AQA AS level Unit 2 Chemistry notes by Luna Hu

Energetics
Enthalpy: measures the total heat content of a system under constant pressure
Standard enthalpy change: change in enthalpy at constant pressure and temperature. (298 K and 100kPa)
Standard state: State of substance under standard conditions.
Bond dissociation energy: Energy required to break a covalent bond with all species at gaseous state.
Mean bond enthalpy: Average value of the bond dissociation enthalpy for a type of covalent bond taken from a
range of different compounds.

Standard enthalpy of reaction: Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is transformed by a chemical reaction
with all reactants and products at standard states, under standard conditions.
Standard enthalpy of formation: Enthalpy required to form 1 mole of a substance from its constituent elements
with all reactants and products in standard states under standard conditions
Standard enthalpy of combustion: Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is completely combusted in oxygen
with all reactants and products in standard states under standard conditions.
The enthalpies of all elements in their standard states are taken as 0. (By definition)

Hess’ law: The enthalpy change of a reaction is the same regardless of the route taken from reactants to products.
* Always include state symbols

Endothermic: When the amount of energy required to break the bonds is greater than the amount of energy
generated in the making of bonds. E.g. Photosynthesis, decomposition
Exothermic: When the amount of energy required to break the bonds is less than the amount of energy generated
in the making of bonds. E.g. Combustion, neutralization

Exothermic products are more stable as it has lower energy

Remember to draw single-headed arrows!! NOT DOUBLE HEADED Use polystyrene cups (except for
combustion) because they are good
It is important to measure the enthalpy because: insulators so less heat is lost to
- We can measure the energy of fuels surroundings.
- Calculate energy requirements Combustion is less accurate
- Predict whether or not a reaction will take place
because more heat is lost to
Measuring the enthalpy change of reaction: surroundings.
- Mass of substance BEING heated
- Temperature change of substance being heated
- Specific heat capacity of the substance (The specific heat is the amount of heat required to change a unit
mass of a substance by one degree in temperature.)
 Intersection of 2 blue lines shows the extrapolated but more
accurate ∆T, because some heat is still lost to the
surroundings immediately when the reactants are added
together.

Characteristics of good fuel:

- High calorific content
- Energy dense
- Easy to store, transport, and cheap

Thermochemical cycles can also be used to represent the

enthalpy change of a reaction. 0 is represented by the
constituent elements. These diagrams clearly show and
compare the differences in enthalpies of reactants and
products.

Kinetics
In order for a reaction to occur: particles must collide with E>Ea (activation energy) and at the correct
orientation
Rate of reaction: The change in concentration of a substance over a specified amount of time

To increase rate of reaction:

- Increase the temperature: Increases the speed of the molecules as well as their energy, meaning
the frequency of collision is increased and the proportion of successful collisions per unit time is
increased. (+10k =~ double rate of reaction)
- Increase concentration (solution): Increases the number of particles per unit volume, thus the
frequency of collisions per unit time increases, though the proportion of successful collisions
remains the same.
- Increase pressure (gas): Increases the number of gas particles per unit volume, thus the
frequency of collisions per unit time increases, though the proportion of successful collisions
remains the same. (for the direction of the reaction of higher # moles of gas to smaller.)
- Increase surface area (solid): Increases the number of particles exposed/able to be reacted, thus
the frequency of collision per unit time increases, but the proportion of successful collisions
remains unchanged.
- Use a catalyst: lowers the activation energy thus the number of particles with E > Ea increases,
thus the number of successful collisions increases.

Represented on a graph:
+ Temperature: steeper, levels off the same.
+ Concentration: steeper, eventually levels off higher (extent depends on concentration)
+ Pressure: Steeper, levels off the same.
+ Surface area: steeper, levels off the same
+ Catalyst: steeper, levels off the same

• Why graph levels off & why gradient decreases: over time, number of reactants/volume decreases,
collisions/time decreases, rate of reaction decreases. (eventually the limiting reactant is used up)
• No particle have 0 energy
• The peak is the most probable energy
• Slightly right of the peak is the mean energy
• There is no upper limit to the curve
• Area under the curve remains the same as the number of particles remains constant
• For a reaction to happen, the E > Ea.
• A small increase in temperature will result in a much larger increase in the number of
particles with E > Ea.
• Number of collisions in a given time increases as the temperature increases, but this is not as
important to the rate of reaction as the increase in the number of effective collisions.

Activation energy is the minimum energy a particle/molecule requires for a reaction to occur.
- Molecules pass on energy as they collide. (Some lose, some gain)

Catalysts: Increases rate of reaction without getting used up.

• Provides an alternative route of lower activation energy.

Catalysts don’t affect the enthalpy change of a reaction; they only lower the activation energy of
forward reaction.
(Nor do they change position of equilibrium)

Types of catalysts:
Heterogeneous- Catalyst is in a different phase to reactants
Homogeneous- Catalyst is in the same phase as reactants
Different phases are separated by distinct boundaries: e.g. water and oil, solid and solution.

How solid catalysts actually work:

Adsorption: reactants form weak bonds with catalyst – to hold them in place to be reacted
Desorption: products break away from metal atoms so more can be reacted on catalyst surface.
Equilibrium – can be reached from either direction but can only be reached in a closed system –
evinced when the macroscopic properties of the system do not change with time.

Dynamic equilibrium: When the rate of the forward and backward reaction are equal, and the
concentration of reactants and products remain constant in a closed system.

Shifting the position of the equilibrium by changing the conditions can alter the proportion of
the reactants and products.

La Châtelier’s principle: If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium will shift in the
direction that counters the disruption. (But it can’t tell how far the equilibrium shifts)

To change conditions of an equilibrium reaction:

• Changing concentrations: Equilibrium will shift to the direction that reduces the
concentration of that reactant/product.
• Changing overall pressure: (only works in gas phase) Equilibrium will shift to the direction
countering the increase/decrease in pressure
• Changing temperature: Equilibrium will shift to the direction to counter increase/decrease in
temperature.
• Catalyst: doesn’t shift equilibrium as it increases the rate of forward and backward reaction
equally.

Applications:
Haber process: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) ∆H* = -92KJ mol-1
Conditions: 400°C, 20000kPa, iron catalyst

(Important liquid fuel/chemical feedstock)

Ethanol: (hydration of ethene) H2C=CH2 (g) + H2O (g)  CH3CH2OH (g) ∆H* + -46KJ mol-1
Conditions: 300°C, 6500 kPa
• High pressure (too high) will polymerize the ethane
• Too much steam will dilute catalyst

Methanol: CO (g) + 2H2 (g)  CH3OH (g) ∆H* = -91 KJmol-1

Conditions: 500K, 10000kPa

Temperature: Costs money to reach and maintain high temperature

Pressure: costs money to reach and maintain high pressure. Equipment! Explosion!
^ Cost may outweigh benefit.

A compromise temperature: high enough to ensure rapid reaction, low enough for decent yield.
(Because high temperature results in increased rate of reaction but decreases yield; vice versa)
Redox: reduction-oxidation
Oxidation: gain of oxygen, loss of electron(s)
Reduction: loss of oxygen, gain of electron(s), reduction in
charge, gain in hydrogen Element Oxidation state
Hydrogen +1 (except metal hydrides)
Oxidizing agent: accepts electrons (and is reduced)
Reducing agent: donates electrons (and is oxidized) G1 +1
(ALWAYS REMEMBER TO IDENTIFY THE SPECIES NOT JUST
G2 +2
THE SINGLE ION!)
Aluminium +3
Oxygen -2 (except in peroxide and with F)
Oxidation state:
Shows distribution of electrons in a compound/molecule. Chlorine -1 (except with F or O)
Charge of element/ion/atom in a compound.
Ionic: number of electrons lost or gained.

*Every element has oxidation state of 0 when uncombined

Half equation: an ionic equation used to describe the gain or loss of electrons during a redox process. 2 half
equations combine to form balanced equation for redox reaction.
Simplest half equation: no spectator ions
Group 7
Halogen Atomic number Electronegativity Atomic radius Melting point State
Fluorine 9 Highest Pale yellow gas
Chlorine 17 Green gas
Bromine 35 Reddish liquid
Iodine 53 Largest Highest Grey solid (purple gas)
Electronegativity decreases down group
• Increased shielding
• Increased distance
• Attraction between bonding electrons and nuclei is
decreased.

Atomic radius:
• Increased number of main level shells
• Weaker attraction between e in shells
• More diffuse

Melting point:
• VDW forces
* electron #, area, shape, shells

Bond enthalpy:
Fluorine is unexpectedly weak because it is very small, thus the
non-bonding electrons are too close so they repel each other.

Oxidizing ability increases up the group. (Better at attracting electrons)

Evinced in displacement reactions. (G7 in G1+G7 compound displaced by more reactive G7)

Reducing ability of halide ions increase down the group. Further away + more shielding so easier to lose electron.
All solid sodium halides can react with CONC sulfuric acid. Product reflects reducing powers of halide ions.

NaCl (s) + H2SO4 (l)  NaHSO4 (s) + HCl (g)

Neutralization: not redox.
NaBr (s) + H2SO4 (l)  NaHSO4 (s) + HBr (g) Observe: white fumes (HCl) blue litmus turns red
H2SO4 (l) + 2Br- + 2H+  2H2O + Br2 (l) + SO2 (g)
Observe: Choking gas SO2
NaI (s) + H2SO4 (l)  NaHSO4 (s) + HI (g)
H2SO4 (l) + 2I- + 2H+  2H2O + I2 (l) + SO2 (g) Respective liquids/vaporized.

H2SO4 (l) + 8I- + 8H+  4H2O (l) + 4I2 (s)+ H2S (g)

Observe: rotten egg smell

Identification of group 7 halides:

1. Add dilute nitric acid to get rid of CO32- and OH- impurities
2. Add silver nitrate solution into solutions
3. Precipitate forms
Halide AgF AgCl AgBr AgI
Color colourless white cream Pale yellow
Further test Dissolves in dilute Dissolves in conc Doesn’t redissolve.
ammonia ammonia
Uses of chlorine: kill bacteria and sterilize water.

Disproportionation: oxidation state increases and decreases simultaneously.

Reaction with water: (chlorine is soluble)
Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ HClO (aq) + HCl (aq) [in cold water]
2Cl2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  4HCl (aq) + O2 (g) [UNDER SUN]
NaClO (s) + H2O (l) ⇌ HClO (aq) + NaOH (aq) [DIRECT CHLORINATION] (HClO: Chloric (I) acid)
Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) ⇌ NaCl (aq) + NaClO (aq) + H2O (l)[making of NaClO w/cold, dilute NaOH]
NaClO (Sodium Chlorate (I)): Making bleach and water disinfection

Group 2 – alkaline earth metals

Element Atomic number Metallic radius MP/BP Ionization energy

Magnesium 12 v Highest
Calcium 20 Highest
Strontium 38 ^
Barium 56 Largest ^
Size increases: extra filled main level of electrons
MP/BP decreases: sea of delocalized electrons further away from nuclei, weaker attraction.
[Exception: magnesium: lattice structure is different.]
Ionization energy decreases: more shielding and distance from nuclei thus easier to remove

Reaction with water and steam (more reactive down the group)
Water: M(s) + 2H2O (l)  M(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Steam: M (s) + H2O (g)  MO (s) + H2 (g) Anion Trend
(M = metal) Hydroxide More soluble down
Carbonate Less soluble down
Uses of group 2 compounds: Sulfate Less soluble down
*Calcium hydroxide used to treat acidic soil.
*Magnesium sulfate is used as a laxative.
*Barium sulphate is used as x-ray lining (your body doesn’t absorb it since its very insoluble)
*Barium chloride is used to test for sulfates because it forms white precipitate with it.
Extraction of metals:
Metals combine with sulfur and oxygen
Roast sulfide in air  oxide
(SO2 produced. Collected  sulfuric acid)
^ with water and oxygen
Gangue: clay and rock impurities
Sometimes temperature required for metal to react with Carbon is too high (uneconomic)
Ideal reducing agent: Cheap, readily available, don’t cause pollution, no harmful byproduct.

Iron (haematite) [continuous]

Recycling: reduces scrap in landfill
C + O2  CO2 [Exothermic 2000k]
CO2 + C  2CO [reducing agent] No CO2 produced (energy used to melt
produced CO2)
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2 Easily separable: magnetic
Byproduct: SiO2

Manganese: reduction with coke (impure carbon) or carbon monoxide

Copper (malachite): reduction with coke (old method) or carbon monoxide

CuCO3  CuO + CO2 [Thermal decomposition]
2CuO + C  2Cu + CO2

New method:
• Spray Cu low-grade ore with dilute acid in the presence of thiobacillus ferrooxidans.
• Cu extracted from solution with scrap iron
+ Scrap iron is cheap
+ No CO2 produced & less energy use than reduction with carbon

Aluminium (bauxite) [continuous]

Al2O3 dissolve in molten cryolite: Na3AlF6 [melting point 1240 k] 1000 k less!
Pass through current of 300000A (VERY HIGH COST)

Cathode: Al3+ +3e-  Al

Anode: O2-  ½O2 +2e-
^ @ high temp, O2 reacts with carbon anode (CO2)
Recycling: uses 5% of energy required to make them
+less CO2
Increased transportation costs (CO2 emitted in the process)

Titanium (Rutile) [batch]

Strong, low density, resistant to corrosion
TiO2 + 2Cl2 + C  TiCl4 + CO2 [TiCl distilled off. Temp: 1173 k]
TiCl4 + 4Na  Ti + 4 NaCl [inert argon atmosphere: stop metals reacting w/O&N; 1300k]
• Can’t use carbon as reducing agent, as @ high temp, metal react w/Carbon  carbide (brittle)
EXPENSIVE:
• Using a more reactive metal as reducing agent
• Batch process (heat back up)
• 3 step process

Tungsten  filament lamps

• Can’t use carbon as reducing agent as @ high temp, metal react w/Carbon  carbide (brittle)
WO3 + 3H2  3H2O + W
(H2 highly flammable)
Haloalkanes have polar bonds with the carbon it is bonded to, as they are all more electronegative than carbon.
- Polarity decreases down the group as difference in electronegativity decreases.
- The polarity is not sufficient to make them soluble in water.
- Increased branching decreases melting/boiling point: (decreased surface area therefore less vdw)

The reactivity of the haloalkane depends on :

Bond enthalpy and polarity, but the effects of bond enthalpy is greater than that of polarity.
The stronger/higher the bond enthalpy, the less reactive/harder it is for the halogen to leave.

Tertiary Haloalkanes are more reactive

than primary Haloalkanes

Nucleophilic substitution: to introduce new functional groups into organic compounds.

The carbon is electron deficient, it can be attacked by reagents that are electron rich or have electron rich areas.
1. The nucleophile provides the electrons for a new bond (using its lone pair)
2. Carbon can only have 8 outermost electrons thus the Halide ion is displaced (lowest bond enthalpy with C)

Nucleophile: electron pair donor

• Has a lone, unshared pair of electron on electronegative atom. (to form a covalent bond)
• OH-, CN-, and NH3 (neutral)
•Bond between C – Halogen breaks (heterolytic fission) resulting in production of ions.
Substitution: Chemical changes which replace atoms/groups of atoms by another atom/groups of atoms.
Hydrolysis: compound split in a reaction by water.

- SN1 favored by tertiary Haloalkanes

- SN2 favored by primary Haloalkanes

Ammonia as
nucleophile

Organic compound
formed is a primary
amine.
Methylamine,
Ethylamine,
Note: with CN-, nitriles are formed. Propylamine etc.
Ethanenitrile, Propanenitrile
(the C in CN must be taken into account)
Elimination: Hydrogen halide is eliminated from the molecule, leaving a double bond. (Alkene) A.K.A. hydrolysis

Under different conditions (No water present, only G1 hydroxide dissolved in ethanol, and heated) the OH- will act
as a base, removing the H+ ion from the haloalkane.

OH- removes H+ (dative covalent bond)

C-H electron moves down – x2 bond =
C-Br has lowest bond enthalpy hence it
leaves.

Formation of Haloalkanes – Free radical substitution reaction (chain reaction)

CH4 + Cl2CH3Cl + HCl

Initiation – The formation of free

radicals (from non-free radicals)
Initiated by UV light.
eg. Cl2  Cl• + Cl•

Propagation – ‘Recycling’ free

radicals (free radical to free radical
and back to initial free radical) 2
stages
Eg. Cl• + CH4  HCl + •CH3
•CH3 + Cl2  CH3Cl + •Cl

Termination – Free radicals

removed (free radical with free
radical  no radical)
Eg. Cl• + Cl•  Cl2
•CH3 + •CH3  C2H6
Cl• + CH3  CH3Cl

CFCs
• Very unreactive in normal conditions
• Goes high up in the atmosphere before decomposed by UV light.
Uses:
• Short chain – Aerosol, refrigerants, propellants
• Long chain – solvent, dry cleaning

Ozone: shields earth from excess UV radiation which causes blindness and skin cancer in humans
Ozone at ground level causes lung irritation, degradation of plastics and paints.

Deterioration of ozone layer:

Cl• + O3  ClO• + O2
ClO• + O3  2O2 + Cl•

Overall equation:
2O3  3O2
Alkenes
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons (1 or more c-c double bond) – decolorizes bromine water
- Planar molecule
- Restricted rotation (overlapping p orbital  π orbital)
- More reactive than alkanes as it’s very susceptible to electrophilic attacks (the double bond)

Position isomers: (difference in position of double bond)

Stereoisomerism: Same structural formula, bonds arranged differently in space (due to lack of free
rotation about double bond)
If the higher priority groups are
on zhe zame zide: z isomer
If the higher priority groups are
on the eppesite side: e isomer

Determining higher priority:

Highest atomic number.

Electrophilic addition
- the double bond is a high electron density area
- Electrophile is attracted to the double bond
• Positively charged (area or ion)
• Accepts pair of electrons
• Carbocation formed
• now negative ion forms a bond

1. δ + Hydrogen in H2SO4 is attracted to electron dense area (double bond)

2. Accepts an electron, forming a carbocation
3. Now negative ion attracted to + carbocation
Note: the electrophile can be a neutral molecule eg. Br – Br. Negative charge area in double
bond induces a temporary charge on both Br
 Note: Tertiary carbocation is much more
stable than primary as alkyl groups have a
tendency to release electrons (positive
inductive effect) which stabilizes the positive
charge of the carbocation. Thus the more the
C + is attached to alkyl groups, the more likely
it will be the main intermediate carbocation.

Polymerization of alkenes
Polymers: long chain molecules formed when many small molecules (monomers) join up in
long chains

(Addition polymerization of propene) – not additional!

- Repeating unit: smallest group of atoms that produce the polymer. (basically the monomer)
- low density: free radical substitution (branching, don’t pack together)
Polymer + name Uses
Polyethene (CH2=CH2) Plastic bags, bottles
Polypropene (CH3-CH=CH2) Rope, milk crates
Polychloroethene (Cl-CH=CH2) Vinyl records
Polypropenitrile (CN-CH=CH2) Clothing
Poly 1,1,2,2-tetrafluroethene (CF2=CF2) cookware

Plastic problems:
- not biodegradable
- Landfill sites
- Problem for animals when ingested

Solutions: reduce plastic usage or recycle

Mechanical recycling Feedstock recycling
- separate different types of plastic - Heat plastic
- wash once - Break polymer into monomer
- ground up into small pellets - make new plastics
- Melted and remoulded
- can only be done limited amount of times:
plastic’s properties degrades each time heated
(chains break)
Alcohols CnH2n+1OH

- OH = hydrogen bonding (thus higher mp bp than alkanes with similar RMM)

- Shorter chain alcohols soluble in water

Making alcohol:
• Fermentation
1. Anaerobic respiration: C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2 [using YEAST]
2. comprimise temperature : 35oC
- anaerobic to prevent oxidation

Biofuel: fuels produced from vegetable matter and organic waste

+ carbon neutral: an activity that has no net annual carbon (greenhouse gas) emissions to the
atmosphere
+ idea of carbon sink; recycling CO2

• Hydration of ethene (covered in previous chapter)

Comparing the 2 methods of manufacturing ethanol:

Fermentation Hydration
+ Renewable Continuous
Carbon neutral High purity, yield, atom economy, fast
Sugar canes cheap to grow
Low temperature (35)

- Batch Non-renewable
Low purity High energy and pressure (energy use)
Low yield & slow
Low atom economy
Fermentation stops at 15%
Labour intensive
Oxidation of alcohols:

Excess alcohol, dilute acid, K2Cr2O7, heat and distill

+ And
water

Excess [o], conc acid, K2Cr2O7, heat and reflux

2
+ And
water

Acidified K2Cr2O7

+ And
water

Would require a c-c

bond to be broken!

Alcohols are
• Neutral, free of water (anhydrous CuSO4 or cobalt chloride)
• Reacts w/solid phosphorous (V) chloride  HCL fumes

 Add potassium dichromate acidified with sulfuric acid

• warm in water bath
 that happens (1o and 2o turns green, 3o stays orange)

Test for carboxylic acid: add metal carbonate  CO2 bubbles

Tollen’s (AgNO3 + NH3) Fehling’s/benedict’s (Cu(II) + warming)
Aldehyde Mirror Blue  red ppt
ketone No∆ No∆
Elimination reaction: When a small molecule leaves parent molecule

Dehydration of alcohols: pass through hot concentrated sulfuric acid or Al2O3

Takes OH and adjacent H

Analytical techniques

Infrared spectroscopy: Identify functional groups in organic molecules

• Most compounds absorb infrared radiation

• Wavelendths absorbed corresponds to natural frequenc for vibration of bonds
• IR re-emitted from sample of decreased intensity (transmittance)

Fingerprint region (below 1500cm-1)

- complex vibrations of whole molecule
- unique to particular molecule
(identify isomers by superimposing with IR spectrums in database)

Greenhouse gases have large IR absorbtion ranges.

EXAM TECHNIQUES
General:
• FORMS acid rain
• Making plastic
• Making bleach
• State effects (rather than just naming)
• Don’t just write p/d orbital: specify shell number

Why is a process used:

• See product (pollution? Harmful?)
• See reactant (Harmful? Expensive? Explosive? Recycling?)
• Time and energy considerations (conditions)
• Atom economy

• Identifying species: the whole thing, not just the ion!

• Simplest ionic equation: write out whole equation and rid spectator ions.
• Mechanisms: use curly arrow.

Calculations:

• Look back at equation to check (moles)

• Enthalpy of formation/reaction/combustion: divide by # moles!

- Do plenty of past papers

- Read the syllabus
- Mark papers carefully, use the mark scheme to streamline answers
- Make note of mistakes and review them
- Read examiner reports if necessary

Good luck and don’t leave revision to the last minute!