper cable.
8. Not recommended for LAN that requires a high level of security and you must be absolutely sure
of data integrity.
9. Not suitable for transmitting data over long distances at high speeds.
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective and of a higher quality than the jacket
used by UTP.
4. It allows to support higher transmission rates over longer distances than UTP but expensive, not
flexible and not common.

Coaxial Cable
In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a braided
metal shielding, and an outer cover.
4.1.1. better shielding than twisted pair Ü can span longer distances at higher speeds
4.1.2. bandwidth dependent on cable quality, length, … - close to 1 GHz for modern cables

Figure 19.Coaxial cable showing various layers

The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data.
5. It used commonly for TV- System
Coaxial cable has more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair cabling.
Types of Coaxial Cable
There are two types of coaxial cable:
4. Thin (thinnet) cable
5. Thick (thicknet) cable
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Which type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular network.
Thinnet Cable: Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches) thick.
Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of
network installation.
Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185 meters (about 607
feet) before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation.
Thicknet Cable: Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5 inches) in
diameter. The following figure shows the difference between thinnet and thicknet cable.

Figure 20. Thicknet cable has a thicker core than thinnet cable
The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that thicknet can carry
signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet).
Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer distances.
Thinnet vs. Thicknet: As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more difficult it is to work with. Thinnet
cable is flexible, easy to install, and relatively inexpensive.
Thick cable does not bend easily and is, therefore, harder to install. Thick cable is more expensive than
thin cable, but will carry a signal farther.
Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware

Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a BNC/British Naval connector
or Bayone-Neill-Concelman, to make the connections between the cable and the computers.

Coaxial Cable Advantages

It is less susceptible to interference than twisted-pair cable.
Transmit data for greater distances than is possible with less expensive cabling.
Transmit voice, video, and data
Support higher bandwidth than twisted pair cable.
Coaxial Cable Disadvantages
There are many types of coaxial cables, each suited for one, or at most, a small number of LAN
systems.

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Due to its high metallic content, coaxial cable is usually more expensive than other cable types.
It is affected by EMI although better than Twisted pair.
Fiber-Optic Cable

Optical fiber cable is very thin like hair contains glass (or in some cases, plastic) fibers rather than
copper wire. Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light pulses rather than electrical
pulses this eliminate the problem of Electrical interference.
4.1. Has Extremely high bandwidth: capable of >=2Gbps
4.2. Very high noise immunity, resistant to electromagnetic interference
4.3. Does not radiate energy/cause interference
4.4. Very difficult to tap (secure cable)
4.5. Better security than copper based cables b/c it don’t carry electrical impulses
That means fiber cable can’t be tapped ,and so the data can’t be stolen.
       

Fig.21. Fiber optic cable

4. NB: use it if you need to transmit data at higher speed over long distance in very secured manner.
Don’t use it if you don’t have enough budget and expert available to properly install and connect
devices to it.
Optical fiber advantages
Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical signals through copper. This translates into
lower attenuation and higher bandwidth than copper, allowing transmission to occur over longer
distances and/or at greater speeds.
High level of immunity to electromagnetic interference since signal is sent as light and not as
electricity.
It is reliable and secure media.
It can be used in hazardous condition like in highly flammable condition.
Optical fiber disadvantage
Due to the required conversions between light and electricity, more expensive electronics are required
than with copper-based systems.
Requires specialized installation procedures
Hard and complex to install.
Less flexible than other media.

Summary Of network cables

Characteristics Thinnet coaxial Thicknet coaxial Twisted-pair Fiber-optic Cable

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 ( Cable Cable Cable
Cable cost More than UTP More than UTP: Least More than thinnet, but less
thinnet expensive than thicknet
STP: More than
thinnet

Usable cable 185 meters 500 meters UTP and STP: 100 2 kilometers
length meters
Transmission 4-100 Mbps 4-100 Mbps UTP: 4-100 Mbps 100 Mbps or more ( >
rates STP: 16-500 Mbps 1Gbps)
Flexibility Fairly flexible Less flexible than UTP: Most flexible Less flexible than thicknet
thinnet STP: Less flexible
than UTP
Ease of Easy to install Moderately easy UTP: Very easy; Difficult to install
installation to install often preinstalled
STP: Moderately
easy

The Wireless Networking & Unguided (wireless transmission media)

Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of electrical
conductors or "wires". The distances involved may be short (a few meters as in television remote control)
or very long (thousands or even millions of kilometers for radio communications, Satellite television).

In wireless system their is no physical connection b/n the transmitter and sender ,they use air as a
medium.
In unguided media transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
The inherent difficulty of setting up cable networks is a factor that will continue to push wireless
environments toward greater acceptance.
Wireless connectivity can be especially useful for networking:
4. Busy locations, such as lobbies and reception areas.
5. Users who are constantly on the move, such as doctors and nurses in hospitals.
6. Isolated areas and buildings.
7. Departments in which the physical setting changes frequently and unpredictably.
Structures, such as historic buildings, for which cabling presents challenges.

Types of Wireless Networks

Wireless networks can be divided into three categories based on their technology:

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 1. Wireless LANs
Except for the cable used, a typical wireless network operates almost like a cabled network.
you will almost certainly always need an access point(act like Switch) and a wireless network
interface card.
2. Extended LANs
A wireless LAN bridge, for example, can connect networks up to 4.8 kilometers (three miles) apart.
3. Mobile computing (WWANs)
5. These types of networks can be maintained over large areas, such as cities or countries, via
multiple satellite systems or antenna sites .
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is a type of wireless network that interconnects devices
within a relatively small area, generally within reach of a person. For example, Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a simple type of wireless/WPAN networking that used for short-range transmission of
digital voice and data.

The primary difference between these categories lies in the transmission facilities. Wireless LANs and
extended LANs use transmitters and receivers owned by the company in which the network operates.
Mobile computing uses public carriers, such as long distance telephone companies, along with local
telephone companies and their public services, to transmit and receive signals.

Wireless transmission can of the following types

1. Terrestrial  Microwave
2.  Satellite  Microwave  
3. Infrared  Transmission
4. Radio Transmission
Terrestrial Microwave
1. Typically used where laying a cable is not practical
2. Parabolic dish shaped antenna used for transmission
3. transmits/receives electromagnetic waves in the 2-40 GHz range
4. Has High data rates: 100’s Mbps
5. Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart
6. Used for telephone and data transmission in wireless LANs
 
Satellite Microwave
4. Uses satellite in geostationary (geosynchronous) around 36,000 km above the earth
5. Source transmits signal to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and retransmits down to destinations
6. Optimum transmission in 1 - 10 GHz range;
7.  It has good band width like 100’sMHz
8. because of The huge distances covered by the signal result in propagation delays of up to 5 seconds.
9. The costs of launching and maintaining a satellite are enormous, and consequently customers usually
lease the services from a provider.

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10. VSAT ( Very small Aperture Terminal) :- High speed data transmission using satellite  
4. It used to transmit data all over the world with little cost.
It very important media it used like for TV, Telephone and other network
4.1. transmission from the earth to the satellite is called uplink; from the satellite to the earth is
called downlink

 Figure Satellite Transmission

Infrared Transmission
Infrared systems carry data between devices using infrared light
4. Used For short-range communication like
4.1. Remote controls for TVs
4.2. Indoor wireless LANs
5. Do not pass through solid walls
5.1. Better security and no interference (with a similar system in adjacent rooms)
6. No government license is needed
7. Cannot be used outdoors (due to the sunshine)
4. provides high bandwidths of up to 100MBps
The uses of infrared include military, such as: target acquisition, short-ranged wireless communication etc
Radio Transmission
5. It has a frequency range between 1KHz to 1GHz
6. can travel long distances, penetrate buildings unlike Infrared (can be used indoors and outdoors)
Wireless system advantage
4. Can be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to install cable.
5. Can be used in hazardous condition
6. Mobility(portability) and elimination of unsightly cables(beauty).
7. Installation speed and simplicity: installing a wireless system can be fast and easy and can
eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and ceilings.
8. More Flexibility: wireless networks offer more flexibility and adapt easily to changes in the
configuration of the network.
9. Can be used to transfer data in long distance like Communication satellite
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Wireless disadvantages
1. Typically, such systems are not able to meet the performance demands of large or busy networks.
2. Transmission can only occur over limited distances like infrared and at limited bandwidth.
3. The most obvious difference between wired and wireless networking is speed. Wired network has
high speed than wirless.
4. The potential for radio interference due to weather, other wireless devices, or obstructions like
walls (like in Remote Control).
Review Questions
1. What is the use of network transmission media?
2. compare and contrast the cable transmission media
3. list the cable connecter type for each cables
4. explain about wireless networking
5. compare and contrast the wireless transmission media

Network Access method

In networking, to access a resource is to be able to use that resource. This lesson introduces the role of
access methods in putting data on a network cable. It focuses on three major access methods: carrier-
sense multiple-access methods, token passing, and demand priority
The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable and takes data from the
cable is called an access method. Once data is moving on the network, access methods help to regulate
the flow of network traffic.
Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous access to the cable. By making sure that
only one computer at a time can put data on the network cable, access methods ensure that the sending
and receiving of network data is an orderly process.
Major Access Methods
The three methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network media include:
4. Carrier-sense multiple access methods (with collision detection or with collision avoidance).
5. Token-passing methods that allow only a single opportunity to send data.
6. Demand-priority methods.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method
Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD), each
computer on the network, including clients and servers, checks the cable for network traffic
Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it send
data. Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until
the original data has reached its destination and the cable is free again.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least popular of the three major
access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its target to transmit before it actually transmits
data. In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows them to avoid transmission
collisions. Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on the
cable and slows down network performance.
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 Token-Passing Access Method
In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called a token, circulates around a
cable ring from computer to computer. When any computer on the ring needs to send data across the
network, it must wait for a free token. When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of it
if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and additional information, such as
addressing, is attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers.
Demand Priority Access Method
Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps Ethernet standard .
In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the same time because of the
cabling scheme defined for this access method.
Demand-Priority Considerations
In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the sending computer, the hub, and
the destination computer. This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts transmissions to the
entire network. In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and repeaters directly
connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each hub knows the address of every node in the
network.

Ethernet
Is a most popular computer networking technologies (include cables, protocols, NICs etc)commonly used
in  LAN and WAN.
Problems related to using Ethernet hardware products from different hardware manufacturers in a single
network are nearly nonexistent.
Ethernet is a network protocol that controls how data is transmitted over a network.
It is most likely that the network in your office, at labs, bank and even at home is an Ethernet LAN.
Besides, most desktop and laptop computers come with integrated an Ethernet card(NIC) inside so that it
is ready to be connected to an Ethernet LAN. 
The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 100 BASE-T (the "BASE-T" part means
the systems use twisted-pair cabling) and provide transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second
(Mbps). 
Gigabit Ethernet provides speeds of 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit) and 10 GbE, or 10-Gigabit Ethernet,
provides up to 10 Gbps, and so on. Higher speeds are constantly under development for standardization

10BASE5 (also known as thick Ethernet or thicknet) was the first commercially available variant
of Ethernet. 10BASE5 uses a thick and stiff coaxial cable up to 500 metres in length with 10Mbs.
10BASE-T and its successors 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T( useUTP cat5e or cat6 with maximum
length of 100 meters) and 10GBASE-T, supporting speeds of 10, 100 Mbit/s and 1 and
10 Gbit/s respectively.
4. 1000BASE-LX is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet standard with 1 gigabit per second .

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Self check Questions
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and circle the answer
4.1. The network which connects computers in Addis Ababa sub city administration office
better/normally refered as
4.1.1. LAN B.MAN C.WAN
4.2. The Internet is
4.2.1. LAN B.MAN C.WAN
4.3. The network which implemented and accessed inside your college
4.3.1. Intranet B.MAN C. Extranet
4.4. The type of computer which provide services to other computers in a network
4.4.1. Client B. Standalone C. Workstation D.Server
4.5. Which of the following is not a convenient environment to use peer to peer network
4.5.1. In environment in which security is a big issue
4.5.2. Fewer number of computers
4.5.3. Budget constraints
4.5.4. Limited growth of network
4.6. We use switch in
4.6.1. Bus topology B.Ring topology C.Star topology D.Mesh topology
4.7. Which of the following is not true
4.7.1. In star topology if the central device fail the entire network will be down
4.7.2. Mesh topology have the maximum back up capability
4.7.3. In ring topology two computers can send data at the same time
4.7.4. In bus topology only one computer’s signal will transmit in the bus
4.8. Transmit signal in the form of light signal
4.8.1. Coaxial cable B.Fiber optic cable C.UTP D.STP
4.9. Interference of signal from one cable to other
4.9.1. Attenuation B. Cross talk C. Band width D.bounce
4.10. Which of the following is not true
4.10.1. There can be collision in CSMA/CA
4.10.2. Ethernet uses CSMA/CD
4.10.3. In token passing a computer can send data only if it has a free token
4.11. The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time
4.11.1. Broadband B.Internet C. Bandwidth D.Noise
4.12. A weakening of signal as the signal travels a long distance is called
4.12.1. Noise B.Attenuation C.Interference D.Crosstalk
4.13. Which of the following is true
4.13.1. UTP transmits signal for 100 meter B.STP is more resistance to interference than UTP
C. UTP is more flexible than STP D.Both UTP and STP uses the same connector
4.14. A network environment in which no computer have the power to control the other
computers
4.14.1. Hybrid network B.Peer-to-peer network C.Server based network D.client/server

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 4.15. In which environment peer-to – peer network is a right choice
4.15.1. Centralized security is required B.Where there is budget constraints
C.Where we need a security policy D.All of the above
4.16. If the education office of every region in Ethiopia is networked. This network referred as
4.16.1. WAN B.MAN C.LAN D.CAN

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 Ethiopian TVET-System
HARDWARE AND NETWORK SERVICING
Level III

INFORMATION SHEET # 2
Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology
LO 2: Determine user needs

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 Data transmission modes
The term transmission mode defines the direction of data flow between two linked devices.
In communications systems the transmission of information may be unidirectional or bidirectional.
The unidirectional systems that transmit in one direction only are called simplex, and the bidirectional
systems that are able to transmit in both directions are called duplex systems. Duplex system can be
half- or full-duplex .
When data are transmitted from one point to another ,three modes of transmission can be
identified:-
1)Simplex mode: In this mode ,data transmission occur/take place in one direction only.
The device can either be sender or Receiver, not both.
1. With simplex transmission, problems encountered during the transmission are not detected and
corrected. Senders cannot even be sure that the data is received

Sender Receiver

Example of Simplex mode TV, Radio transmission

2)Half Duplex mode: Communication can occur in both directions, but not at the same time .
In half-duplex operation the signal is transmitted in both directions but only in one direction at a time.
This is good for transmission in which case the receiver has to acknowledge that it has received the
message back to the sender.

2. In duplex it is possible to perform error detection and request the sender to re-transmit
information.
An example of Half Duplex mode Transmission can be Voice communication like
a mobile radio system walkie talkie .
3) Full Duplex mode: Communication can occur in both directions at the same time(simultaneously, i.e.
at the same time on the same channel), or both can send data while receiving.
An example of full Duplex mode Transmission can be telephone communication system
, Computer network.

Data transfer methods

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 In a complex system where a number of senders, receivers and many ways to move the data
between two communicating parties where the transmission system is made of a number of
nodes interconnected with a transmission medium, two typical methods are employed to ensure
data transfer. These are: Circuit switching and Packet switching

Circuit Switching
Switching describes how data finds a path from its source to its destination.
Circuit switching was designed in 1878 in order to send telephone calls down a dedicated channel.
3. It defines a static/dedicated path from one point to another; so long as the two points are
connected, all data traveling between those two points will take the same path.
The link between caller and receiver is created, then a dedicated communications link between the two
points (hence the term circuit) is created. The circuit cannot be broken, meaning no one else can use the
line.
In a data communications environment, however, this is a disadvantage because the data often
originates from various sources
Thus, it's unnecessary to include addressing information in the packet with the data. Because there's
only one path, the data can't get lost.
A channel is dedicated to the connection. In circuit switching:-
4.1. Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the conversation
4.2. Data are transmitted along the dedicated path.
4.3. At each node, incoming data are switched to the appropriated outgoing channel without delay.
4.4. Common example of circuit switch is telephone network.
4.5. Establishing circuit Switched network consists of 3 phases:
1) circuit establishment
2) data transfer
3) circuit disconnect
Characteristics of circuit switching:-
4.1.1. There is Call setup/circuit establishment
4.1.2. It is Inefficient: the path is permanently reserved even if there is no data to send.
4.1.3. Guaranteed connection
4.1.4. No delay for path calculation, however, busy when connected.
A packet-switching network has no permanent/dedicated physical path determining how data moves
from point to point. Instead, the addressing information in the packet helps route the data to its
destination. You could think of a circuit-switching network as a complex of moving pipes, each
disconnected from the others and a packet-switching network as a complex of connected pipes, through
which data travels, choosing its path based on variables like traffic conditions.
4. widely used in a modern network environment.
Messages are first divided into smaller pieces called packets. Each packet includes source and
destination address information so that individual packets can be routed through the transmission
system.
Packet Switching has the following characteristics:-

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 4.2. Large information /message divided in to A packet contains:- information about source and
target address, length of data, packet sequence number, flags to indicate beginning and end,
etc.
4.3. Data sent out of sequence
4.4. Small chunks (packets) of data at a time sent.
4.5. Packets passed from node to node between source and destination
4.6. One packet doesn’t necessarily follow the path followed by another packet.
4.7. Data is assembled and orderly arranged at the destination.
Example of packet switching:- computer networks like internet
Characteristics of packet switching:-
4.7.1. There is no Call setup/circuit establishment
4.7.2. It is efficient: the path is not permanently reserved; it is reserved only when data to be
sent are present.
4.7.3. Has no Guaranteed connection
1. There is delay like for path calculation, however it is less sensitive to network traffic/ busy.
Advantages of packet switching
1. Security
2. Bandwidth used to full potential
3. Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal)
4. Availability – do not have to wait for a direct connection to become available
2. Disadvantages
4.1.1. Under heavy use there can be a delay
4.1.2. Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
4.1.3. Not so good for some types data streams e.g real-time video streams can lose frames due
to the way packets arrive out of sequence.
The open system Interconnection (OSI) reference model
The first computer networks contained only computers from the same manufacturer because of
incompatibilities between the vendors/manufacturers. For example, enterprise networks ran either a
DECnet product or an IBM product, but not both. In 1978 ,The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) decided to overcome this problem by creating a unified reference framework
model which is called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)reference model// a standard
description. This model defines standards and protocols that all vendors have to obey in order to create
interoperable network devices and software. Therefore, even if nowadays computers and operating
systems are manufactured by different vendors, they are still able to communicate with each other since
they follow a common set of rules defined by the OSI model

The OSI model was intended to help vendors create interoperable network devices and software in
the form of protocols so that different vendor networks could work with each other.
As networks and suppliers of networking products have spread across the world, the need for
standardization has  increased.

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4. Communication requires a common language Standards specify how things are done to the smallest
detail.
One form of network standards is protocols
NB: Protocols are a language spoken/standards between computers to exchange information or are a
formal description of message formats and the rules that two computers must follow in order to
exchange those messages.
Advantages of Reference Models
1. Divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design, and troubleshooting.
2. Allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network components.
3. Allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
4. Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper development.
4. Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex process can be
broken into discrete, sequential tasks.
5.  The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven layers. Each layer
covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols. (Layering specifies different functions
and services as data moves from one computer through the network cabling to another computer.)
6. The seven layers of the OSI reference model from highest to lowest layers are Application layer,
Presentation layer, Session layer, Transport layer, Network layer, Data link layer, Application layer.
4. Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over the network to
another computer. The lowest layers—1 and 2—define the network's physical media and related
tasks, such as putting data bits onto the network interface cards (NICs) and cable. The highest layers
define how applications access communication services. The higher the layer, the more complex its
task is.

Application Layer
4. Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. It is closest to the
user. This layer relates to the services that directly support user applications, such as software for file
transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application
processes can access network services. Application-layer protocols are like File Transfer Protocol

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 (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),HTTP etc. Application layer provides user interfaces and
support network services like:-
• Email
• File access and transfer
• Hyper Text Transfer or access to WWW
Presentation Layer
4. Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked
computers. Think of it as the network's translator. When computers from dissimilar systems—such
as IBM, Apple, and Sun—need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte reordering
must be done. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data,
encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands.
5. The presentation layer is responsible for translating and formatting data, encrypting the data,
decrypting, compression of data (to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted).
Session Layer( Layer 5)

It allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called
a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is
responsible for managing this dialog. It also provide security, that are needed to allow two applications
to communicate over the network.
5. provides dialogue control between devices, or nodes.

Transport Layer (Layer 4)

It provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that
packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications/ data transport
reliability. At the sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several
packets and collecting small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are
transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the
packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message
was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it.
It uses sequencing, acknowledgments, retransmissions, and flow control to provide transport delivery.
The transport layer provides flow control and error handling , and participates in solving problems
concerned with the transmission and reception of packets. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX),User Datagram protocol/UDP are examples of transport-layer
protocols.
It Unpacks, reassembles and sends receipt of messages at the receiving end.
Network Layer( Layer 3)
It is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical
addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination computer.
This layer handles the routing of the data (sending it in the right direction to the right destination on
outgoing transmissions and receiving incoming transmissions at the packet level). The network layer
does routing and forwarding

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6. manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network, and determines the best
way to move data
7. Concerned about network addressing
Network addresses allow a system to be identified on the network by a logically assigned
address.
This is the layer where routing occurs. It provides logical addressing (e.g IP addresses) that routers use
to determine the best path to a destination. Packet forwarding and packet filtering occurs at this layer.
4.1. It also Manages traffic such as packet switching, routing and controlling the congestion of data
.

5. . Internet Protocol (IP),IPv6 and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of network-layer
protocols.

NB: Router, Gateway works in this layer.

Data-Link Layer (Layer 2)

The data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the
electrical impulses that enter and leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer
packages raw bits from the physical layer into data frames. (A data frame is an organized, logical
structure in which data can be placed). The electrical representation of the data (bit patterns, encoding
methods) is known to this layer only.
4. formats the message into pieces, each called a frame, and adds a customized header containing the
hardware destination and source address.
5. will ensure that messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN using hardware addresses,
and translates messages from the Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to transmit.
Data link Concerned with:-
5.1.1.1. physical addressing
5.1.1.2. network topology
5.1.1.3. error notification
5.1.1.4. flow control
5.1.1.5. reliable transfer of data across media
Switch and bridge works in this layer.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)

It is bottom layer of the OSI reference model.

This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network
cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of establishing and
maintaining a physical link between communicating computers.
The physical layer, at the bottom of the OSI model, is, as the name implies, the layer that defines the
nature of the network's like hardware elements, such as what medium the network uses, how the
network is installed. The physical layer also defines what kind of network interface adapter must be

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installed in each computer and what kind of hubs (if any) to use. Physical layer options include various
types of copper or fiber optic cable, as well as many different wireless solutions.
Physical Layer closest to the physical network medium (i.e the network cabling,connector ) , and is
responsible for actually placing information on the medium
The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher layers.
This layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC. For example, it defines how many pins the
connector has and the function of each.
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits (zeros and ones) from one computer to another,
ensuring that when a transmitting host sends a 1 bit, it is received as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit.
Physical Layer generally Concerned with:-
4. transmission of data across media
5. wires, connectors
6. defines the voltage used on the cable
7. data rates
8. Relates the electrical, optical mechanical and functional interfaces to the cable.
NB: device like Repeater , Hub works here

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model

The TCP/IP model is a specification for computer network protocols created in the 1970s by DARPA/
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, an agency of the United States Department of
Defense(DoD). It laid the foundations for ARPANET, which was the world's first wide area network and a
predecessor of the Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the Internet Reference Model, the
DoD Model or the ARPANET Reference Model.

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite was created to ensure and preserve
data integrity, as well as maintain communications in the event of atomic war.
The TCP/IP Suite defines a set of rules to enable computers to communicate over a network. TCP/IP
provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, shipped, routed
and delivered to the right destination.

It is a combination of two protocols TCP and IP that is an industry-standard suite of protocols that
provide communications in a heterogeneous (made up of dissimilar elements) environment. TCP/IP
very popular and has become the de facto standard for what's known as internetworking(the
intercommunication in a network that's composed of smaller networks. )
4. TCP/IP is a combination of two individual protocols.

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5. IP operates at Layer 3, and is a connectionless protocol that provides best-effort delivery across a
network.
6. TCP operates at Layer 4, and is a connection-oriented service that provides flow control as well as
reliability.
7. By pairing these protocols, a wider range of services is provided.
8. Together, they are the basis for an entire suite of protocols called the TCP/IP protocol suite.
9. The Internet is built upon this TCP/IP protocol suite.
TCP/IP was originally designed as a set of wide area network (WAN) protocols for the express purpose
of maintaining communication links and data transfer between sites.
All modern operating systems offer TCP/IP support, and most large networks rely on TCP/IP for much of
their network traffic.
Following are some of the advantages of TCP/IP:-
1.It is an industry-standard protocol.
2.It contains a set of utilities for connecting dissimilar operating systems

Many connectivity utilities have been written for the TCP/IP suite, including the File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) ,Telnet. They do not dependent on the network operating
system used on either machine. For example, a Windows NT server running an FTP server could be
accessed by a UNIX FTP client to transfer files without either party having to worry about compatibility
issues.
3.Used to Access to the Internet
10. The Internet is built upon this TCP/IP protocol suite.
4. Highly reliable or provide reliable network communication.
5. scalable or use in large network like Internet, client-server architecture

DISADVANTAGE of TCP/IP: complex

Other protocols written specifically/work with for the TCP/IP suite include:-
SMTP,POP3,FTP,HTTP,TFTP,IMAPetc
TCP/IP vrs OSI Model
The TCP/IP Model does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers(in OSI case),
it uses only four. TCP/IP Model is broken into the following four layers:-
4. Network interface layer
5. Internet layer
6. Transport layer
7. Application layer
Each of these layers corresponds to one or more layers of the OSI reference model.

Network Interface Layer

The network interface layer, corresponding to the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference
model, communicates directly with the network.
Internet Layer

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The Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model, uses several
protocols for routing and delivering packets. Routers are protocol dependent. They function at this layer
of the model and are used to forward packets from one network or segment to another.
Several protocols work within the Internet layer like(IP,ARP,RARP,ICMP etc):-

A) Internet Protocol (IP)

Is one of the most important protocol in the entire suite.
The most fundamental element of the Internet Protocol is the address space that IP uses. Each machine
on a network is given a unique 32-bit address called an Internet address, or IP address, in addition to the
MAC address of the network card.

4.1. Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and route
selection.
4.2. IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving host to
acknowledge receipt.

B) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the receiving machine
must be known. The ARP determines/provide hardware address (MAC addresses) for the corresponds
IP address.
C) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
A RARP server maintains a database of machine numbers in the form of an ARP table (or cache)
In contrast to ARP, the RARP protocol provides an IP number to a requesting hardware address. When
the RARP server receives a request for an IP number from a node on the network, it responds by
checking its routing table for the machine number of the requesting node and sending the appropriate
IP number back to the requesting node.
D) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
The ICMP is used by IP and higher-level protocols to send and receive status reports about information
being transmitted. Routers commonly use ICMP to control the flow, or speed, of data between
themselves. If the flow of data is too fast for a router, it requests that other routers slow down.

Transport Layer
The transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference model.
Is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between two hosts. The
transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow control, and sequencing of packets. It also
handles retransmissions of packets.
Protocols used in transport layer are like:- TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending
on the requirements of the transmission.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

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The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to another. It is a
connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known as a session, virtual circuit, or
link), between two machines before any data is transferred.
TCP provides connection-oriented, reliable communications for applications that typically transfer large
amounts of data at one time. It is also used for applications that require an acknowledgment for data
received.
It is designed to verify that all packets sent by a machine are received on the other end. If, for some
reason, packets are lost, the sending machine will resend the data.

It is transport layer protocol used by several well-known application layer protocols.

and services like Telnet, SMTP, HTTP, FTP etc

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of data. Unlike TCP,
however, UDP does not establish a connection.
UDP is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not required.
4. UDP is used by applications that do not require an acknowledgment of data receipt.
5. These applications typically transmit small amounts of data at one time. Broadcast packets must use
UDP.
Examples of services and applications/ well-known application layer protocols that use UDP are like
SNMP,POP3 and TFTP etc

Application Layer
Corresponding/contains the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI model, the
application layer connects applications to the network.
Numerous protocols have been written for use in this layer, including Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), SMTP, HTTP, Telnet and many others.

NB:The core protocols that make up TCP/IP are like TCP,IP,ARP,ICMP,FTP,SMTP,SNMP etc

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Introduction to Protocols
4. Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating.
5. They are language spoken between computers or the rules that two computers must follow in
order to exchange those messages.
6. It is a set of rules or standards that control data transmission and other interactions between
networks, computers, peripheral devices, and operating systems.
7.  The same protocol must be used on the sending and receiving devices. It is possible for two devices
that use different protocols to communicate with each other, but a gateway is needed in between.
Keep three points in mind when you think about protocols in a network environment

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4. There are many protocols. While each protocol facilitates basic communications, each has different
purposes and accomplishes different tasks. Each protocol has its own advantages and restrictions.
5. Some protocols work only at particular OSI layers.
6. Protocols can also work together in a protocol stack, or suite. Just as a network incorporates
functions at every layer of the OSI reference model, different protocols also work together at
different levels in a single protocol stack. For instance, the TCP/IP .
Types of protocols
Routable and non-routable Protocols
Routable Protocols
Data that is sent from one LAN to another along any of several available paths is said to be routed. The
protocols that support multipath LAN-to-LAN communications are known as routable protocols. Because
routable protocols can be used to tie several LANs together and create new wide-area environments,
they are becoming increasingly important.
4. Examples of routable protocols are almost all layer 3 protocols, and those that are layered over
them like TCP/IP, Telnet,SMTP,SNMP,IPX, AppleTalk etc
5. Routable protocols can travel through LANs and WANs and beyond because they can pass through a
router.

Non-routable protocoles
1. Assume that all computers communicate with are on the same network.
2. Today’s in modern networks most of these protocols are dying or falling out of use a because
they do not support multi-segment network.
3. Eg . Layer 2 protocols such as NetBEUI and Ethernet are non-routable protocols.

Connection-oriented and connectionless protocols

Connection-oriented protocols
4. Some network protocols like connection –oriented require that a host establish a logical
connection before data is exchanged, or session, before they transfer information.
5. Connection-oriented protocols are more reliable because they first gain a system's attention,
prepare it to receive information, then send the information.
6. However, connection-oriented protocols require more system overhead. 
Eg TCP
Connectionless protocols

7. Are protocols that do not require a previously established session

8. they rely on a "best-effort" technology that send the information, hoping that it will reach the
other system.
9. These protocols do not establish a connection between devices. As soon as a device has data to
send to another, it just sends it.
10. Some data packets might be lost in transmission ,so they are not reliable like connection-
oriented.

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 11. Eg. UDP,IP ,IPX, NetBEUI etc
Sample protocols
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail
b/n networked systems.
Behind the scenes, SMTP connects to remote machines and transfers mail messages much like FTP
transfers files. Users are almost never aware of SMTP working, and few system administrators have
to bother with it.
SMTP is a protocol that mail servers use to transfer e-mail. Internet Information Server (IIS) can send
messages using the SMTP protocol.

POP3(Post Office Protocol3):-most recent version of standard protocol used by local e-mail clients
for receiving e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP connection.
IMAP(Internet Message Access Protocol): standard protocol for receiving e-mail.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For exchanging files among computers running TCP/IP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) enables a file on one system to be copied /downloaded another system., the
correct permissions are necessary to provide access to the files.
FTP transfers can also be initiated from within a Web browser by entering the URL preceded with ftp://.
Real World Scenario: When should you use FTP?
i.e Your Branch office needs a 50MB file e-mailed to them right away. What do you do? Most e-mail
servers would reject the e-mail because they have size limits. Even if there's no size limit on the server,
it still would take much time to send this big file to office ,so FTP to the rescue!
If you need to give someone a large file or you need to get a large file from someone, FTP is a nice
choice than e-mail. Smaller files (less than 5MB) can just be sent via e-mail if you have large bandwidth .
FTP is a fast option you should consider if you are in need of sending and receiving large files.

HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):-most common and used for exchanging Hyper Text
documents(text, sound, movie, graphics ,multimedia files etc) On WWW b/n computer.
HTTP clients (such as Web browsers) and servers communicate via HTTP request and response
messages.
HTTP is the protocol used for the majority of World Wide Web communications

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): An Internet protocol for monitoring networks and
network components.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) provides status messages and problem reports
across a network to an administrator.
Self check Questions
Choose the best answer by circling from the given alternatives
4.1. Which one is a Simplex transmission mode
4.1.1. TV B. Computer network C.Telephone communication
4.2. Which of the following is not true
4.2.1. In full duplex two device can communicate at the same time

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 4.2.2. In half duplex communication is takes place only in one direction
4.2.3. Telephone conversation is a full duplex communication
4.2.4. Radio uses a simplex communication
4.3. Which of the following is true
4.3.1. Computer network uses circuit switching
4.3.2. In packet switching, every packet follows the same route
4.3.3. Telephone communication uses circuit switching
4.3.4. All are true
4.4. Data formatting is takes place in ____________layer of the OSI reference model
4.4.1. Physical layer B.Presentation layer C.Session layer D.Application layer
4.5. Internet explorer is found in ________________ layer of the OSI
4.5.1. Physical layer B.Application layer C.Data link layer D.Presentation layer
4.6. Makes to application to open, use and close a connection
4.6.1. Application layer B.Network layer C.Session layer D.Data link layer
4.7. The layer which is responsible for addressing computers
4.7.1. Presentation layer B.Session layer C. Transport layer D.Network layer
4.8. The set of rule and procedures which govern communication between computers
4.8.1. OSI B.Topology C.Protocol D.IP
4.9. The protocol which enables computer to send and receive e mail
4.9.1. FTP B.SNMP C.SMTP D.HTTP
4.10. Which of the following is connection oriented protocol
4.10.1. TCP B.UDP C.SMTP D.All

Ethiopian TVET-System

HARDWARE AND NETWORK SERVICING

Level III

INFORMATION SHEET # 3
Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology
LO 3: Develop best topology

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 Network connectivity devices
Repeaters
As signals travel along a cable, they degrade and become distorted in a process called "attenuation." If a
cable is long enough, attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable. Installing a repeater enables
signals to travel farther by re amplifying the weaken signal.

Repeaters afford the least expensive way to expand a network.

Repeaters do not Isolation or filtering packet it send every bit of data from one cable segment to
another. Repeaters do not act as filters to restrict the flow of problem traffic.
A repeater works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the network's signals
and resend them out on other segments. The figure below shows how repeaters regenerate weak
signals.
The repeater takes a weak signal from one segment, regenerates it, and passes it to the next segment.

Figure . Repeaters regenerate weakened signals

.
Use a repeater to:-
4. Connect two segments of similar or dissimilar media.
5. Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted.
6. Pass all traffic in both directions.
7. Connect two segments in the most cost-effective manner.
Do not use a repeater when:-
4. There is heavy network traffic.
5. Segments are using different access methods.
6. Data filtering is needed.

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 Hubs

Hub is used as the central hardware component to connect computers in a star topology. Hubs can also
be used to expand the size of a LAN(185 meters) .. Hubs are multiport repeater
A Hub works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the network's signals and
resend them out on other segments.
When data enters the hub through any of its ports, the hub amplifies the signal and transmits it out
through all of the other ports.

. There are two types of hubs:

Active Hubs: Most hubs are active . are Sometimes called multiport repeaters, receive incoming signals,
process the signals, and retransmit them at their original strengths. Active hubs are more expensive than
passive hubs as they provide additional features.

Passive Hubs: Send the incoming signal directly through their ports without any signal processing.
Or they act as connection points and do not amplify or enhance the signal.

Bridges

Bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. However, a bridge can also divide a network to isolate
traffic or problems. For example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers or a single
department is flooding the network with data and slowing down the entire operation, a bridge could
isolate those computers or that department.
4. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps
information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through.
5. Bridges work at the data-link layer of the OSI reference model.
6. Bridges actually have some degree of intelligence in that they learn where to forward data.

Bridges can be used to:-

4. Expand the length of a segment.
5. Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number of attached computers.
6. Link different physical media such as twisted-pair and coaxial Ethernet.

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 Figure . A bridge connecting two networks

Switch
It is used as the central hardware component to connect computers in a star topology.
Bridges and switches are usually used interchangeably; the difference is that a switch is most often
used to connect individual computers(offer a more direct network connection between the source and
destination computers)

Switches no longer broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they memorize addressing of
computers and send the information to the correct location directly based on MAC address(they
amplify, filter and forward packet).
4. In a small home or office, a hub is generally sufficient. However, if many users are always
sending large files to each other, the switch eliminates congestion
Hubs have actually become hard to find, due to the widespread use of switches

fig:48-port switch.

Routers

In an environment that consists of several network segments with differing protocols and architectures,
a bridge might be inadequate for ensuring fast communication among all segments. A network this
complex needs a device that not only knows the address of each segment, but can also determine the
best path for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to the local segment. Such a device is called a
"router."
Routers work at the network layer of the OSI reference model. This means they can switch and route
packets across multiple networks.

How Routers Work

Routers maintain their own routing tables, usually consisting of network addresses; host addresses can
also be kept if the network architecture calls for it. To determine the destination address for incoming
data, the routing table includes:
4. All known network addresses.
5. The possible paths between routers.
6. The costs of sending data over those paths.

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Routers do not talk to remote computers; Routers talk to other routers, but not to remote computers.
If one path is very busy, the router identifies an alternative path and sends data over that one.
Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge:
4. Filtering and isolating traffic
5. Connecting network segments
Types of Routers
The two major types of routers are:
4. Static Router.
Static routers require an administrator to manually set up and configure the routing table and to
specify each route.
5. Dynamic Router
Dynamic routers are designed to discover routes automatically and therefore require a minimal
amount of setup and configuration. More sophisticated than static routers.
Bridges and routers can be confusing even for engineers with LAN and WAN experience because they
appear to do the same things: both forward packets between networks and send data across WAN links.
4. A bridge can recognize only one path between networks. A router can search among multiple active
paths and determine which is the best path at that particular moment.

Gateways

Gateways enable communication between different architectures and environments. They repackage
and convert data going from one environment to another so that each environment can understand the
other environment's data. A gateway repackages information to match the requirements of the
destination system. Gateways can change the format of a message so that it conforms to the application
program at the receiving end of the transfer. For example, electronic-mail gateways, such as the X.400
gateway, receive messages in one format, translate it, and forward it in X.400 format used by the
receiver, and vice versa.
A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:
4. Communication protocols.
5. Data-formatting structures.
6. Languages.
7. Architecture.
Gateways interconnect heterogeneous networks; for example, they can connect Microsoft Windows NT
Server to IBM's Systems Network Architecture (SNA).

Network addressing
Addressing on a network can take one of three forms:
4.3. Computer names: on a typical network, most users prefer to use computer names to
communicate; computer names are far easier to remember than IP addresses. A computer
name is the logical equivalent of an IP or MAC address
4.4. IP(Internet protocol) addresses: Although users can use IP addresses, customarily IP addresses
are used primarily by applications to communicate with locations on or outside the network

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 4.5. MAC(Media Access Control) address: MAC addresses are the physical addresses of network
devices(NIC) and if users use computer names and application use IP addresses, then computers
and other networked devices use MAC addresses to access other devices on the network
With three ways to address elements on a network, there must be ways to resolve each type of address
to its equivalents.

MAC Addressing
4. A host’s MAC address is based on a 12-digit hexadecimal address (48bits) such as 0C.43.F6.D2.FF.7A.
Usually, the MAC address is burned in the NIC.

5. It is not hierarchical address and it is permanent address unlike IP address.

Although the MAC address is always used in networking. It cannot be routed. The MAC address is not
routable because of ,It does not pass through routers (because of its position in the OSI model is 2 not3 )

IP Addressing
 An IP address is a logical address of a computer/software, which is expressed as a four 8-bit group of
bits (a total of 32 bits) separated by periods. Each 8-bit group of bits can be represented by a 3-digit
decimal that spans between 0 and 255. For example 196.27.22.42
You can depict an IP address using one of three methods:
1. Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
2. Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
3. Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38

The total number of distinct addresses one can have from these 32 bit addressing scheme is 2 32 =
4,294,967,296.
4. It shows the specific location of a device on the network.
5. It allow a host on one network to communicate with a host on different network
6. It is hierarchical address that makes it to handle large number of address(2 32) like Telephone
number.
An IP address consists of two parts a network address that identifies the network and a host address
that identifies the particular host(i.e PC), or node. Host Is computer, connected to a physical network,
that exchanges information with another computer.

A)Network address(Network number):-uniquely identify each network.

Each computer on the same network has /share the same network address as part of it’s
IP address ,so it is a group address.
B)Node/Host Address:-is assigned to uniquely identify a particular machine as opposed to network
address.
It is particular address like hoseno. On a given kebele , unlike Network address.
NB :On the same network each computer must have unique Host address .

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Version of IP address
4. Internet protocol version 4/IPV4
5. Internet protocol Version 6/IPV6
Every computer on a network must have a unique address. If two computers have the same address an
address conflict occurs.

IPV4 Addressing
The IP address identifies and differentiates a given machine from all others on the network. It consists of
a 32-bit number that is usually displayed as four octets expressed in decimal and separated by periods.
=>8bits. 8bits. 8bits. 8bits.

Network classes / Classful IP Addressing

Internet designer decided to create classes of network based on network size, they created classful IP
address. For large number of network and small number of hosts probably class C IP address is an
option.
 There are five different classes of networks: A, B, C, D and E. classes D and E are reserved.
Class D is reserved for multicasting purpose and class E for experimental purpose.

Class Initial BitsAvailable Starting Address Remark

Nodes
A 0xxxxxxx. 224 -2= 0 – 127 127 is reserved for network testing
Max.network 16,777,212 Valid ID 1.0.0.1 through (Loopback) and 0 is not used.
27-2=126 126.255.255.254 The range is from 1.0.0.1 to
126.255.255.254
B 10xxxxxx. 216 -2= 128 – 191 The range is from 128.0.0.1 to
Max.network 65,534 Valid ID 128.0.0.1 through 191.255.255.254
214-2=16382 191.255.255.254

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 C 110xxxxx. 28 -2= 254 192 – 223 The range is from 192.0.0.1 to
Max.network Valid ID 192.0.0.1 through 223.255.255.254
221-2=2097152 222.255.255.254

D 1110xxxx.   224-239 Reserved for Multicast

E 1111xxxx.   240 – 255 Reserved for research

Class A networks/Address
4. Designed to meet the needs of large networks with many nodes.
5. This class will only support 126 networks; but each network can support 16,777,214 hosts. 
6. The first octet of the IP address is network portion and the rest is the node portion (part).
The Class A format is: NetworkID/bit. nodeID. nodeID. nodeID
NetworkID
0 x x X X X x x 24 bits node ID
For example, in the IP address 49.22.102.70 => 49 is the network address, and 22.102.70 is the Node
address.
To know the range of class A consider the first octet which is 0xxxxxxx ,here 0 is constant ,If we turn the
other 7 bits all off(0) and then turn them all on(1), we'll find the Class A range of network
addresses:00000000 = 0 and 01111111 = 127
So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0 and 127, and it can't be less or more.
NB: 0 and 127 are not valid in a class A network b/c they are reserved, so we use 1-126.
 A maximum of 126 (27-2) networks can be defined. The calculation requires that the 2 is subtracted
because 0.0.0.0 is reserved for use as the default route and 127.0.0.0 (also written 127/8 or 127.0.0.0/8)
has been reserved for the "loopback" function. The host calculation requires that 2 is subtracted
because the all-0’s of host bit is reserved for designating "this network" and all-1’s reserved for
"broadcast" address .
 Example of valid class A IP address 12.100.90.6, here 12 is the network address and 100,90 &6 is the
node address.
Reserved/not valid IP address in classful IPAddress
 Network address of all 0’s reserved/Interpreted to mean "this network or segment”
Eg. 0.67.9.8 , 0.123.44.67 etc
Network address of all 1’s class reserved/Interpreted to mean "all networks."
Eg. 255.4.96.37
Network 127.0.0.1 Reserved for loopback tests. Designates the local node
and allows that node to send a test packet to itself without generating network traffic
Node address of all 0’s in any class Interpreted to mean "network address" or any host on

specified network.

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Eg.18.0.0.0, 160.56.0.0, 198.12.7.0 etc not valid IP to give for PC.
Node address of all 1’s in any class Interpreted to mean "all nodes" on the specified network; for
example, 128.2.255.255 means "all nodes" on network 128.2 (Class B address).
Eg.15.255.255.255, 128.2.255.255, 200.20.25.255 are not valid IP for PCs.
Class B networks
4. was designed for medium-sized networks
5. This class will support 16,384 networks; and limited to 65,534 hosts per network. 
6. The first two octet (16-bit )are the network portion and the next two Octet are for nodes

7.  Each Class B network address has a 16-bit network-prefix with the two highest order bits set to 10
and a 14-bit network number, followed by a 16-bit host-number.
The Class B format is: NetworkID/bit. NetworkID. nodeID. nodeID

1 0 (14 bits) network id 16 bits node id

8. To know the range of class B consider the first octet which is 10xxxxxx ,here 1 and 0 are
constant ,If we turn the other 6 bits all off(0) and then turn them all on(1), we'll find the Class B range
of network addresses:10000000 = 128 and 10111111 = 191
9. A maximum of 16,384 (214) networks can be defined with up to 65,534 (216-2) hosts per network.
10.  Example of valid class B IP address 172.16.30.56, here 172&16 is the network address and
30&56 is the node address.
11. Example of invalid class B IP address for PCs,255.255.30.56, 172.16.0.0, 172.45.255.255 etc

Class C networks
1. Was designed for small networks; thus the number of hosts per network will be small, however it
will support many more networks total. 
2. The first three octet are the network portion and the remaining one for node.
1 1 0 (21 bits) network id 8 bits node id
3. A maximum of 2,097,152 (221 ) networks can be defined with up to 254 (28-2) hosts per network

4. Each Class C network address has a 24-bit network-prefix with the three highest order bits set to
1-1-0 and a 21-bit network number, followed by an 8-bit host-number.
5. To know the range of class C consider the first octet which is 110xxxxx ,here 110 are constant If
we turn the other 5 bits all off(0) and then turn them all on(1), we'll find the Class C range of
network addresses:11000000 = 192 and 11011111 = 223
NB: class A network(not mostly used) support the largest number of Host address and class C
(which the opposite of Class A)support the largest number of Network address. 
6. Example of valid class C IP address 192.16.30.56, here 192, 16 and 30 is the network address
and 56 is the node address.
When you determine the IP address, remember:
4. Each logical network must have its own network address.

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 5. All hosts in a network must have the same network address/ID .
6. All hosts in a network must have unique host addresses.
Other Classes(Class D and E)
In addition to the three most popular classes, there are two additional classes. Class D addresses have
their leading four-bits set to 1-1-1-0 xxxx (224-255)and are used to support IP Multicasting.
Class E addresses have their leading four-bits set to 1, 1111xxxx (240-255) and are reserved for
scientific/research use.

IP address type
6.1. Private IP addresses/ networks
Private IP addresses are typically used on local networks including home, school and business LANs.
Devices with private IP addresses cannot connect directly to the Internet. Likewise, computers outside
the local network cannot connect directly to a device with a private IP. Instead, access to such devices
must be brokered by a router.

1. Three ranges of address are reserved for use in private networks. These ranges are not routable or
accessible outside of private networks and private machines cannot directly communicate with
public networks.
The following are the three ranges reserved for private networks:
Clas Address range Number of addresses
s
A 10.0.0.1–10.255.255.254 16777216
B 172.16.0.1–172.31.255.254 1048576
C 192.168.0.1–192.168.255.254 65536

6.2. Public IP address

An IP address can be public - for use on the Internet or other wide area network (WAN).
Static verses Dynamic IP address
IP addresses can be determined statically (assigned to a computer by a system administrator) or
dynamically IP (assigned by another device on the network on demand like using DHCP Server).
NB: Network infrastructure devices such as servers, routers and firewalls are typically assigned
permanent /static IP addresses manually . The client machines can also be assigned static IP by a
network administrator, but most often are automatically assigned temporary /dynamic IP addresses via
software that uses the "dynamic host configuration protocol" (DHCP) commonly by DHCP server.
Reserved IP address

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Certain host addresses are reserved and can’t be assigned to devices on a network
These are
4. Network address used to identify the network itself with all host bits zero.
Example: 192.168.1.0
5. broadcast address used for broadcasting packets to all devices on the network with all host bits one
Example: 192.168.1.255
So usable host with in a network calculated by 2n-2 (two is subtracted because these are reserved for the
network and broadcast. where n is the number of bits used for the host portion of the address.
Broadcast address The address used by applications and hosts to send information to all machines
/nodes on a network rather than a specific machine.
NB:we get broadcast address by making all host bits 1’s in any class and the network bits are as it is(not
changed).
Eg1. 201.25.25.255, is a broadcast address for the network 201.25.25.0
Eg2. 10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all hosts on network 10.0.0.0.
Eg3, the broadcast address of 192.168.5.77 would be 192.168.5.255
Eg4, the broadcast address of 10.20.9.7 would be 10.255.255.255
NB: to avoid confusion broadcast address cannot be assigned to a Node.
Subnet mask (network mask)
2. A subnet mask or sub network mask is a 32 bit number which is used to identify which portion of
the IP address identifies the network portion and which part indicates the host part or portion.
3. A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that allows the recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network
ID portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of the IP address.
In subnet mask, all bits of the network ID portion/subnet bits are set to 1 (or we make all bits 1’s for
network and subnet bits) and all bits of the host address portion are set to 0.
Not all networks need subnets(small network), meaning they use the default subnet mask. This is
basically the same as saying that a network doesn't have a subnet address.
These default masks can’t be changed. In other words, you can't make a Class B subnet mask as
255.0.0.0.
Table : Default Subnet Mask
Class IP Format Default Subnet Mask
A network.node.node.node 255.0.0.0
B network.network.node.node 255.255.0.0
C network.network.network.node 255.255.255.0
Eg The default subnet mask of 8.20.15.1 ( 0001000.00010100.00001111.00000001) is 255.0.0.0
( 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000).
4. The default subnetmask of 138.20.15.1 is 255.255.0.0

Subnetting
A subnetwork, or subnet, is a logically visible subdivision(part of a network) of a network. The
practice /process of creating subnetworks is called subnetting.
4. Subnetting is the process of breaking down an IP network into smaller sub-networks called
“subnets.”

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5. subnetting, allows a network administrator to divide one large network into smaller logical networks
and, thus, control the flow of traffic for security or efficiency reasons.

There are many reasons to perform subnetting. Some of the benefits of subnetting include the following:
6. Reduced network traffic With routers, most traffic will stay on the local network; only packets
destined for other networks will pass through the router this reduce network traffic on that network
segment.
7. Optimized network performance This is a result of reduced network traffic.
8. Simplified network management It ís easier to identify and isolate network problems in a group of
smaller connected networks than within one large network.
9. To use address space more efficiently
The most common reason of subnetting is to control network traffic/to control heavy traffic loads.
To create subnet we borrow/take at least 2 bits from host bits so there will be a three level addressing
hierarchy which is Network number/bits ,subnet number and Host number.

Fig: three level IP addressing hierarchy

4. Here Host bits divided in to Subnet bits/number and Host bits. =>
This means fewer bits for hosts, so the more subnets, the fewer bits available for defining hosts.
Before implementing subnet , you need to answer /you need to determine
your current requirements and plan for future conditions by answering these simple questions:
1. How many subnets does produced/how many subnets needed by the organization currently and for
future?
2. How many valid hosts per subnet are available/needed currently and for future ?
3. What are the valid subnets?
4. What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
5. What are the valid hosts in each subnet?
NB: to know how many subnets can be created we use the formula:
2x -2 =y (no. of subnets that can be created)
Where x is the number of bits borrowed from host bits/ the 1’s other than the network bits (the 1’s in
host bits)in the subnet mask.
For example if we borrow 2 bits from host we can create 2 subnets => 2 2 -2 =2
NB: we subtract two b/c all 0’s and all 1’s of the subnet bits is not allowed for valid subnet.
5. to know how many hosts can be created /have per subnet we use the formula:
2n -2 =m (no. of hosts that can be created per subnet)
Where n is the number of bits remaining from the host bits/ the 0’s in subnet mask.
For example if we borrow 2 bits from host in class C we can create/have 62 hosts =>
26 -2 =62

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NB: we subtract two b/c all o’s and all 1’s of the host bits is not allowed for host which
is the subnet address and the broadcast address respectively.
Subnetting Process
Subnetting Class C IP Addresses
There are many different ways to subnet a network.
6. In a Class C address, only 8 bits is available for defining the hosts.
NB: When we borrow at least 2 bits for subnet from host bits by start from the left
host bits and go to the right, without skipping bits.
you cannot have to borrow only one bit for subnetting since that would mean that the
bit would always be either off or on, which would be illegal or 21 -2 =0 since you need
at least two bits for creating subnets.
Eg1. Subnet the IP Address/network 198.10.20.0 by borrowing 2 bits
From the Host.
Question1) How many subnet can be created?
Question2) How many Hosts per subnet are there?
Question3) What are the valid Subnet IDs list them?
Question4) List the valid Host address for each subnet (list only the range or sample =>Start and End
Host Address for each subnet) ?
Question5) List the broadcast address for each subnet
Question6) what is the subnet mask?
ANSWERS
2
4. 2 -2 =2 sunbnets can be created.
5. 26 -2 =62 hosts can be exist per subnet. Hence class C.
6. A.198.10.20.00000000=>invalid subnet ID /no. b/c all borrowed bits can’t be 0
B.198.10.20.01000000=>valid subnet ID /no. which is 198.10.20.64
C.198.10.20.10000000=>valid subnet ID /no. which is 198.10.20.128
D.198.10.20.11000000=>invalid subnet ID /no. b/c all borrowed bits can’t be 1.
Hence the valid subnet IDs are 198.10.20.64 (subnet 1)and 198.10.20.128(subnet 2)
4. A.for the 1st subnet(198.10.20.64) the valid hosts IDs are (62) they are=>
The 1st Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.01000001=>198.10.20.65
The 2nd Host ID/no. ----198.10.20.01000010=>198.10.20.66
The 3rd Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.01000011=>198.10.20.67
The 4th Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.01000100=>198.10.20.68
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
The 62th /last Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.01111110=>198.10.20.126
NB: Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.01000000=>198.10.20.64 is not valid b/c all host bits can’t be 0’s and
Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.01111111=>198.10.20.127 is not valid b/c all host bits can’t be 1’s which is
broadcast address.
NB: Valid hosts IDs are the numbers between the subnets ID(subnet ID+1) & broadcast ID(broadcast id-
1).

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4B.for the 2nd subnet(198.10.20.128) the valid hosts IDs(62) are=>
The 1st Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10000001=>198.10.20.129
The 2nd Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10000010=>198.10.20.130
The 3rd Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10000011=>198.10.20.131
The 4th Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10000100=>198.10.20.132
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
The 62th /last Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10111110=>198.10.20.190

NB: Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10000000=>198.10.20.128 is not valid b/c all host bits can’t be 0’s and
Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10111111=>198.10.20.191 is not valid b/c all host bits can’t be 1’s which is
broadcast address.
5. A.The broadcast ID/no. for the 1st subnet/198.10.20.01000000 is 198.10.20.01111111=>
198.10.20.127
5B.The broadcast ID/no. for the 2nd subnet/198.10.20.10000000 is 198.10.20.10111111=>
198.10.20.191
NB:We get the broadcast address by making all host bits 1’s in any subnet or by subtracting 1 from the
next subnet ID or last host ID + 1.
6.the subnet mask is 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000=>255.255.255.192
NB:We get the subnet mask by making all network and subnet bits 1’s and all host bits 0’s .

Exercise
1. Subnet the IP Address/network 200.10.20.0/27 by borrowing 3 bits
From the Host and answer the above six questions.
2. A company leased 193.62.52.0 Address , this company requires 6 sunbnets for it’s 6 branches and it
also has 10 hosts per subnet. Answer the above six questions.
3. Subnet the IP Address/network 199.7.8.0 by borrowing 4 bits from the Host. And answer the above
six questions.
4.AAU leased 130.62.0.0 Address , for its 7 campus subnets(4killo,5killo,6killo,commerce building
,debreziet campus and blackline) and each campus has 140 hosts. Answer the above six questions.

Overview of IPv6 Addressing

IP addresses change significantly with IPv6/ IP Next Generation (IPng) due to depletion or reduction of
IPv4. IPv6 has 128 bits address which is vastly larger(4times)address space than IPv4.
NB:It is new address space , supports 2128 (3.4×1038 (340 undecillion)addresses it is approximately
5×1028 (roughly 295) addresses for each of the roughly 6.8 billion (6.8×109) people alive in 2010.
In this full notation, pairs of IPv6 bytes are separated by a colon and each byte in turns is represented as
a pair of hexadecimal numbers, like in the following example:
E3D7:0000:0000:0000:51F4:9BC8:C0A8:6420
IPv6 addresses are generally written in the following form:

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 hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh
4. The main driving force for the redesign of Internet Protocol was the foreseeable IPv4 address
exhaustion.
5. IPv6 has been implemented on all major operating systems in use in commercial, business, and
home consumer environments.

IPv6 Features

The following are the features of the IPv6 protocol:

New header format
Large address space
Efficient and hierarchical addressing and routing infrastructure
Built-in security
Extensibility(can easily be extended for new features) etc

Collision Domains vs. Broadcast Domains

These different types of domains mean different things and when designing a LAN both of these
domains can harm the performance of your network.
The definition of a collision domain is a set of LAN devices whose frames could collide with one another.
This happens with hubs, bridges, repeaters and wireless access points as only one device can send and
receive at a time. If more than one device tries sending or receiving, the information is lost and
irrecoverable it will need to be resent. This can slow down network performance along with making it a
security threat.
A hub is considered a layer one device of the OSI model; all it does is send packets out on all ports
including the port in which the packet was received on. This causes a collision domain b/c only one
device can transmit at time. This also shares the bandwidth of all devices connected to that collision
domain.

A switch uses layer two of the OSI model, so the switch uses MAC addresses to send the packet to the
correct device. Rather than sending it to all ports a switch only sends the packet out one port, if it has
the MAC address in its MAC address table. If not the switch will send the packet on all ports except for
the port in which the packet was received on. Switches provide separate collision domains on each port.
This provides dedicated bandwidth to that device. This also allows simultaneous conversations b/n
devices on different ports. Each port can be operated at full-duplex so the device can send and receive
information at the same time

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  .
A broadcast domain is like a collision domain, the definition of a broadcast domain is a set of devices
that if one device sends a broadcast frame all other devices will receive that frame in the same
broadcast domain.
So if devices are in the same IP network they will be able to receive a broadcast message. Having a
smaller broadcast domain can improve network performance and improve against security attacks. The
more PCs and network devices connected to a single broadcast domain, the more broadcast messages
you will have. Remember a broadcast message goes to every PC and network device. An example is
when the router gets a packet that is destined to a host (192.168.1.124) on its Ethernet interface
(192.168.1.0 network) the router will send an ARP request saying who is 192.168.1.124? That packet will
go to every PC on the network, each PC has to look at the packet and then discard it if it is not
192.168.1.124. But only be processed by the PC that is 192.168.1.124. So a broadcast message can
be just like a collision domain and affect network performance. The only devices that can block or not
send broadcast messages are routers because they
separate networks. Each interface on a router
is a different   network.

Design Networks
During network design we do/consider a lot of things like:-

4. Choosing Peer-to-Peer or Server-Based?

5. Taking a Hardware and Software inventory
6. Telecommunications Equipment Survey
7. Requirements of the Network (Minimum Considerations)
8. Selecting Network Topology
9. Choosing an appropriate Network Media and hardware
10. Documenting Your Design ,building map and Making a Final Proposal

Whenever we start to design a network for an organization, we should clearly identify the organizational
objective and the goal of the network to be developed.

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 A general network goal that can work for most organizations can be to install an economical computer
network that will bring up-to-date communication technology and be flexible enough to allow for future
expansion. Some detailed network goals for a company are:-
4. Network the existing computers so that they can share information and printers.
5. Adding additional computers to the network.
6. Allow for the possible addition of computers at a later date.
7. Provide an Internet connection etc.
The first decision we need to make for this new network is whether it should be a peer-to-peer or a
server-based network. The factors we need to examine include the:
4. Size of the network, Level of security, Type of business.
5. Level of administrative support available, Amount of network traffic.
6. Needs of the network users, Network budget.
Example :A company that manufactures custom-made bicycles has asked you to install
an economical computer network that will bring it up-to-date in communication technology and be
flexible enough to allow for future expansion. Do you prefer Peer-to-Peer or Server-Based for the
company?
Answer: At present, the probable choice for the company is to use a peer-to-peer network.
Taking Inventory
After deciding on the overall network design, our next step in creating a network is to take inventory to
determine what hardware and software is already available and what needs to be acquired.
Taking inventory is an important step, because it sets the stage for future network expansion/upgrade.
To take inventory, you'll need to survey four categories:
4. Hardware survey
5. Software survey
6. Telecommunications equipment survey
7. Network requirements survey
Hardware Survey

This is actually a simple process, but one that should not be taken lightly. For each computer, you will
need to gather information, including:
4. Make and model. , Processor manufacturer and speed.
5. Amount of memory (RAM) installed.
6. The size and manufacturer of each hard drive.
7. Details of any other installed drives, such as compact-disc and removable disk drives.
8. Monitor:make, model, and size, Any installed peripherals like printers, plotters, and scanners etc
Software Survey

Be aware of all the software currently in use throughout the potential network. For example, if you were
to convert all the computers to Windows NT while you were installing the new network, you might find
that some of the old standby programs, once used on a daily basis, now no longer run. For each software
program, gather the following information:

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4. Program name ,Program version number
5. Availability of the original installation floppy disks or compact discs
6. Any licensing information
Telecommunications Equipment Survey

It might seem strange to review the existing telecommunications equipment (like modems
telephone lines)when you are installing a LAN, but this is actually a very important element of your
survey, especially if you intend to use like Internet connections a host on a LAN that includes modems
and enables users to connect to the network over telephone lines.)
Requirements of the Network

After you have examined the existing facility and equipment, you need to define the requirements of
your network. You'll then match these requirements to the existing hardware, software, and
telecommunications features available and determine what steps need to be taken to develop the
network. At a minimum, you should consider the following:
4. The size of the facility (located on a single floor vs. multiple floors)
5. The number of users
6. Whether the LAN will be extended to several buildings
7. The environment (office, manufacturing, out-of-doors)
8. The current network media, if any
9. The technical competence of users
10. The amount of network traffic (initially, and anticipated for the future)
11. The level of security

Building a Map

Now it's time to lay out the network. But before you begin to recommend a network plan for our bicycle
company, you will first need to make a map of all the elements involved. During this step, you should
consider two aspects of the network: the physical layout, including the location of each piece of
hardware and how it relates to the others, and the physical and logical topology of the proposed
network.
The second step is to create a layout of the network topology. Don't forget to include printers and other
peripherals, such as scanners and modems.
Choosing Network Media

The choice of which media to select should not be taken lightly. The cost of installation can be quite
high. The media you choose will usually be related to the geographic requirements of the site
NB: to choose cable you need to consider different factor like cable cost, distance cover, bandwidth
,security etc

Factors That Affect a Network Design

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Designing a network is more than merely planning to use the latest device in the market. A good
network design takes into consideration many factors:
1. Size Matters
Designing a LAN for a small office with a few users is different from building one for a large company
with two thousand users. In building a small LAN, a flat design is usually used, where all connecting
devices may be connected to each other. For a large company, a hierarchical approach should be used.
2 .Geographies
The geographical locations of the sites that need to be connected are important in a network design.
The decision making process for selecting the right technology and equipment for remote connections,
especially those of cross-country nature, is different from that for a LAN. The tariffs, local expertise,
quality of service from service providers, are some of the important criteria.
3. Politics
Politics in the office ultimately decides how a network should be partitioned. Department A may not
want to share data with department B, while department C allows only department D to access its data.
At the network level, requirements such as these are usually done through filtering at the router so as to
direct traffic flow in the correct manner. Business and security needs determine how information flows
in a network and the right tool has to be chosen to carry this out.
4 .Types of Application
The types of application deployed determines the bandwidth required. While a text-based transaction
may require a few kbps of bandwidth, a multimedia help file with video explanations may require 1.5
Mbps of bandwidth.
5. Cost Constraints
The one major decision that makes or breaks a design is cost.

Network documentation
The Results of Undocumented Network

let see the case if none of the primary server systems were documented. No one knew what server did
what, how much memory, disk space, what type of processor(s), and in some cases, did not know what
Operating System was installed. Because of the lack of network documentation, no one knew what was
suppose to be done to maintain enterprise Anti-Virus system. virus signatures had not been updated in
over six months. the system was not even functioning and nearly 90% of systems on the network were
infected with virus and worms (and not the annoying kind either, the destructive kind)

there were four different tape backup servers, and again, because of the lack of network
documentation, none of them had been maintained. The customer just kept changing tapes. And do you
know what, none of the backup jobs had been running for months. Talk about a false sense of security!

The very last thing that we want to talk about is how lack of network documentation and procedures
can affect network security.

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4. network documentation is very essential for maintaining ,managing resources etc

Basic Network Documentation

Here is a basic set of items that should be contained in network documentation:

All server hardware and operating systems should be documented, including the physical locations and
what primary, secondary, etc.. purpose they serve. All key service accounts , login account, user-id and
password's should be documented and stored in a safe location. A visual diagram of the network layout,
even from a high level, should exist no matter how small or large the network is.
5. Procedures on how to maintain the network technology, including Operating Systems, security
related services, backup and disaster recovery (business continuity), and firewall technologies should
exist.
6. Additionally, you should document and secure all Operating System and application licensing.
7. Other information to have documented is key contact information. For instance, who do you call if
your Internet connection goes down? Who do you contact if your offsite web services are not
functioning?
The above is just the basic items that need to be documented within a computer network. There are
many more aspects to network documentation.

Self check Questions

Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
4.1. Which of the following connectivity device is mandatory in network
4.1.1. Repeater B. Switch C. NIC D. Router
4.2. Which of the following is not the purpose of NIC
4.2.1. Receive data and convert to appropriate format that can be transfer in a cable
4.2.2. Determine and accept data sent to a computer
4.2.3. It filters layer 3 packet
4.2.4. All are true
4.3. One of the following doesn’t work in layer 2 of the OSI reference model
4.3.1. NIC B. Repeater C. Switch D.Hub
4.4. One of the following is not true
4.4.1. Active Hub works in data link layer of the OSI ref model
4.4.2. Passive hub retransmit signal without regenerating
4.4.3. Hub can have different ports to different cables
4.4.4. Hubs can be used in star topology
4.5. Which of the following is not true
4.5.1. Switches are multiport bridge
4.5.2. Switches work in layer 2 of the OSI reference model
4.5.3. Switches do not regenerate signal
4.5.4. Switches uses routing table to transmit signal
4.6. Which of the following work on network layer of the OSI reference mode

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 4.6.1. Router B. Repeater C. Switch D.Hub
4.7. Which of the following is true
4.7.1. MAC address of a computer can be changed
4.7.2. IP address is used in TCP/IP network
4.7.3. Every computer should have a unique MAC address to communicate
4.7.4. Once we assign an IP address to a computer it is very difficult to change
4.8. Which of the following is a class B IP address
4.8.1. 192.168.1.1 B.113.10.10.1 C.130.1.12.1 D.240.2.1.5
4.9. Which of the following is a different IP address than the other
4.9.1. 192.168.0.1 B.192.168.0.168 C.192.168.1.0 D.192.168.0.2
4.10. Which of the following is a correct private class C IP address
4.10.1. 192.160.7.8 B.10.10.1.2 C. 192.10.1.1 D. 192.168.100.200
4.11. The default Subnet mask of 100.10.2.1 IP address is
4.11.1. 255.0.0.0 B.255.255.0.0 C.255.255.255.0 D.255.10.0.0
4.12. Which of the following statements describe the network shown in the graphic? (Choose
two)

4.12.1. There are two broadcast domains in the network.

4.12.2. There are four broadcast domains in the network.
4.12.3. There are six broadcast domains in the network.
4.12.4. There are four collision domains in the network. 
4.12.5. There are five collision domains in the network.
4.12.6. There are seven collision domains in the network.

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