Basic Principles of Imaging Science II

Roger Easton

28 November 2004
Contents

Preface ix

1 Review for Optics 1

1.1 Optics: Introduction and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Review: Oscillations 3
2.1 Harmonic Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Harmonic Oscillations — Energy Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Anharmonic Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Representations of Harmonic Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Review: Complex Numbers 9

3.1 Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Euler Relation — Complex Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Arithmetic of Complex Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.1 De Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Description of Harmonic Oscillations via the Euler relation . . . . . . 16
3.5 Oscillations as Projections of Circular Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . 17
3.6 Phasor Notation for Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.7 Superposition of Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7.1 Digression: Nonlinear Optics and Second-Harmonic Generation: 19
3.8 Superposition of Same-Frequency Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8.1 Trigonometric Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8.2 Phasor Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.8.3 Complex Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.9 Superposition of Many Same-Frequency Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.10 Superposition of Randomly Phased Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.11 Superposition of Nonrandomly Phased Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.12 Superposition of Oscillations with Different Frequencies . . . . . . . . 29
3.12.1 Complex Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.13 Introduction to Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Review: Traveling Waves 35

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1.1 2-D Plot of 1-D Traveling Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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4.2 Notation and Dimensions for Waves in a Medium . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.3 Velocity of Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 Superposition of Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.5 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.6 Anharmonic Traveling Waves, Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.7 Average Velocity and Modulation (Group) Velocity . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.7.1 Example: Nondispersive Waves (vφ )1 = (vφ )2 . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.8 Dispersion Relation for Nondispersive Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . 43
4.9 Dispersive Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.9.1 Example: Dispersive Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.9.2 Propagation of Superposition of Waves in Nondispersive and
Dispersive Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.9.3 Energy and Information Transmission in Nondispersive and Dis-
persive Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5 Review: Doppler Effect 51

5.1 Transition from Acoustic Waves to Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . 51
5.1.1 Acoustic Doppler Effect, Source at Rest . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1.2 Acoustic Doppler Effect — Source in Motion . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.1.3 Acoustic Doppler Effect – Both Source and Receiver Moving 53
5.2 Doppler Effect for Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2.1 Difference between Light and Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6 Maxwell’s Equations for Electromagnetic Waves 57

6.1 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.1.1 Scalar Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.1.2 Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.3 Triple Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2 Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.3 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.4 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.4.1 Gauss’ Theorem for Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.5 Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.5.1 Example of Function with Large Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.6 Laplacian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.6.1 Curl of Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.7 Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.7.1 A Note on Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.7.2 Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.8 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.8.1 Gauss’ Law for Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.8.2 Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.8.3 Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.8.4 Ampere’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.8.5 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
CONTENTS vii

6.9 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.9.1 Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . 85
6.9.2 Poynting Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.9.3 Redux on Phase Velocity of Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . 89
6.10 Consequences of Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.11 Dispersion Redux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.11.1 Feynman’s Model for Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.12 Dual Nature of Light: Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.12.1 Momentum of Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.13 Optical Frequencies — Detector Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

7 Propagation of Light Waves 111

7.1 Wavefronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1.1 Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1.2 Cylindrical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.1.3 Spherical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.2 Huygens’ Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

8 Interaction of Light and Matter 115

8.1 Electromagnetic Waves at an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.1.1 Snell’s Law for Reflection and Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.1.2 Boundary Conditions for Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . 119
8.1.3 Transverse Electric Waves, s Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.1.4 Transverse Magnetic Waves (p polarization) . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1.5 Comparison of Coefficients for TE and TM Waves . . . . . . . 127
8.1.6 Angular Dependence of Reflection and Transmittance at “Rare-
to-Dense” Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1.7 Reflection and Transmittance at “Dense-to-Rare” Interface, Crit-
ical Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.1.8 Practical Applications for Fresnel’s Equations . . . . . . . . . 132
8.2 Index of Refraction of Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.2.1 Optical Path Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.3 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.3.1 Plane Polarization = Linear Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.3.2 Circular Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.3.3 Nomenclature for Circular Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.3.4 Elliptical Polarization, Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.3.5 Change of Handedness on Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.4 Description of Polarization States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.4.1 Jones Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.5 Generation of Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.5.1 Selective Emission: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.5.2 Selective Transmission or Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.5.3 Generating Polarized Light by Reflection — Brewster’s Angle . 141
8.5.4 Polarization by Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
viii CONTENTS

8.6 Birefringence — Double Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

8.6.1 Examples: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.6.2 Phase Delays in Birefringent Materials — Wave Plates . . . . . 144
8.6.3 Circular Polarizer: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.7 Critical Angle — Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

9 Optical Imaging 149

9.1 Transition from Wave Optics to Ray Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.1.1 Notational Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.1.2 Fermat’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

10 Image Formation in the Ray Model 155

10.1 Refraction at a Spherical Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.1.1 Paraxial Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.1.2 Nature of Objects and Images: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.2 Imaging With Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.2.1 Examples: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.3 Magnifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.3.1 Transverse Magnification: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.3.2 Longitudinal Magnification: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.4 Systems of Thin Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
10.4.1 Back Focal Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10.4.2 Front Focal Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.4.3 Lenses in Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.4.4 “Effective Focal Length” of a System with Two Lenses . . . . 168
10.4.5 Positive Lenses Separated by t < f1 + f2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.4.6 Cardinal Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
10.4.7 Positive Lenses Separated by t = f1 + f2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
10.4.8 Positive Lenses Separated by t = f1 or t = f2 . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.4.9 Positive Lenses Separated by t > f1 + f2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.4.10 Systems of Two Positive Lenses with Different Focal Lengths . 178
10.4.11 Newtonian Form of Imaging Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10.4.12 Another Example of a Two-Lens System: Telephoto Lens . . . 180
10.5 Stops and Pupils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.5.1 Stop and Pupils of Galilean and Keplerian Telescopes . . . . . 185
10.6 Ray Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.6.1 Marginal and Chief Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.7 Paraxial Ray Tracing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.7.1 Paraxial Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.7.2 Paraxial Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.7.3 Linearity of the Refraction and Transfer Equations . . . . . . 190
10.7.4 Paraxial Ray Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.7.5 Matrix Formulation of Paraxial Ray Tracing . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.7.6 Examples of System Matrices: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
CONTENTS ix

11 Waves and Imaging 209

11.1 Interference of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.1.1 Superposition of Two Plane Waves of the Same Frequency . . 214
11.1.2 Superposition of Two Plane Waves with Different Frequencies 217
11.1.3 Fringe Visibility — Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.1.4 Coherence Time and Coherence Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.1.5 Effect of Polarization of Electric Field on Fringe Visibility . . 225
11.2 Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.2.1 Division-of-Amplitude Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.2.2 Applications of the Michelson Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.2.3 Other Types of Division-of-Amplitude Interferometers . . . . . 231
11.3 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.3.1 Diffraction Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11.3.2 Fresnel Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
11.3.3 Fresnel Diffraction Integral as a Convolution . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.3.4 Diffraction Integral Valid Far from Source . . . . . . . . . . . 239

12 Basic Principles of Digital Image Processing 243

12.1 Digital Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

13 Review of Sampling 247

13.1 Digitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.2 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.2.1 Ideal Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.3 Aliasing — Whittaker-Shannon Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 251
13.4 Realistic Sampling — Averaging by the Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

14 Review of Quantization 259

14.1 Tone-Transfer Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
14.2 Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.3 Quantization Error (“Noise”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
14.3.1 Example: Variance of a Sinusoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
14.3.2 Example: Variance of a Square Wave: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.3.3 Variance of “Noise” from a Gaussian Distribution . . . . . . . 265
14.3.4 Approximations to SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.3.5 SNR of Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
14.3.6 Examples of Quantization SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
14.4 Quantizers with Memory — Error Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
14.5 Quantizers without and with Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
14.6 Quantizers without and with Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14.7 Image Display Systems — Digital - to - Analog Conversion . . . . . . 273
14.8 Cascaded ADC/DAC — “codecs” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
14.9 Image Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
14.10Realistic Interpolation of Sampled Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.112-D Interpolation with Rectangle Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
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14.122-D Interpolation with Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

14.13Ideal Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.14Ideal Interpolation of Periodic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.15Modulation Transfer Function of Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.16MTF of Realistic Sampling (Finite Detectors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
14.17Effect of Phase Reversal on Image Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.18Summary of Effects of Sampling and Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.19Spatial Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

15 Point Operations 279

15.1 Point Operations on Single Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.1.1 Image Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.1.2 Histograms of Typical Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.1.3 Cumalative Histogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
15.1.4 Histogram Modification for Image Enhancement . . . . . . . . 284
15.1.5 Jones Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.2 Histogram Equalization (“Flattening”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.2.1 Example of Histogram Equalization — 1-D “Image” . . . . . . 289
15.2.2 Nonlinear Nature of Histogram Equalization . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.3 Histogram Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.4 Application of Histograms to Tone-Transfer Correction . . . . . . . . 292
15.5 Application of Histograms to Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.6 Point Operations on Multiple Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.7 Digression: Introduction to Vision and Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.7.1 The Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15.8 Eye Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.8.1 Latency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.8.2 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.8.3 Eye Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
15.8.4 Eye Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.8.5 Spatial resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.9 Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.9.1 Color Matching, Metamers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.9.2 XYZ Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.9.3 CIE Chromaticity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.9.4 Color Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
15.9.5 Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
15.9.6 Color Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
15.9.7 Conversion from RGB to HSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
15.9.8 CIE Chromaticity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
15.9.9 Phenomena of Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
15.10Time-Sequence Images: Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
15.11Multispectral Histograms for Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
15.11.1 2-D Histograms of Color Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
15.11.2 3-D Histogram of House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
CONTENTS xi

15.11.3 Principal Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

15.12Color-Space Transformations for Video Compression . . . . . . . . . . 324
15.13Segmentation by Logical Operations on Multiple Images . . . . . . . 326
15.13.1 Multiple-Frame Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
15.13.2 Segmentation of a Single Noisy Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
15.13.3 Required Number of Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
15.14Image Subtraction for Change Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
15.15Difference Images as Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
15.15.1 Number of Bits in Difference Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
15.16“Mask” or “Template” Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
15.17Image Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
15.17.1 Image Division to Correct Spatial Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . 333
15.17.2 Image Division to Enhance Low-Contrast Imagery . . . . . . . 333

16 Local Operations 337

16.1 Window Operators — Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
16.2 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
16.2.1 Convolutions — Edges of the Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
16.2.2 Convolutions — Computational Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
16.2.3 Smoothing Kernels — Lowpass Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
16.2.4 Differencing Kernels — Highpass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
16.3 Nonlinear Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
16.3.1 Median Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
16.3.2 Example of Median Filter of Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . 354
16.4 Median Filter and Gaussian Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
16.5 Comparison of Histograms after Mean and Median Filter . . . . . . . 358
16.6 Effect of Window “Shape” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
16.6.1 Other Statistical Filters (Mode, Variance, Maximum, Minimum) 359
16.6.2 Examples of Nonlinear Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
16.6.3 Nonlinear Filters on Images with Additive Gaussian Noise . . 360

16.6.4 Nonlinear Filters on Noise-Free Gray-Level Image . . . . . . . 360

16.7 Adaptive Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

16.8 Convolution Revisited — Bandpass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
16.9 Bandpass Filters for Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
16.10Implementation of Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

17 Neighborhood Operations on Multiple Images 367

17.0.1 Image Sequence Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
17.1 Spectral + Spatial Neighborhood Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
xii CONTENTS

18 Shape-Based Operations 369

18.1 Pixel Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
18.2 Image Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
18.2.1 Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
18.3 Border Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
18.4 Cascaded Morphological Operations — “Opening” and “Closing” . . . 373
18.5 Applications of Morphological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
18.5.1 Noise Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
18.5.2 Medial Axis Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
18.6 Binary Morphological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
18.6.1 Horizontal Structuring Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
18.6.2 Vertical Structuring Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
18.6.3 “Complex” Structuring Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
18.6.4 Binary Morphological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

19 Geometric Operations 379

19.1 Least-Squares Solution for Warping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
19.2 Common Geometrical Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
19.3 Pixel Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
19.4 Pixel Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

20 Global Operations 387

20.1 Relationship to Neighborhood Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
20.2 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
20.3 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
20.4 Fourier Transforms of Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
20.5 Image Restoration via Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
20.5.1 Examples of Inverse Filters in 1-D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
20.5.2 Spectrum and Impulse Response of Inverse Filter . . . . . . . 395
20.5.3 Inverse Filter for SINC-Function Blur . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
20.6 Other Global Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
20.7 Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
20.7.1 Steps in Forward DCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
20.7.2 Steps in Inverse DCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
20.8 Walsh-Hadamard Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

21 Image Compression 407

21.0.1 References for Image Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
21.1 Image Storage, Transmission, and Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
21.2 Image Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
21.2.1 Information Content of Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
21.2.2 Maximizing Image Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
21.2.3 Information Content (Entropy) of Natural Images . . . . . . . 419
21.3 Lossless Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
21.3.1 Run-Length Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
CONTENTS xiii

21.3.2 Huffman Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

21.3.3 Information in Correlated Images — Markov Model . . . . . . . 425
21.4 “Vector” Coding (Compression) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
21.4.1 Example — Entropy of the English Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . 430
21.4.2 Other Flavors of Huffman Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
21.5 Arithmetic Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
21.6 Dictionary-Based Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
21.6.1 Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
21.7 Transform Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
21.7.1 Color-Space Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
21.7.2 Space-Variant Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
21.7.3 Block DFT Coding via DCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
21.7.4 Steps in Forward DCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
21.7.5 Steps in Inverse DCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
21.7.6 Forward DCT OF 2-D Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
21.7.7 Inverse DCT OF 2-D Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
21.8 JPEG Image Compression of Static Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
21.8.1 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
 Preface
The first course in Basic Principles introduced the concept of an imaging chain and
considered the links about the sources of radiation and the materials used to capture
the image. This course considers the links that collect the radiation (optics) and
process the data.

References

Optics
WebTOP (Web resources for “The Optics Project” of Mississippi State University)
(http://webtop.msstate.edu/ )
F. Crawford, Waves, Berkeley Physics Series Vol. III, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
D. Falk, D. Brill, and D. Stork, Seeing the Light, Harper and Row, 1986.
D. Halliday and R. Resnick, Physics, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 1978.
Eugene Hecht, Optics, Fourth Edition, Addison-Wesley, Reading MA, 2002.
K. Iizuka, Engineering Optics, Springer-Verlag, 1985.
F. Jenkins and H. White, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill,
1976.
M.V. Klein and T.E. Furtak, Optics, Second Edition, Wiley, 1986
G.R. Fowles, Introduction to Modern Optics, Second Edition, Dover Publi-
cations, 1975.
R. Feynman, R. Leighton, M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics,
Addison-Wesley, 1964.

Digital Image Processing

Center for Image Processing in Education (lots of links to software and images)
(http://www.evisual.org/homepage.html)
Image J software for image processing and analysis in Java, evolution of NIHImage
(http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/ )
Image2000 image processing software from NASA
(http://www.ccpo.odu.edu/SEES/ozone/oz_i2k_soft.htm)
Scion Image Processing Software
(http://www.scioncorp.com/frames/fr_scion_products.htm)
Hypercube Image Analysis Software (http://www.tec.army.mil/Hypercube/ )
Gregory A. Baxes, Digital Image Processing, Principles and Applications,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994.
Ronald N. Bracewell, Two-Dimensional Imaging, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, 1995.
Ronald N. Bracewell, The Fourier Transform and Its Applications (Second
Edition, Revised), McGraw-Hill, 1986.
Ronald N. Bracewell, The Hartley Transform, Oxford University Press, New
York, 1986.

ix
x Preface

R.N. Bracewell, “The Fourier Transform”, Scientific American, June 1989,

pp.86-95.
Kenneth R. Castleman, Digital Image Processing, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, 1996.
E.O.Brigham, The Fast Fourier Transform and its Applications, Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1988.
Michael P. Ekstrom, (Ed.), Digital Image Processing Techniques, Academic
Press, New York, 1984.
B.R. Frieden, Probability, Statistical Optics, and Data Testing, Third Edi-
tion, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2002.
Jack D. Gaskill, Linear Systems, Fourier Transforms, and Optics, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1978.
Rafael C. Gonzalez and Richard E. Woods, Digital Image Processing, Second
Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 2002.
Jae S. Lim, Two-Dimensional Signal and Image Processing, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, 1990.
Paul J. Nahin, An Imaginary Tale, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ,
1998.
A. Nussbaum and R. Phillips, Contemporary Optics for Scientists and En-
gineers, Prentice-Hall, 1976.
Wayne Niblack, An Introduction to Digital Image Processing, Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1986.
J. Anthony Parker, Image Reconstruction in Radiology, CRC Press, Boca
Raton FL, 1990.
William K. Pratt, Digital Image Processing, Second Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1991.
Azriel Rosenfeld and Avinash C. Kak, Digital Picture Processing, Second
Edition, Academic Press, San Diego, 1982.
Craig Scott, Introduction to Optics and Optical Imaging, IEEE Press, New
York, 1998.
J.S.Walker, Fast Fourier Transforms 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 1996.

Image Compression
Abramson, N, Information Theory and Coding, McGraw-Hill, 1963.
Ash, Robert, Information Theory, Dover Publications, 1965.
Dainty, C. and R. Shaw, Image Science, Academic Press, 1974, §10.
Grant, R. E., A.B. Mahmoodi, and W.L. Nelson, “Image Compression and Trans-
mission”, §11 in Imaging Processes and Materials, Neblette’s 8th edition, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1989
Huffman, David A., “A Method for the Construction of Minimum-Redundancy
Codes,” Prod. IRE 40, 1098-1101, 1952.
Jain, A.K., “Image data compression: a review”, Proc. IEEE 69, 349-389, 1981.
Khinchin, Mathematical Foundations of Information Theory, Dover Pub-
lications, 1957.
Preface xi

Pierce, J.R., An Introduction to Information Theory, Signals, Systems,

and Noise, Dover Publications, 1980.
Shannon, Claude, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication I,” Bell Syst.
Tech. J. 27, 379-423, 1948.
Shannon, Claude, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication II,” Bell Syst.
Tech. J. 27, 623-656, 1948.
Shannon, Claude, “Communication in the Presence of Noise,” Proc. IRE 37,
10-21, 1949.
Shannon, Claude, “Prediction and Entropy of Printed English,” Bell Syst. Tech.
J. 30, 50-64, 1951.
Rabbani, M. and P.W. Jones, Digital Image Compression Techniques, SPIE,
1991
Raisbeck, G., Information Theory for Scientists and Engineers, MIT Press;
1965.