CFR Ce-604 KSM

GPT 008 SKLM
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC
SRIKAKULAM
Department of Civil Engineering

___________________________
Course File
CONSTRUCTION FAILURES, REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
(CE-604)
DCE VI Semester (C-14)
Academic Year 2016-17
Prepared by
K.Srinivasa Murty
Lecturer in Civil Engineering
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GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC::SRIKAKULAM
Faculty of Civil Engineering
_____________________________________________________
Course code : CE-604

Course Title : CONSTRUCTION FAILURES, REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
Semester : VI
Course Duration : November 2016 – March 2017
Prepared by:
Name : K.Srinivasa Murty
Designation : Lecturer in Civil Engineering
Approved by:
Name : M.Malli Babu
Designation : Head of Civil Engineering Section
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Contents
1. Syllabus copy:
2. Vision of the Department
3. Mission of the Department
4. PEOs and POs
5. Course objectives and outcomes
6. Brief notes on the importance of the course and how it fits into the curriculum.
7. Prerequisites
8. Instructional Learning Outcomes
9. Course mapping with PEOs and POs
10. Time table
11. Lesson plan and learning objectives
12. Attendance registers
13. I unit QP &Scheme of evaluation
14. II unit QP &Scheme of evaluation
15. Sample evaluated answer scripts
16. Assignments sheets
17. Tutorial sheets
18. Performance analysis sheet
19. Question Bank
20. Remedial action
21. I Unit & II Unit marks
22. SBTET previous QP
23. Semester marks
24. Result analysis
25. Study material/Handouts:
26. Known gaps, if any
27. Faculty feedback report:
28. References, Journals, websites and E-links
29. Signature of faculty in-charge Verified by
30. Signature of HOD
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1. Syllabus copy
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Subject Title : Construction failures, repairs and maintenance

Subject Code : CE-604
Periods/ week : 05
Periods/year : 75
TIME SCHEDULE
Sl.No Major Topics Periods Weightage Short Essay

. of Marks Answer Answer
Type Type
1. Introduction 02 03 1 --
2. Subsurface construction 15 16 2 1
failures and repairs
3. Surface construction 08 13 1 1
failures and repairs
4. Masonry and concrete 15 26 2 2
failures, repairs
5. Manmade and Natural 15 26 2 2
failures, rehabilitation
6. Maintenance problems 20 26 2 2
and their solutions
Total 75 110 10 08
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the subject the student shall be able to
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Define
1. Error,
2. Defect and
3. Failure
1.2 State different types of errors causing failures.
1.3 State the causes of failures.
2.0 Understand subsurface construction failures and repairs

2.1 Describe construction failures in foundations – Under mining safe support –
Load transfer failure – Lateral movement – Unequal support – settlement and
differential settlement – Uplift in expansive soils – Design error – Construction
error – flotation and water change – vibration effect – earthquake effect.
2.2 Describe the repairs involved for rectifying the above failure.
2.3 Describe Sub surface construction failures – Trenches, sheeting and bracing,
piles and caissons – Sewer and tunnels, dams.
2.4 Describes the repairs involved for rectifying the above failures.
3.0 Understand Surface construction failures and repairs

3.1 Briefly describes the following types of failures in surface construction –
Slopes and slides – Subsidence, retaining walls and abutments.
3.2 Briefly describes the repairs involved for rectifying the above failures.
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4.0 Understand Masonry and concrete failures, repairs

4.1 Describe types of failures in masonry – Wall failure, construction error, aging,
joints and cracks, weather tightness, masonry cladding, partitions, ornamental
screens, plaster.
4.2 Explain the repairs involved for rectifying the above failures.
4.3 Explain the types of failures in concrete – Improper mix design, curing,
placement of reinforcement, Rusting of embedded steel, handling of pre cast
elements, shrinkage, expansion and plastic changes, surface disintegration
due to fire, spalling of concrete, compression failure, erection difficulty,
temperature change, Deformation and cracking – repairs.
4.4 Explain the repairs involved for rectifying the above failure- use of expansion
filler.
5.0 Understand Manmade and natural failures and repairs

5.1 Describe the following types of failures in manmade and natural disasters.
5.2 Demolition, deterioration, overload, alteration collapses, fire, explosion and
vibration, collision, wind damages, towers and masts, storm at sea, storm on
land, lightening damage, rain-ponding effect – Explain the repair’s involved for
rectifying the above failure.
5.3 Describe the failures due to ignorance and negligence – Ignorance, or
incompetence, negligence, control and supervision, responsibility.
5.4 Explain the repairs involved for rectifying the above failures.
6.0 Understand the Maintenance problems and their solutions

6.1 Describes the list of defects in buildings bringing out the investigation and
remedial details.
6.2 State the methods of solving dampness problems in buildings.
6.3 Explain the causes, preventive and corrective methods of cracks in building.
6.4 Explain the maintenance operations for the Water supply and sanitary
components of building.
6.5 Explain the methods of maintenance of roads / road berms / side drains.
6.6 Explain methods of repairs to canal linings.
6.7 Use of Leak proof chemicals for R.C.C roofs.
COURSE CONTENT
1. Introduction
a) Definition of error, defect, failure – Causes of failures.
2. Sub-surface construction failures and repairs
a) Failures in Foundations – Under mining – Load transfer failures – Lateral
movement – Unequal support – Settlement and Differential Settlement – Uplift
in expansive soils compression failure, erection difficulty, temperature
change, Deformation and cracking – Drag down and heave – Design error –
Construction error – Flotation and water change – Vibration effect –
Earthquake effect – repairing techniques to be adopted.
b) Failures during excavation – Sheeting and bracing – piles and caissons –
sewers and tunnels – measures to be taken.
3. Surface construction failures and repairs
a) Earthen bunds – failures – slope failures and sliding – subsidence –
measures to be taken to prevent surface construction failures – measures to
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be taken – retaining walls and abutments – geo-membranes – Rivetment and

pitching.
4. Masonry and concrete failures, repairs
a) Wall failures – Construction error – Aging – Joints and crakes – Water
tightness – Masonry cladding – Partitions – Ornamental screens – Plastering
failures - repairs.
b) Concrete failures – Improper mix design, curing, placement of reinforcement
and handling of pre cast elements – shrinkage failures – expansion and
plastic changes – surface disintegration due to fire – spalling of concrete –
repairs.
5. Man-made and natural failures, rehabilitation
a) Demolition – Deterioration – Overload – Alteration collapses – Fire –
Explosion and Vibration – Collision – wind damages of towers and masts –
Storm at sea – Storm on Land – Lighting damage – rain-ponding – effects –
rehabilitation measures.
6. Maintenance problems and their solutions
a) Water proofing, leakage of basements and roofs – Treating dampness in
walls – Omission of DPC – Window sills, down pipes and other areas of damp
penetration – Cico water proofing.
b) Cracks in walls – Horizontal, Vertical, diagonal – causes and prevention of
cracks in buildings – Care of floors, removing stains from floors – Inks, rust,
oil, paint and varnish.
c) Maintenance problems of plumbing, heating, hot water supply, clogged
drains, sewers, leaking pipe joints, electrical installations, other building
services, septic tanks and soak pits.
d) Maintenance of roads, road-berms and side drains.
e) Strengthening of canals, embankments, silt clearance weed removal, repairs
to canal lining.
f) Leak proofing of water tanks and roofs use of chemicals for RCC roofs.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Construction Failure by Jacob Feld - John Wiley & Sons, New Yark, London.
2. Failures & Repairs of Concrete Structure by S. Champion - John Wiley &
Sons, New Yark, London.
3. Engineering Structural Failures by Rolt Hammond – Odham Press, London
4. Learning from Failures by Raikar
5. Building Failures Diagnosis and Avoidance by Ran Son W.H. – Publishing E
and F.N. Span.
6. Maintenance Engineering for Civl Engineers-- Nayak B.S. , Khanna
Publisher’s, Delhi
7. SP: 25 –1987 Causes and prevention of cracks in buildings by BIS
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2. Vision
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VISION
To inculcate technical skills and to ensure high quality education
through dissemination of knowledge, insights and make them skilled to
suit the requirement of the society.
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3. Mission
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MISSION
← M1. To promote Quality Education, Research and

Consultancy for Industrial and Society Needs.
← M2. To inculcate Moral and Ethical Values among the
students and To impart Knowledge with emphasis on the
development of Leadership Qualities in students.
← M3. To provide the State-of-the-art Resources that
Contributes A Congenial Learning Environment and To
encourage Students To pursue Higher Education and take
Competitive Exams and various Career Enhancing Courses.
← M4.To establish centers of excellence in emerging areas of
Research. To have regular interaction with industry and offer
solution to their problems.
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4. PEOs and POs
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Program Educational Objectives of the Program
PEO-1 : To develop the ability among students to understand the concept of the subject and
giving the technical knowledge for higher studies.
PEO-2 : To embed a strong foundation in the engineering fundamentals to solve, analyze and
design real time engineering products. To expertise the student in Practical content,
communication skills for immediate employment.
PEO-3 : To give the depth of related skills and expertise in a single field, and the ability to
collaborate across disciplines with experts in other areas and to apply knowledge in
areas of expertise other than one's own to prepare the student as a ‘T’ shaped
Engineer
in the supervisory cadre.
PEO-4: To promote the students in Professionalism, Personality and Presentation through the
successful completion of the Civil Engineering Diploma by emphasizing through
Feild
Practices in Industry oriented activities.
PEO-5: To promote the students life-long self learning abilities to remain professionally
effective
to the society at large.
Program Outcomes of DCE Program
1. Basic knowledge: An ability to apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science and

engineering to solve the engineering problems.
2. Discipline knowledge: An ability to apply discipline-specific knowledge to solve core
and/or applied engineering problems.
3. Experiments and practice: An ability to plan and perform experiments and practices and
to use the results to solve engineering problems.
4. Engineering Tools: Apply appropriate technologies and tools with an understanding of
the limitations.
5. The engineer and society: Demonstrate knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal
and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to engineering practice.
6. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge and need for
sustainable development.
7. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
8. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse/ multi-disciplinary teams.
9. Communication: An ability to communicate effectively.
10. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the context of technological changes.
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5. Course objectives and outcomes
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Course Objectives
i) To know about the errors & failures in constructions

ii) To understand the subsurface construction failures and repairs
iii) To understand the Surface construction failures and repairs
iv) To understand Masonry and concrete failures, repairs
v) To understand the Manmade and natural failures and repairs
vi) To understand the Maintenance problems and their solutions
Course Outcomes:
Course Course Outcomes

CE 604.1 Understand the Definition of error, defect, failure – Causes of
failures
CE 604.2 Understand the Failures in Foundations –repairing techniques
to be adopted, Failures during excavation – Sheeting and
bracing – piles and caissons – sewers and tunnels –
measures to be taken
CE 604.3 Understands failures of Earthen bunds – and retaining walls
and abutments – geo-membranes – Revetment and pitching.
CE 604.4 Understands Wall failures – repairs, Concrete failures and
repairs.
CE 604.5 Understands Manmade failures -– wind damages of towers
and masts – Storm at sea – Storm on Land – Lighting
damage – rain-ponding – effects – rehabilitation measures..
CE 604.6 Understands Water proofing, DPC –Repairs to Cracks in
walls Maintenance problems in houses, Maintenance of
roads, canals, Leak proofing of water tanks and roofs
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6. Brief notes on the importance of the course and how it fits into
the curriculum
1. The student will be able to know about the basic knowledge about
Construction Failures
2. Understands the reasons for occurrence of various Construction Failures
3. Understands the repairs that can be attended for the construction problems.
4. Knows the importance of constructing structures with care.
5. Studies the failures in constructions that result due to man made mistakes as
well as natural causes.
6. Understands the methods of water treatment for eliminating the contaminants.
7. Understands the maintenance of buildings.
8. Understands the maintenance of Roads, Canals etc.
9. The student will gain all the necessary knowledge that require for a
construction engineer through various topics covered.
10. The course will be useful for understanding all the basics in construction
failures at various structural components and maintenance works that are to be
attended and the knowledge of which is very much required for the student in
real Civil Engineering Profession.
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7. Pre Requisites
Basic Knowledge In Construction Material And Construction Practice.
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8. Instructional Learning Outcomes
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UNIT – I
1. Understands about errors, defects and failures in constructions..
UNIT – II
1. Understands the construction failures in foundations – Under mining safe
support – Load transfer failure – Lateral movement – Unequal support –
settlement and differential settlement – Uplift in expansive soils – Design
error – Construction error – flotation and water change – vibration effect –
earthquake effect.
2. Understands the repairs involved for rectifying the above failure.
3. Understands the Sub surface construction failures – Trenches, sheeting and
bracing, piles and caissons – Sewer and tunnels, dams.
4. Understands the repairs involved for rectifying the above failures.
UNIT-III
1. Understands the types of failures in surface construction and slides –

Subsidence,
2. Understands the types of failures in Retaining walls and abutments.
UNIT-IV
5. Understands the types of failures in masonry – Wall failure, construction error,

aging, joints and cracks, weather tightness, masonry cladding, partitions,
ornamental screens, plaster.
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7. Understands the types of failures in concrete – Improper mix design, curing,

placement of reinforcement, Rusting of embedded steel, handling of pre cast
elements, shrinkage, expansion and plastic changes, surface disintegration due
to fire, spalling of concrete, compression failure, erection difficulty,
temperature change, Deformation and cracking – repairs.
8. Understands the repairs involved for rectifying the above failure- use of
expansion filler.
UNIT-V
1. Understands the types of failures in manmade and natural disasters-

Demolition, deterioration, overload, alteration collapses, fire, explosion and
vibration, collision
2. Understands the failures due to wind damages, towers and masts, storm at sea,
storm on land, lightening damage, rain-ponding effect
3. Understands the repair’s involved for rectifying the above failure.
4. Understands the failures due to ignorance and negligence – Ignorance, or
incompetence, negligence, control and supervision, responsibility.
UNIT-VI
1. Understands the defects in buildings bringing out the investigation and

remedial details.
2. Understands the methods of solving dampness problems in buildings.
3. Understands the causes, preventive and corrective methods of cracks in
building.
4. Understands the maintenance operations for the Water supply and sanitary
components of building.
5. Understands the methods of maintenance of roads / road berms / side drains.
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6. Understands the methods of repairs to canal linings.Use of Leak proof

chemicals for R.C.C roofs.
9. Mapping with PEOs and POs
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Course Mapping with POs
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO1
0
CE 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
604.1
CE 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3
604.2
CE 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3
604.3
CE 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2
604.4
CE 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
604.5
CE 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3
604.5
Course Mapping with PEOs

Programme Educational Objectives
Domain Professiona Higher Engineerin Lifelong
Knowledge l Degrees g learning
Employme Citizenship
nt
An ability to apply
knowledge of basic
mathematics, science
and engineering to √ √ √ √ √
solve the engineering
problems
An ability to apply
discipline - specific √ √ √ √ √
knowledge to solve
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core and/or applied

engineering problems
An ability to plan and
perform experiments
and practices and to √ √ √ √ √
use the results to solve
engineering problems
Apply appropriate
technologies and tools
with an understanding √ √ √ √
of the limitations
Demonstrate
knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety,
legal and cultural
issues and the √ √ √ √
consequent
responsibilities
relevant to
engineering practice
Understand the impact
of the engineering
solutions in societal
and environmental
contexts, and √ √ √ √
demonstrate the
knowledge and need
for sustainable
development
Apply ethical
principles and commit
to professional ethics
and responsibilities √ √ √ √
and norms of the
engineering practice
Function effectively
as an individual, and
as a member or leader
in √ √ √ √ √
diverse/multidisciplin
ary teams
An ability to
communicate √ √ √ √ √
effectively
Recognize the need
for, and have the
preparation and ability
to engage in
independent and life- √ √ √ √ √
long learning in the
context of
technological changes
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10. Class Time Table
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11. Lesson plan and learning objectives
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_____________________________________________________
Course code : CE-604

Course Title : Construction failures, repairs and maintenance
Semester : VI
Course Duration : November 2016 – March 2017
Course details:
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Course Course Credits Class

code Title schedule
L T P
Day Order I : 7th
period
Day Order IV : 4th
period
Construction
CE-604 failures, repairs 05 - - Day Order VI : 5,6
and maintenance
periods
Day Order VII : 1st
period
L: Lectures T:Tutorials P:Practicals
Faculty Details:
Name of the Office Office hours Mail id
Faculty
K.Srinivasa Murty Civil Engg Section 9.30 AM-4.00 [email protected]

Lecturer in Civil PM
Engineering
LESSON PLAN
Sub Code & Name : CE – 604 Construction failures, repairs and maintenance
Unit – I Branch : Civil Semester : VI
Unit-I Syllabus: 2 Periods

To Understand about errors, defects and failures in constructions, different types of errors
causing failures and the causes of failures
Objective: To Understand the definitions in introductory topic.
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Session Teaching
Topics to be covered Time Reference
No. Aids
Understands about errors, defects and failures in

1 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
constructions
Understands different types of errors causing
2 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
failures and the causes of failures.
BB = BLACK BOARD TEACHING
LESSON PLAN
Unit – II Branch : Civil Semester : VI
Unit- II Syllabus: 15 Periods

To Understand the Failure of Foundations, Trenches, Sewers, Dams, Piles, Caissons etc
and their repairing techniques
Objective:. To Understand the Sub-surface construction failures and repairs
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Session Teaching
No. Aids
Understands the construction failures in foundations

3,4 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
– Under mining safe support – Load transfer failure
Lateral movement – Unequal support – settlement
5 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
and differential settlement
Uplift in expansive soils – Design error –
6 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
Construction error
flotation and water change – vibration effect –
7 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
earthquake effect
Understands the repairs involved for rectifying the
8,9 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
above failure
repairs involved for rectifying the above failure
10 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
Continued
Understands the Sub surface construction failures –
11 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
Trenches, sheeting
12 bracing, piles and caissons 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
13,14 Failure of Sewer and tunnels 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
15 Failure of Dams 50 Min 1,2,6 BB

16 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
above failures
repairs involved for rectifying the above failures
17 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
continued
LESSON PLAN
Unit – III Branch : Civil Semester : VI
Unit- III Syllabus: 8 Periods

To understand the failures in surface constructions like retaining walls, abutments, failure due
to landslides, subsidence etc and to know the repairing methods
Objective: To Understand the Surface construction failures and repairs
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Session Teaching
No. Aids
Understands the types of failures in surface

18,19 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
construction
20 slides – Subsidence 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
21 Understands the types of failures in Retaining walls 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
22 Understands the types of failures in abutments 50 Min 1,2,6 BB

23,24 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
above failures
25 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
continued
LESSON PLAN
Unit – IV Branch : Civil Semester : VI
Unit- IV Syllabus: 15 Periods

To Understands the Understands the types of failures in masonry – the repairs involved for
rectifying the above failures. To Understands the types of failures in concrete –– repairs.
Objective: To understand the Masonry and concrete failures, repairs
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Session Teaching
No. Aids
26 Understands the types of failures in masonry 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
27 Wall failure, construction error, aging 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
joints and cracks, weather tightness, masonry

28,29 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
cladding
Partitions, ornamental screens, plaster.
30 50 Min 1,2,6 BB

31 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
above failures
32 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
contd
Understands the types of failures in concrete –
33,34 Improper mix design, curing, placement of 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
reinforcement
Rusting of embedded steel, handling of pre cast
35 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
elements, shrinkage, expansion and plastic changes
surface disintegration due to fire, spalling of
36 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
concrete, compression failure
37 erection difficulty, temperature change 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
38,39 Deformation and cracking – repairs 100 Min 1,2,6 BB

40 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
above failure- use of expansion filler
LESSON PLAN
Unit – V Branch : Civil Semester : VI
Unit- V Syllabus: 15 Periods

To Understands the types of failures in manmade and natural disasters-Understands the
failures due to ignorance and negligence – Understands the repairs involved for rectifying the
above failures.
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Objective: Understands the Man-made and natural failures, rehabilitation
Session Teaching
No. Aids
Understands the types of failures in manmade

41 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
disasters-Demolition, deterioration
42 overload, alteration collapses 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
43,44 fire, explosion and vibration, collision 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
Understands the types of failures in natural disasters-

45 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
wind damages, towers and masts
46 storm at sea , storm on land, lightening damage, 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
47 Understands the failures due to rain-ponding effect 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
storm on land, lightening damage, rain-ponding

48,49 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
effect
50 Understands the failures due to ignorance 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
51 Understands the failures due to negligence 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
52 control and supervision, responsibility 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
53,54 Repairs involved for rectifying the above failures 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
Repairs involved for rectifying the above failures

55 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
contd
LESSON PLAN
Unit – VI Branch : Civil Semester : VI
Unit- V Syllabus: 20 Periods

To Understand the defects in buildings bringing out the investigation and remedial details,
methods of solving dampness , causes, preventive and corrective methods of cracks in
building, the maintenance operations for the Water supply and sanitary components of
building etc.
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Objective: Understands the Maintenance problems and their solutions
Session Teaching
No. Aids
56 Understands the defects in buildings 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
57 Treating dampness in walls – Omission of DPC 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
Window sills, down pipes and other areas of damp

58,59 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
penetration – Cico water proofing
Understands the causes, preventive and corrective
60 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
methods of cracks in building
61 Cracks in walls – Horizontal, Vertical, diagonal 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
62 causes and prevention of cracks in buildings 50 Min 1,2,6 BB

Care of floors, removing stains from floors – Inks,
63,64 rust, oil, paint and varnish. 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
Maintenance problems of plumbing, heating, hot

65 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
water supply
66 clogged drains, sewers 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
67 leaking pipe joints 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
68,69 electrical installations & other building services 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
70 Septic tanks and soak pits 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
71 Maintenance of roads, road-berms and side drains 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
Strengthening of canals, embankments, silt

72 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
clearance weed removal
73,74 repairs to canal lining 100 Min 1,2,6 BB
Leak proofing of water tanks and roofs use of

75 50 Min 1,2,6 BB
chemicals for RCC roofs
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REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Construction Failure by Jacob Feld - John Wiley & Sons, New Yark, London.
2. Failures & Repairs of Concrete Structure by S. Champion - John Wiley &
Sons, New Yark, London.
3. Engineering Structural Failures by Rolt Hammond – Odham Press, London
4. Learning from Failures by Raikar
5. Building Failures Diagnosis and Avoidance by Ran Son W.H. – Publishing E
and F.N. Span.
6. Maintenance Engineering for Civl Engineers-- Nayak B.S. , Khanna
Publisher’s, Delhi
7. SP: 25 –1987 Causes and prevention of cracks in buildings by BIS
Course delivery plan: November 2016-March2017
Wee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15
k
Unit I II II III III III IV IV IV IV V V V V
TEST SCHEDULE MI MID

D-I -II
Prepared by Approved by
Signature
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Name K.SRINIVASA MURTY Y.VENKATESWARA RAO
Designation LECTURER HEAD OF SECTION
Date
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12. Attendance Register
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13. I unit QP and scheme of valuation
Government Polytechnic Srikakulam, Civil Engineering Section

UNIT TEST 1 :: DCE-VI Sem, CE-604, Construction Failures, Repairs and
Maintenance
Time: 1 Hour Marks: 20
PART –A
Answer All Questions (3 x 2 = 6 Marks)

1. Define the terms (i) Error (ii) Defect, related to Constructions.
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2. State any four reasons for the failure of Foundations.

3. Write the types of failures in Retaining walls.
PART –B
Answer any two Questions (2 x 7 = 14 Marks)
4. Sketch and explain any three methods of Foundation repairs.

5. Describe the failure of earthen bunds and suggest the remedies.
6. Explain the failures and Prevention measures in masonry due to the Construction
errors.
Scheme of Valuation:
1. Definitions: 2 x 1 = 2 marks.
2. Four reasons: 4 x 0.5 = 2 marks.
3. For any four types of failures = 4 x 0.5 = 2 marks.
PART –B
4. Sketch = 3 marks explanation = 4 marks. ( 7 marks)

5. Failures = 4 marks , Remedies = 3 marks. ( 7 marks).
6. Failures = 4 marks, Preventive measures = 3 marks. ( 7 marks)..
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14. II unit QP and scheme of valuation
Government Polytechnic Srikakulam, Civil Engineering Section

UNIT TEST 2:: DCE-VI Sem, CE-604, Construction Failures, Repairs and
Maintenance
PART-A
Answer ALL the following questions
1. Write reasons for the failure of concrete
2. Write any types of natural disasters
3. Write objectives of maintenance of building?
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PART-B
Answer any TWO questions
4. Explain the repairs of concrete structures.
5. Explain the failures of structure due to Demolition deterioration and overload.
6. Explain (a) causes of dampness (b) Effects of dampness
Scheme of Valuation:
PART-A
1. For any four reasons = 4 x 0.5 = 2 marks
2. For any four types = 4 x 0.5 = 2 marks
3. For any four objectives = 4 x 0.5 = 2 marks
PART-B
4. For any seven points = 7 marks.
5. For any seven points = 7 marks.
6. For causes = 4 marks For Effects = 3 marks
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15. Sample evaluated answer scripts
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16. Assignment sheets
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__________________________________________ _____
ASSIGNMENT SHEEET - 1
1. Define the terms “Environment” and “Ecology”.

2. State the causes, effects and controlling measures of Acid Rains.
3. Write short notes on “Green House Effect”. What is its effect on Environment?
4. State the ill effects of Ozone Layer depletion.
5. Define the terms “Producers”, ”Consumers” and “Reducers”.
6. Explain the terms “Food Chain” and “Food Web” in an Ecosystem.
7. State the measures to achieve sustainable development.
Signature of HOD Signature of faculty

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________ __
______
1. Explain the need for Protected water supply.

2.What is Percapita demand ? Explain briefly the factors effecting Percapita demand.
3. List the objectives of a Protected water supply scheme.
4. Draw the flow chart of a typical water supply scheme.
5. State the various methods of forecasting Populations.
6.Estimate the future Population of a town in the year 2010 by
(i) Arithmetical increase method (ii) Geometrical increase method
(iii)Incremental increase method
Year 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 250000 356000 974000 1460000 1822000 19310
00

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
1. Define: (a) Aquifer (b) Aquiclude

2. Explain Infiltration Gallery with a neat sketch.
3. State the Classification of various surface and subsurface sources.
4. Define the following terms: (a) Cone of depression (b)Drawdown
5. Define the terms ”Yield” and “specific yield” of wells.
6. Explain Canal Intake with a neat sketch.
7. Describe with sketch a River intake for collection of water.
8. Explain with sketches different joints used for connecting Pipes.
9. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of the following pipes;
(a) Concrete Pipes (b) Cast Iron Pipes (c) A.C.Pipes
10. Explain the steps involved in laying the pipes and state the precautions to be taken
while laying the pipes.

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
1. Explain the Jackson Turbidity meter with a neat sketch.

2. Define E-Coli Index and Most Probable Number.
3. What are the objectives of treatment of water ?
4. Define Break Point Chlorination.
5. Define the term Coagulant. Mention the names of four coagulants used in water treatment.
6. Define “Hardness” and state the causes of Hardness in water.
7. What the different types of Disinfection and explain briefly any four of them.
8. List any six comparisons between Slow Sand and Rapid Sand Filters.
9. Explain how the three E-coli tests are performed.
10. List the IS standards for Potable water.

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
1. Define: (b) Service Pipe (c) Communication Pipe (d) Supply Pipe
2. State any four necessities of Service reservoirs.
3. State the uses of (i) Sluice valve (ii) Reflux valve
4. Explain different types of distribution systems in detail with sketches.
5. Explain different Layouts of distribution system in detail with sketches.
6. Explain water supply connection for a building with a neat sketch.
7. What are the principles and precautions to be observed while laying pipe lines within the
premises of the building.
8. Explain clearly with a sketch (i) Gravity system (ii) Direct Pumping system
9. Compare and contrast between continuous system and intermittent system of water
supply.

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
Unit – VI Branch : Civil Semester : VI
1. Define: (b) Service Pipe (c) Communication Pipe (d) Supply Pipe
3. State the uses of (i) Sluice valve (ii) Reflux valve
6. Explain water supply connection for a building with a neat sketch.
7. What are the principles and precautions to be observed while laying pipe lines within the
8. Explain clearly with a sketch (i) Gravity system (ii) Direct Pumping system
9. Compare and contrast between continuous system and intermittent system of water
supply.

Date: Date:
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17. Tutorial sheets
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__________________________________________
_________
TUTORIAL SHEEET - 1
1. State various Global Environmental problems.

2. State the causes, effects and controlling measures of Green House Effect.
3. Write short notes on “Ozone Layer Depletion”. What is its effect on Environment?
4. State the causes and ill effects of Acid Rains.
5. Define Ecosystem. State the Structure of an ecosystem
6. State the three “R” Principle to achieve sustainable development.

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
TUTORIAL SHEEET - 2
1. What are the objectives of Water Protection?

2. Explain various factors effecting Percapita demand. .
4. Explain the variation of Water demand.
5. Estimate the future Population of a town in the year 2000 by
(i) Arithmetical increase method (ii) Geometrical increase method
Year 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960
Population 50000 62000 87000 78000 102000 1230
00

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
TUTORIAL SHEEET - 3

2. Sketch and Explain Infiltration Wells
4. What do you understand by “Drawdown” and ”Yield” of wells.
5. Explain (i) Lake Intake (ii) Reservoir Intake with the aid of sketches.
6. Explain with sketches (i) Spigot and Socket Joint (ii) Expansion joint.
(a) Cast Iron Pipes (c) Steel Pipes
8. State the measures to prevent corrosion of pipes.

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
TUTORIAL SHEEET - 4
1. Explain how (i) pH (ii) Colour (iii) Turbidity are measured in Laboratory.
2. What is the necessity of testing Water in Laboratory?
3. State the methods of Disinfection of water.
4. Define “Hardness” and state how it is removed from raw water.
5. Sketch and explain the function of a Rapid Sand Filter.
6. Explain any three bacteriological tests conducted in Laboratory.

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
TUTORIAL SHEEET - 5
1. State the requirements of a good water distribution system.

2. State the uses of Service reservoirs.
3. Explain the various methods of distribution systems with sketches.
4. Explain the methods of supply of water with relative merits and demerits.
5. Sketch and Explain water supply connection for a building.
6. What are the principles of laying pipe lines within the premises of the building.
7. Explain the Layouts of Water distribution with sketches.

Date: Date:
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__________________________________________
_________
TUTORIAL SHEEET - 5
1. State the requirements of a good water distribution system.

2. State the uses of Service reservoirs.
3. Explain the various methods of distribution systems with sketches.
4. Explain the methods of supply of water with relative merits and demerits.
5. Sketch and Explain water supply connection for a building.
6. What are the principles of laying pipe lines within the premises of the building.
7. Explain the Layouts of Water distribution with sketches.
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Date: Date:
18. Performance analysis sheet
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Performance analysis sheet of Unit-1
Total Total Passe dPasse Passe Passed

no.of Total no.of with d with
no.of d with with
Acade Studen 50 to
mic Subject Student Studen < 50% 60% 60 to >75% Pass
s ts 75% %
Year ts Marks Marks Marks
Appear Failed Marks
ed passed (2) (4) (5)
(1) (3)
Con.Failur
20017- es, Repairs
2018 and 66 65 1 5 2 7 51 98
Maintenan
ce
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Performance analysis sheet of Unit-2
Total Total Passed Passed Passed Passed

no.of Total no.of with with
no.of with with
Academ Studen 50 to
ic Subjec Student Studen < 50% 60 to >75% Pass
t s ts 60% 75% %
Year ts Marks Marks
Appear Failed Marks Marks
ed passed (2) (4) (5)
(1) (3)
20017- E.E. - I 66 66 0 2 6 10 48 100
2018
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Unit Test No.Appeared No.Passed Pass %

I 66 65 98
II 66 66 100
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I = Unit Test 1 II = Unit Test 2

Series – 1 No.Appeared Series – 2 No.Passed
19. Question Bank
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1. Define the terms “Environment” and “Ecology”.

2. State the components of Earth’s Environment.
3. State how Acid rains are formed.
4. Mention any four ill effects of acid rain.
5. Write short notes on “Green House Effect”.
6. Write the causes and effects of Green House Effect.
7. What is meant by the term “Global Warming”?
8. What are the adverse effects of Global Warming?
9. Suggest some methods to control Green House effect.
10. State the ill effects of Ozone Layer depletion.
11. Define Eco system and list the components of Ecosystem.
12. Define the terms “Producers”, ”Consumers” and “Reducers”.
13. Explain the terms “Food Chain” and “Food Web” in an Ecosystem.
14. State the factors effecting the stability of an ecosystem.
15. State the measures to achieve sustainable development.
16. Explain the need for Protected water supply.
17. What is Percapita demand ? List out factors affecting percapita demand.
18. List the objectives of a Protected water supply scheme
19. Explain briefly the variation in rate of demand for water supply.
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21.State the factors on which the Total requirement of water depends.

22.Explain clearly hourly variation in rate of water demand with graph.
23.Write the empirical formulae to estimate Fire demand of water.
24.Explain briefly the factors effecting Percapita demand.
25. State the various methods of forecasting Populations.
Explain briefly the variation in demand for water supply.
26.Describe the requirements of water for various purposes.
27.Estimate the future Population of a town in the year 2001 by
(i) Arithmetical increase method (ii)Geometrical increase method
Year 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

Population 350000 466000 994000 1560000 1623000 18390
00
28.From the Census data given below, estimate the Population of the city for the year 2035
A.D. by (i) Arithmetical increase method (ii)Geometrical increase method
Year 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

Populatio 21610 28560 37640 46520 55460 63710 71320 79540
n
29. Define : (a) Aquifer (b) Aquiclude
32 .Define the terms aquifer and Draw-down.
33.Write the various sources of water.
34.Define the terms “Aquifer” and “Ground water table”
35.State any four points to be considered in locating and designing of intakes.
36.State any eight good requirements of good joints.
37.Define the following terms: (a)Confined Aquifer (b)Unconfined Aquifer
(c) Cone of depression (d)Drawdown
38.State the classification of sources of water.
39.Explain the pumping test method to determine the yield of well.
40.List two advantages and two disadvantages of Cast iron pipes in conveying water.
41.Explain the terms: (a) Specific Yield of Well (b) Aquifer
42.Explain with neat sketch Simplex Joint for A.C.Pipes.
43.Define the terms: (a) Cone of depression (b)Drawdown with a neat sketch
44.Define the terms ”Yield” and “specific yield” of wells.
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45.Draw the sketch of River Intake and name the parts.

46.With a neat sketch explain the socket and spigot joint.
47.Distinguish between Gravity and artesian springs.
48. Write any two advantages and two disadvantages of Steel
49. (a) Define Spring. Explain different types of springs.
(b)List out any six points to be considered in locating and designing of intakes
50. (a) Explain Canal Intake with a neat sketch.
(b) Define Pipe corrosion. Explain methods of preventing Pipe corrosion.
51. Describe with sketch a River intake for collection of water.
52. Explain with sketches different joints used for connecting Pipes.
53. Write the types of Intakes. Explain any two Intakes in detailed.
54. Classify the Intakes on the basis of type of source. Explain any two of them with a neat
sketch.
55. (a) List various materials used for Pipelines.
(b) Write brief notes with the help of neat sketches on:
(i) Socket and Spigot joint (ii) Expansion Joint
56. (a) State the classification of Intakes
(b) State the requirements of good joints of water pipes.
57. (a) State the classification of wells.
(b) Explain the method of construction of sunk well with the help of sketch.
58. (a) Explain the procedure for determining yield of a well by pumping tests.
(b) The depth of water in gravity well before and after pumping are 20m and 15m
respectively. The diameter of the well is 3.0m. Assume the radius of influence as
170m
and permeability constant as 20. Calculate Yield of the well.
59. Explain the construction and working of Infiltration wells with sketch.
60. State the classification of wells based on the construction methods. Explain the
procedure
of construction of any two types of wells with ketches.
61. Explain the following with neat sketches.
(a) River Intake (b) Reservoir Intake
62. Explain the construction of following Joints with sketches
(a) Expansion Joint (b) Flanged Joint (c) collar Joint
(a) Concrete Pipes (b) Cast Iron Pipes (c) A.C.Pipes
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64. Explain the steps involved in laying the pipes and state the precautions to be taken
while
laying the pipes.
65. Explain the Jackson Turbidity meter with a neat sketch.
66. Define Coagulation. List out commonly used coagulants.
67. Define E-Coli Index and Most Probable Number (M.P.N.)
68. What are the objectives of treatment of water ?
69. Define Break Point Chlorination.
70. Write any four objectives of treatment of water.
71. List any four methods of disinfection of water.
72. What is meant by sedimentation? State the methods of sedimentation.
73. Define the ‘Disinfection of water’. List out methods of disinfection.
74. List out any four objectives of treating water.
75. List any four objectives served through “Aeration”
76. Explain the method of obtaining sample for testing of water.
77.Define the following: (a) Turbidity of water (b) Total solids in water
78 Define the term Coagualnt. Mention the names of any four coagulants used in water
treatment process.
79.List out the points to be observed while collecting water samples.
80.Sketch the flow diagram of different units in water treatment plant.
81. Define the pH value. State its significance in the water treatment.
82.Define “Hardness” and state the causes of Hardness in water.
83.State four objectives of Filtration.
84.State the types of Chlorination.
85.State the requirements of a good coagulant.
86.State the requirements of a good disinfectant.
87.Define the term softness. State the methods of softening water.
87. Explain the Biological Tests of water in detail.
88. Explain the construction and working of Slow Sand Filter with a neat sketch
89.What the different types of Disinfection and explain briefly any four of them.
90.Explain different tests for analyzing quality of water.
91.Describe the different types of Sedimentation tanks.
92. Draw a neat sketch of Jackson turbid meter. How do you determine the turbidity using it ?
(b) List any six comparisons between Slow Sand and Rapid Sand Filters.
93.(a) Explain clearly with a graph about Break Point Chlorination.
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(b) Explain about the removal of hardness by Zeolite process.

94. (a) Explain how the three E-coli tests are performed.
(b) List any six water borne diseases with their causative organisms.
95. (a) Sketch and describe in detail the working of Slow Sand Filter
(b) List Four advantages of Rapid Sand Filter over Slow Sand Filter
96. (a) Write any two impurities in water and their causes and effects.
(b) Briefly explain the sedimentation with coagulation.
97. Differentiate between Slow Sand and Rapid Sand Filters.
98.(a) List out the objectives of treatment of water
(b) Explain Aeration and methods of Aeration
99.List the IS standards for Potable water.
100.Explain the construction and working of Dorr Clarifier with the help of a neat sketch.
101.With the help of a sketch explain the construction and working of a Rapid Sand Filter.
102.Explain any two methods of water softening.
103. List any four advantages of continuous system.
104. Explain Sluice Valve with a neat sketch.
105.Define:
(a) Plumbing system (b) Service Pipe
(c) Communication Pipe (d)Supply Pipe
106. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Grid system for water supply
arrangement?
107. Draw the neat ketch of different connections from water main to building.
108. Explain briefly about the Reflux value.
109. Write the objects of Storage reservoirs.
110. Write briefly about the fire hydrants.
111. Write the preventive measures for leakages.
113. Write about (a) Service Pipe (b) Ferrule
114. List out various ‘Appurtenances’ used in distribution system.
115.What are the advantages and disadvantages of ‘Continuous system for water supply’ ?
116.Explain different methods of Conveyance of water.
117.State the uses of (i) Sluice valve (ii) Reflux valve (iii) Air gap (iv) Goose neck
118. Sketch and label the parts of an Elevated Storage Reservoir.
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121. (a) Explain Post Fire Hydrant with a sketch.

(b) Explain water supply connection for a building with a neat sketch.
122. What are the principles and precautions to be observed while laying pipe lines with in
the
123. What is the Distribution system? List the requirements of an efficient distribution
system.
What are the advantages of continuous system of water supply?
124. Explain with sketches the different systems of distribution.
125. (a) Write the necessity of Service Reservoirs.
(b) Write the accessories of elevated reservoirs. Explain with neat sketch.
126.(a) List any six requirements of an efficient distribution system.
(b) Explain clearly with a sketch (i) Gravity system (ii) Direct Pumping system
127.Expalin with advantages and disadvantages of (a) Dead end system
(b) Ring system
131.Explain the detection of leakages in water mains and list out its preventive measures.
132. Explain Grid Iron System of water distribution with neat sketch and list the advantages
and disadvantages.
133. Explain any three of the following with sketches:
a) Sluice Valve b)Reflux Valve c)Fire Hydrant
d)Air relief valve e)Water meters
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20. Remedial action
For the students who got less than 7 marks in unit test 1
1. Extra classes conducted
2. Practiced Question bank from the unit test1 Syllabus
3. Given assignments on unit test 1 syllabus
For the students who got less than 7 marks in unit test
1.Extra classes conducted
2. Practiced Question bank from the unit test 2 Syllabus
3. Given assignments on unit test 2 syllabus
4. The time table for remedial classes is given below.
DCE V SEMESTER REMEDIAL CLASS TIME TABLE (2016-17) Time 4.30 pm to 5:30 pm
MON TUE WED THU FRI
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SUB CODE CE-501 CE-502 CE-503 CE-504 CE-505
SUB NAME DRRCE EE-I QS-II IE PMFC
List of students, for whom Remedial classes were conducted as per above Time Table
Identification of students are based on their Class test and Unit –I marks.
S.NO. PIN
01 14008-C-043
15008-C-403
02
15008-C-404
03
04 15008-C-405
15008-C-407
05
15008-C-005
06
15008-C-033
07
15008-C-051
08
21. I Unit & II Unit marks
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22. SBTET Previous QP
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23. Semester marks
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24. Result analysis
Result Analysis V Sem C-14 (Oct/Nov 2017) ..Results Awaited
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Passe Passe Passe

Total Total d d Passe
Total no.of with with d d
no.of no.of with with
Acade Studen < 50 to
mic Subject Student Studen 60 to >75% Pass
s ts 50% 60% %
Year ts 75% Mark
Appear Failed Mark Mark s
ed passed s s Mark
(1) s (4) (5)
(2) (3)
CONSTRUCTI
ON FAILURES,
20017- REPAIRS AND
2018 MAINTENANC
E
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25. Study material/Handouts
UNIT -1
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ENVIRONMENT :
The word “Environment” means “The Surroundings of an organism which includes all
the Biological and Non-biological things”. This term is taken from the French word
“Environner”.According to Environmental Protection Act, 1986, Environment is defined as
“The sum total of water, air and land, inter-relationship among themselves and also with the
human beings, other living organism and property”.
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT :
Chemicals on Earth are distributed among four major environmental components or
Spheres. They are :
( A ) Atmosphere (B) Hydrosphere
(C) Lithosphere (D) Biosphere
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS:
Anthropogenic (man-made) activities are upsetting the dedicate balance that has
established between various components of the environment resulting in so many
environmental problems. The major problems causing Global concern are (i) Acid Rains
(ii) Green House Effect (iii) Ozone Layer Depletion.
ACID RAINS :
Acid Rain is a form of air pollution in which airborne acids produced by Industries and
other sources fall to Earth in distant regions. The corrosive nature of acid rain causes
widespread damage to the environment.
FORMATION OF ACID RAINS :
Acid Rains are formed with the production of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the
burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and oil, and from certain kinds of
manufacturing. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water and other chemicals in
the air to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and other pollutants. These acid pollutants reach high
into the atmosphere, travel with the wind for hundreds of miles, and eventually return to the
ground by way of rain, snow, fog or any other forms.
EFFECTS OF ACID RAINS :

1.In soils, acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients needed by plants. Hence
Agriculture fields are affected due to leaching of soils by acid rains.
2. By removing useful nutrients from the soil, acid rain slows the growth of plants, especially
trees.
3. It also attacks trees more directly, damages foliage and weakens trees.
4. It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like Cold, temperature, drought etc. and
facilitates insects and fungi attack them.
5. Acidification of waters threatens the life of aquatic animals like fish and reduces their
reproduction rate.
6 Acid rain damage buildings, statues, automobiles, and other structures made of stone,
metal, or any other material exposed to weather for long periods, due to its corrosive nature.
7.In the air, acids join with other chemicals to produce urban smog, which can irritate the
lungs and make breathing difficult, especially for people who already have asthma,
bronchitis, or other respiratory diseases.
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CONTROL OF ACID RAIN:

1.Acid rain can best be curtailed by reducing the amount of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides released by power plants, motorized vehicles, and factories using pollution
control equipment.
2.Legislative acts to control sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions may be
strictly implemented for automobiles and industries.
3.The process known as Liming, i.e. addition of powdered limestone to water or soil
can be adopted to neutralize the acid dropping from the sky.
4.Exposed surfaces vulnerable to acid rain destruction can be coated with acid-
resistant paints. Delicate objects like statues can be sheltered indoors in climate-controlled
rooms.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT : ( GLOBAL WARMING )
Greenhouse Effect is the capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere to trap heat emitted

from Earth’s surface, thereby warming the planet.
UNDERSTANDING THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT :

The greenhouse effect results from the
interaction between sunlight and the layer of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Sunlight is
composed of a range of radiant energies known as the
solar spectrum, which includes visible light, infrared
light, gamma rays, X rays and ultraviolet light. When
the Sun’s radiation reaches Earth’s atmosphere, some
of the energy is reflected back into space by clouds and
other atmospheric particles.
Certain gases in the atmosphere, including water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and

nitrous oxide, absorb this infrared radiant heat, temporarily preventing it from dispersing into
space. As these atmospheric gases warm, they in turn emit infrared radiation in all directions.
Some of this heat returns back to Earth to further warm the surface in what is known as the
greenhouse effect.
The heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere behave like the glass of a greenhouse. They
let much of the Sun’s rays in, but keep most of that heat from directly escaping. Because of
this, they are called greenhouse gases. . Human-made chemicals that act as greenhouse gases
include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro
fluorocarbons (HFCs), and per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
EFFECTS OF GREEN HOUSE EFFECT :
i) The global average surface temperature has increased .

ii) Snow cover and ice extent have decreased.
iii)Global warming may cause the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers to melt
rapidly.
iv) Thus the Global average sea level has risen and it may result in the
submergence of small islands.
v) Changes have also occurred in other important aspects of climate.
vi) The climate changes may effect on human health and Agriculture.
CONTROL OF GLOBAL WARMING:

i) Worldwide greenhouse gas emissions are to be reduced.
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ii) The current use of CFCs and Fossil fuels are to be cut down.
iii) The energy is to be used efficiently.
iv) Renewable energy sources are to be used for sustainability.
v) More trees are to be planted to reduce Carbon dioxide.
vi)The atmospheric Carbon dioxide is to be removed by Photosynthetic algae.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION :
Ozone Layer is a region of the atmosphere from 19 to 48 km above Earth's surface. It

protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
Scientists discovered that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs used as
refrigerants and as aerosol spray propellants — posed a threat to the ozone layer. Released
into the atmosphere, these chlorine-containing chemicals rise into the upper stratosphere and
are broken down by sunlight. The chlorine reacts with ozone molecules, and destroys the
Ozone layer.
EFFECTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION :
I) Thinning of the ozone layer causes increases in skin cancer and cataracts
II) Any change in DNA may cause Mutation
III) Human immune system will be damaged due to the destruction of Melanin
producing cells of the Skin.
IV) Damages certain crops and plankton and the marine food web
V) Increases the atmospheric carbon dioxide due to the decrease in plants and
plankton.
VI) Paints, Plastics and other polymer material may be degraded resulting in the
economic loss.
CONTROL OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
i) The use of CFCs should be reduced

ii) Dichloro methane, Freon etc. eco-friendly substitutes to CFCs may be used by
the industries.
iii ) There should be a ban on the use of chemicals responsible for Ozone layer
depletion.
ECOLOGY :
“Ecology” is the study of the relationship of Organisms to their physical and

biological environment. The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation,
moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere. The
biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as other plants and
animals.
The term ecology was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Heinrich Haeckel in
1866; it is derived from the Greek oikos (“household”).
1ECOSYSTEMS :
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the British ecologist Sir Arthur George
Tansley, who described natural Ecosystems as the systems in which there is a “constant
interchange” among their living and nonliving parts.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS :
Based on the types of Organisms and their habitat conditions Ecosystems are
classified as (A ) Terrestrial Ecosystems ( B ) Aquatic Ecosystems
The Terrestrial Ecosystems may be (i) Forest ecosystem (ii) Grassland ecosystem
(iii) Desert ecosystem (iv ) Polar ecosystem .
The Aquatic ecosystems may be (i) Fresh water ecosystem (ii) Marine ecosystem
( iii ) Estuarine ecosystem.
Fresh water ecosystem may be Lentic (Standing ) ecosystem like a Pond or Lotic
(running) ecosystem like a River.
Now a days the ecosystems are engineered by the Humans. These are called Artificial
ecosystems. Ex : Cropland ecosystem, Urban ecosystem, Zoo …..etc.
STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Each ecosystem has two main components :

Abiotic Components : The non living factors or the physical environment
Biotic Components : The living organisms including plants,animals and micro-organisms.
The Biotic Components are further classified on the basis of their role played in
ecosystem as
( A ) Producers ( B ) Consumers ( C ) Decomposers or Reducers.
PRODUCERS :
These are the green plants , which prepare their own food by the process of
photosynthesis using solar energy. Hence they are also called as Autotrophs.
CONSUMERS :
These are the organisms which depend on producers or another organisms for their
food. Hence they are called as Heterotrophs. They may be of the following types:
(a) Herbivores: These are the animals which feed on Plants or the producers.
These are called as Primary Consumers Ex: Rabbit, Deer, Goat, Cattle etc.
(b) Carnivores : These are the animals which feed on the herbivores or other
carnivores.
Ex : Secondary consumers or primary carnivores include Cats, Foxes, Snakes etc.
Tertiary consumers include animals like Wolves and Higher order Consumers include
animals like Lions and Tigers.
(c) Omnivores : These are the organisms which feed on both Producers and
Herbivores or Carnivores. Ex : Bears,Turtles,Suirrels,Humans.
DECOMPOSERS OR REDUCERS :
These are the organisms which breakdown the dead organic materials of producers
and consumers for their food and convert them in to simple inorganic substances and release
to the environment. These are called “Saprotrophs”. Ex : Bacteria and Fungi.
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
The major functional attributes or Components of an ecosystem are as follows:
( i ) Food chains and Food Webs ( ii ) Energy Flow ( iii ) Cycling of Nutrients
( iv ) Production ( v ) Ecosystem development and regulation
FOOD CHAINS :
All organisms, living or dead are food for some other organisms. The sequence of
eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is called as Food Chain.
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(Food chain in
Grassland ecosystem)
Some common examples of food chains are :
Food chains may be (a) Grazing Food Chains or (ii) Detritus Food chains
1.28 FOOD WEBS :
Food chains in any ecosystem are not isolated. They

are interconnected to each other forming a complex
net work. A “Food Web” is network of food chains
where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels(food level), so that there are a
no. of chains of eating and being eaten at each level.
(Food web in a Forest Ecosystem)
Ex : The Seven Food Chains given in the fig.1.4 forming a Food Web in a Forest Ecosystem
are as follows:
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ENERGYFLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM:
Food chains and Food webs play an important
role in the Flow of energy which keeps the
ecosystem stable. The flow of energy is
unidirectional or one way. i.e. Energy is not
reused in the food chains again and again. As the
flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss
of energy at every trophic level. The energy loss
is due to the activities like locomotion, excretion,
respiration and Production.
FLOW OF MATTER AND NUTRIENTS :

Nutrients like Carbon, Nitrogen,
Sulphur, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Phosphorous
etc. move in circular paths through biotic
and abiotic components .Water also move
in cycles called Hydrological cycle. The
nutrients move through the food chains
from one organisms to other and ultimately
reach the detritus compartment where
various micro-organisms decompose and
convert them in to inorganic substances
which are readily used up by plants and the
cycle repeats.
FOOD PYRAMIDS OR ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:

Ecological pyramid is graphical representation of an ecological parameter like
Number of Individuals or Amount of Biomass or Amount of Energy present in various
levels of food chain with producers forming the base and carnivores at top or Apex. These
are the following types:
(a)The Pyramid of Numbers (b)The Pyramid of Biomass
(c)The Pyramid of Energy
(a)The Pyramid of
Numbers: It is the graphic representation of number of individuals per unit area of
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various tropic levels one above the other with producers forming the base and top Carnivores
at the apex .
(b) The Pyramid of Biomass: It is the graphic representation of Biomass present per
unit area of various tropic levels one above the other with producers forming the base and
top Carnivores at the apex .
(C)The Pyramid of Energy: It is the graphic representation of amount of Energy
trapped per unit time and per unit area in different tropic levels of a food chain with
producers forming the base and top Carnivores at the apex .Energy is expressed as
Kcal/m2/Year.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT :
Any development is said to be “Sustainable” when it meets the needs of present
generation without causing problems for future generations in meeting their needs from this
development. The development that does not pose any threat to the environment is
sustainable.
Ex: Any Industry or Project established for the development of the nation should not disturb
the Ecosystem. It should protect the biodiversity in its vicinity. Due to this there should not
be any soil erosion. It should not effect the population growth. It should not involve
deforestation. It should not cause environmental pollution. If the development achieves all
such goals, it is definitely a Sustainable development.
MEASURES TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

Sustainability can be achieved by
i) Using appropriate technology
ii) Curtailing the over exploitation of resources
iii) Using 3-R approach i.e. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle , which says reduce
use of resources, use them again and again without wasting, and recycle
them for producing new one out of it.
iv) Spreading environmental education and awareness.
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UNIT - 2
NEED FOR PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY:
The water required for all living beings must be good and it should not contain
unwanted impurities or harmful contaminants. The following points stress the need for
protected water supply.
The surface running waters like rivers, Canals and other streams may be polluted with
the discharge of domestic and industrial sewage.
Even the Standing waters such as Lakes, Ponds and Reservoirs are polluted now a
days with the activities of mankind like washing the cloths, utensils and cattle, Bathing,
dumping of domestic wastes etc.
Indiscriminate disposal of Waste water on to the Land is contaminating the Ground
water by the leaching actions of chemicals contained in the wastes.
Even the Rain water is unnecessarily polluted when it is entering the polluted surface
or ground waters.
As the polluted water contains disease producing bacteria and harmful chemicals, it
must be treated and then supplied to the community for consumption and protect the public
health from water borne diseases like Cholera, Typhoid etc.
*Note: The water which is free from all the impurities and disease producing microorganisms
and safe for consumption is called Potable or wholesome water.
OBJECTIVES OF PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY SCHEME :
A water supply scheme is generally aimed at achieving the following
objectives :
i) To supply potable water free of disease producing bacteria to the consumers.
ii) To supply wholesome water containing different pollutants below their tolerance
limits.
iii) To supply sufficient quantity of water to meet the public and industrial demands.
iv) To supply water to all parts of the town or city.
v) To supply the water at reasonable cost
vi) To create awareness among the public in using water for maintaining clean and
hygienic environment.
vii) To relieve the people from the pains of carrying water from distant sources and
purifying it using their own methods.
FLOWCHART OF TYPICAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEME:

The water supply scheme for a City consists of different stages,
presented in the form of a Flow diagram given in the fig 2.1 below:
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TOTAL QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED FOR A TOWN:

For Designing a water supply scheme, it is essential to know the total quantity
of water required for a town. It depends on (i) Population of the town (ii) Per capita demand
and (iii)Design period of the project.
i) Population : The Population data of a town can be noted from the Census records. Using
this available data, the Population at the end of the design period be can estimated using an
appropriate method.
ii)Per Capita Demand: It is the Quantity of Water required for a person per a day. It can be
calculated as follows:
Where Q = Total quantity of water required by the Town per Year and
P = Population of the town.
Per Capita demand is expressed in liters per capita per day (lpcd).
iii) Design Period : Water supply projects generally include huge and costly constructions
like Treatment and Distribution units. It is highly expensive to enhance the capacity of these
units from time to time to meet the requirement of increasing population. Hence they should
be designed keeping the future Population in view.
The no. of future years for which water supply schemes are designed is called
Designed Period. Generally water works are designed for a period of 30 years .
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PER CAPITA DEMAND
The average per capita demand of various Cities varies with each other. The variation
in demand depends on so many factors. Following are main factors which affect the per
capita demand of a City or Town:
(a)Climatic Condition: The demand of water in hotter and dry places is more due to the use
of air coolers, air conditioners watering of lawns, gardens, more washing of clothes and
bathing etc.In cold countries the quantity of water required is less as compared with hotter
climates.
(b)Size of the community: The per capita water demand of the town will increase with the
size of the town, because more water will be required in street washing, running of sewers,
maintenance of parks and gardens.
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(c) Living standard of the people: The per capita demand of the town increase with the
living standards of the people. High Status people will use more water for room coolers,
maintenance of lawns ,for flush latrines, for washing machines and other appliances etc.
(d)Industrial and commercial activities: Industries and Commercial centers require more
quantity of water ,and their presence in the town will increase the per capita demand.
(e)Pressure in the distribution system: The consumption of water will be more if the water
is received at High pressure in the Buildings. This increase in the quantity is due to the use
of water freely by the people as compared when they get it scarcely.
(f)System of sanitation: The per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system
or Flushing system will be more than the town where this system is not in practice.
(g) Cost of water: If the water cost is more less quantity of water will be used by the people
as compared when the cost is low. Hence the Per capita demand decreases with the increase
in water cost.
Types of Demands
Following are the various types of water demand of a city or town:
i. Domestic demand.
ii. Commercial and industrial demand.
iii. Fire-demand.
iv. Demand for public uses.
v. Demand for compensating Losses and Wastages.
Domestic Water Demand:
It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing,
cooking, washing etc. In India, on an average, the domestic consumption of water under
normal condition is about 135 liters/capita/day as per IS:1172-1963 (Indian Standard Code of
Basic Requirements for Water Supply, Drainage and Sanitation).This demand amounts to 50
to 60% of the total water consumption.
Commercial and Industrial Demand:
This demand includes the quantity of water required for Commercial building and
commercial centers like Office buildings, Cinema halls, Hotels, Shopping centers, Hospitals,
Schools, Temples, Railway and Bus stations etc. The Industrial water demand mainly
depends on the type of industries existing in the city. The water required by Factories, Paper
mills, Clothe mills, Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use.
The Commercial and Industrial Demand is around 20 to 25% of the total demand of the city.
Fire Demand
Fires may break out in the residential or industrial areas, and cause serious damages of
properties and even loss of lives of the people . Fire accidents may happen due to many
reasons, like short circuiting of electric wires , due to fire catching materials, or explosions.
Large quantity of water is required to extinguish the Fires and therefore provision is made in
the water works to supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserves in the water mains
for this purpose .
The quantity of water required for fire fighting is generally calculated by using the
following empirical formulae.
(a) National Board of Fire Under writers Formula:
)
Where Q = Quantity of water required in liters/min.
P=Population of the town in thousands.
(b) Freeman formula:
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(c) Kuichling’s formula:
(d) Buston’s formula:
where Q and P are same in all the above formulae.
DEMAND FOR PUBLIC USE :
The Public demand of water includes the quantity of water required for public utility
purposes such as for washing and sprinkling of roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public
parks and gardens, public fountains etc.In Water supply projects a provision amounting to 5%
of the total consumption is made for Public water demand.
Demand for compensating Losses and Wastages:
During the distribution of water to the consumers some portion of the water is wasted
in the pipe lines due to defective pipe-joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and
fittings. The wastage may also be due to the consumers who keep open their taps even when
they are not using the water. Water is also lost due to the unauthorized and illegal
connections. While estimating the total requirement of water of a town, allowance amounting
to 15% of the total quantity of water is made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of
water.
*Note: For an average Indian town, the total quantity of water required may be taken as 270
liters/capita/day .This can be categorised as follows:
(i) Domestic use 135litres/capita/day
(ii) Comercial and Industrial use 40litres/capita/day
(iii) Public use 25litres/capita/day
(iv) Fire demand 15litres/capita/day
(v) Losses, wastage and thefts 55litres/capita/day
Total 270litres/capita/day
VARIATION IN WATER DEMAND:

The per capita demand is the average consumption of the year. This does not remain
constant throughout the year but it varies from season to season, day to day or even from
hour to hour as explained below.
i)Seasonal Variation: In summer the water demand is maximum, because people will use
more water for bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street sprinkling. This consumption
decreases in the Winter season due to the cool climate. The maximum demand may be upto
150 % to the average demand of the year.
ii) Daily Variation: More water demand will be on Sundays and holidays due to more
comfortable bathing, washing etc, as compared with other working days. People spend more
time during these days in houses. The maximum demand may be upto 180 % to the average
demand of the year.
ii) Hourly Variation: The water demand will be more in Peak hours of the day especially in
the morning and evening hours.It will be less during night hours
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when most of the people are sleeping. The maximum hourly consumption may be taken as
150 % that of average daily demand.
F.g 2.2 shows the hourly variation of the rate of consumption of a town.The Consumption in
the early hours of the day (0 to 6 hours) is generally small, increases gradually reaching a
Peak value between 8 to 11 AM, then decreases sharply upto about 1 PM, remains constant
upto about 4 PM, again increases in the evening reaching a Peak value between 7 to 9 PM,
finally falling to a low value in the late hours of night.
PEAK DEMAND:
The Maximum demands are generally expressed as ratios of their means. These are
obtained by multiplying the average values with the numbers called Peak factors.
Maximum daily demand =1.8 x Annual average daily demand.
Maximum hourly demand =1.5 x Average hourly demand.
Maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day is called Peak Demand.
2.14 FORECASTING POPULATION
For designing any water supply Scheme the Population at the end of the design period
is to be estimated. The present and past population can be obtained from Census records.
Then the future Population can be predicted using suitable method.
The following methods can be used for forecasting of population:
(i) Arithmetical increase method.
(ii) Geometrical increase method.
(iii) Incremental increase method.
(iv) Graphical method.
ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

In this method the population is assumed to be increasing at a constant rate. This
method is used for Old and developed Cities and towns. This method is also called as
Arithmetical Progression method.
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The population after n decades can be determined by the formula:

Pn = P + n C
Where P = Present or latest known Population
C=Increase in Population per decade.
GEOMETRIAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population per
decade remains constant. This method is suitable for young and rapidly growing cities. This
method is also called as Geometrical Progression method.

r = Percentage Increase in Population per decade.
INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is improvement over the above two methods. In this method the average
increase in the population is determined by the arithmetical method and to this is added the
average of net incremental increase once for the first decade, twice for second decade and son
on. This method can be used for moderately developing Cities.

C=Increase in Population per decade
i = Net incremental increase per decade.
*Note : In general, out of the above three methods the Arithmetical Increase method gives
Low values and Geometrical increase method gives high values and Incremental increase
method gives middle values .
GRAPHICAL METHOD
In this method the population of
last few decades is correctly plotted to a suitable
scale on the graph with respect to decade. The
curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future
population. The required future population is
picked up from the extended line corresponding
to the decade in which future Population is
required. F.g 2.3 shows the typical growth curve
of a city.
Worked out Examples

Ex 1. The following data have been noted from the Census department of a
town. The Population values are in Thousands. Estimate the Population in the years
1990,2000 by (a) Arithmetical Increase Method (b)Geometrical Increase method
(c)Incremental increase method.
Year 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

Populati 12 14.5 18.6 15.5 19 23.5 28 31.4
on
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Solution: The Data required to estimate the future Population is worked out in the following
table. Later the Population in 1990 and 2000 i.e. after 2 and 3 decades from 1970 is worked
out.
Incre-
Increase in Percentage Increase in mental
Year Population
Population Population increase in
Population
1900 12000 ----------- ---------- ---------
1910 14500 2500 (2500/12000)100=20.83 ---------
1920 18600 4100 (4100/14500)100=28.28 1600
1930 15500 -3100 (-3100/18600)100=-16.67 -7200
1940 19000 3500 (3500/15500)100=22.58 6600
1950 23500 4500 (4500/19000)100=23.68 1000
1960 28000 4500 (4500/23500)100=19.15 0
1970 31400 3400 (3400/28000)100=12.14 -1100
Total values : 19400 109.99 900
Average increase in Population per decade = C=19400/7 =2771

Average Percentage increase in Population per decade
= r = 109.99/7=15.71
Average incremental increase in Population per decade = i =900/6=150
Latest known Population = P = 31400
(a) Arithmetical increase method:
Population after n decades Pn = P + n C
Population in 1990 P2 = 31400 + 2 x 2771 =36942
Population in 2000 P3 = 31400 + 3 x 2771 =39713
(b) Geometrical increase method:
Population after n decades
Population in 1990 = = 42041
(c) Incremental increase method :
Population in 1990 = 37392
Population in 2000= 40613
Answers: Population by the three methods AIM,GIM and IIM respectively :-

In 1990 = 36942,42041,37392
In 2000 = 39713,48645,40613
Ex 2.Assuming the Geometrical rate of growth of Population of a town, calculate the

Population of the town in 2005 with the help of following census records of Population.
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Year 1955 1965 1975 1985

Population 22500 45600 68900 81500
Solution: The Data required to estimate the future Population is worked out in the following
table. Later the Population in 2005 i.e. after 2 decades from 1985 is worked out.
Increase in Percentage Increase in
Year Population
Population Population
1955 22500 ----------- ----------
1965 45600 23100 (23100/22500)100=102.67
1975 68900 23300 (23300/45600)100=51.09
1985 81500 12600 12600/68900)100=18.29
Total 172.05
Average Percentage increase in Population per decade

= r = 172.05/3=57.35
Assuming Geometrical rate of growth :
Answer: Population by the GIM in 2005 = 201786.
UNIT - 3
Sources of water:
These can be broadly classified as
(a) Surface Sources and
(b) Subsurface sources.
These are further classified as follows:
Surface sources: i) Streams ii) Rivers iii) Lakes iv)Ponds v) Impounded
reservoirs
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Sub surface or Under Ground Sources: i)Spring ii) Infiltration galleries
iii) Infiltration wells iv) Wells
Quantity and Quality aspects of Surface Sources:

The surface waters receive water from the runoff during rains. The runoff which
carries lot of organic and inorganic impurities discharges them in to streams. The inorganic
impurities like Silt, Clay etc. get added due to the erosion of the beds of channels. The
organic impurities get added in the form of vegetable washings, dead animals etc. The surface
waters in Rivers and streams are polluted due to the indiscriminate disposal of sewage and
industrial effluents. Ponds and Lakes are polluted due to the growth of algae, weed and plant
growth.
The quantity of Surface sources mainly depends on the rain fall. Rivers and Streams
yield more quantity of water than the Ponds and Lakes. But the water available in Rivers is to
be stored in Reservoirs as the Rivers may get dried up in hot weather.
UNDERGROUND SOURCES - TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:
a) Aquifer: It is a permeable geological formation of earth which is capable of yielding
appreciable quantities of ground water under gravity.
Ex: Sand layer
b) Aquiclude: It is an impermeable stratum of earth containing large amount of water but
cannot yield it by gravity.
Ex: Clay layer
c) Aquifuge: It is the geological formation of earth which is neither permeable nor
impermeable and hence neither contains nor yield water.
Ex: Granite rock.
d) Aquitard: It is the geological formation of earth
which has low permeability and hence can not yield
water even though seepage is possible through it.
Ex: Sandy clay layer
e) Water table: Ground water is stored in the earth
strata in the water bearing stratum called aquifers or
ground water storage reservoirs. The top of water level
in these reservoirs is known as Water table.
f) Unconfined Aquifer: It is the top most water bearing
stratum or aquifer of the earth having no confined
impermeable over burden lying over it. It is also called
as “Non-artesian aquifer”.
g) Confined Aquifer: It is the water bearing stratum or aquifer confined at the top and
bottom by impervious rock or aquicludes.
h) Perched Aquifer: It is the aquifer formed within an impervious layer lying in the
saturated zone of the earth.
3.5 SPRINGS:
Spring is defined as the natural out cropping of ground water along the slopes of hills
or river banks. These are of two types (a) Gravity Springs (b) Artesian Springs or Pressure
Springs.
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(a) Gravity Springs: These are formed either from the out-cropping of an impervious
stratum underneath the water bearing formation(Fig 3.2) or from the overflow of water table
by its continuous rise in to the sides of the valley(Fig 3.3).Gravity springs yield very low
water.
(b) Artesian Springs: These are formed by the overflow of water in confined aquifer
through the weaker spots in the upper impervious layer. Artesian springs yield constant
amount of water throughout the year.(Fig. 3.4)
INFILTRATION GALLERIES :
Infiltration Galleries are the tunnel
like structures constructed at right angles to
the direction of flow of underground water
near the banks of rivers or streams. These
are intended to trap the ground water
travelling towards the river or stream.
These are also known as Horizontal wells.
These are constructed in masonry or
Concrete with Arch roof along the length
of the river bank. (Fig 3.5). These are 3 to 4
m in depth. They are provided with weep
holes of size 5 cm x 10 cm on sides. The
Gallery is covered with Pebbles or Stones
to increase their infiltration capacity. The floor of the Gallery is provided with a longitudinal
slope. The water collected in the Gallery passes through the floor and is collected at the end
in a Sump well and from there it is pumped to the
treatment plant.
INFILTRATION WELLS:
These are the wells constructed in series or
rows under the soil along the river banks to trap the
underground water passing into the rivers. These
are constructed of brick masonry with open joints
or with RCC rings. These are Open at bottom and
covered at top. (Fig 3.6) The wells are connected by
radial Porous pipes with each other and finally
connected to a Sump well called Jack well. The
water collected in the jack well is pumped out to the
treatment plant for further process. The Yield of
wells can be increased by constructing more no. of
wells.
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WELLS:
These are the vertical holes excavated in to the water bearing stratum of the earth for
tapping ground water.
Wells are classified as follows:
A.According to the Aquifer tapped:
i) Shallow wells
ii) Deep Wells
Shallow wells are constructed in the

upper most aquifer of the earth (generally
unconfined aquifer). Deep wells are
constructed to a larger depth in to the confined
aquifers of the earth to get larger and reliable
quantity of water.
B.According to the Condition of Flow: (i) Gravity wells (ii)Artesian wells
In the Gravity Wells water flows into the well by Gravity. The surface of the water in
the well and in the surroundings is at the atmospheric pressure. The water in the well rises up
to the level of Water table. Generally Wells constructed in the top unconfined aquifers are
Gravity Wells.
In the Artesian Wells or Pressure wells the water flows into the well under pressure.
Wells constructed in confined aquifers of the earth receive water under pressure.
In certain cases of Artesian wells the water flows out of the well on to the ground
surface due to high pressures. Such wells are called as “Flowing Wells”.
C.According to the Size of the Well: (i) Open Wells (ii) Tube Wells
An Open Well is a large diameter well built of precast concrete rings or in brick or
stone masonry. The diameter may vary from 1 to 9m.
A Tube Well is a small diameter well constructed generally deep in to the earth .These
are mostly taken inside the bottom confined aquifers of the earth to draw large quantities of
water. The diameter varies from 25 to 90 cm.
D.According to the type of Construction: (i) Dug Wells ii) Sunk Wells
iii) Driven Wells iv) Bored Wells

v) Drilled Wells
These are explained as given below:
WELLS BASED ON THEIR METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION:
DUG WELLS:
These are also called as Open Wells or Percolation Wells.

These are suitable in soft soils, sand and gravels. The size of well
may vary from 1 to 4 m . These are the shallow wells excavated
from the ground surface by manual labour by means of Pick axes and
shovels. The walls of an open well are built of precast concrete rings
or in brick or stone masonry. These are provided with a parapet wall
above the ground level and arrangements may be made to draw water
using buckets and pulley system or by Pumping with motor. A
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working plat form is constructed around the well with an out let to divert the used water away
from the well.
SUNK WELLS:
These are also shallow wells constructed in loose soils. The walls of these wells are
built of precast concrete rings or in brick or stone masonry. These wells are constructed by
manual excavation using pick axes and shovels. A well-curb is first constructed at the site and
the masonry wall is built up to a height of 1.5m on top of the curb. Due to its weight it sinks
to a certain depth. Soil inside it is removed. More masonry is added as the excavation
proceeds till the well has been reached to its required depth. The wall of the well is provided
with small holes. The top of the well is carried about 1m above the ground level forming a
parapet. The ground surface surrounding the well is provided with a platform and sloped
away to prevent the inflow of surface water towards the well.
DRIVEN WELLS:
These are the shallow wells constructed by driving a casing pipe of size 25 to 100 mm
in to the ground. The lower end of the casing pipe is closed and pointed, forming a well point.
The Pipe is driven into the ground by hammer or it is lowered using a jet of water. The
Portion of the Pipe above the well point is provided with a strainer or perforated. The Pipe
with well point can be extended to the required depth by attaching more pipes. Pumping
arrangements are made to pump out the water. These wells are suitable in unconsolidated or
lose soils.(Fig.3.10)
BORED WELLS:
These wells are constructed in soft and cohesive soils. In this case hand or
power driven augers are used for the excavation of Bore in the ground. By means of rope the
auger is lifted and dropped. The soil filled in the hollow portion of the auger is removed from
time to time. The auger rod is extended by attaching more rods till the water is tapped. A well
casing with strainer is inserted in to the hole and pumping arrangements are made to pump
out the water.
DRILLED WELLS:
These are the Tube wells constructed in soft, rocky or well
consolidated soils. The size of the well varies from 25 to 90 cm. In
these wells the hole is excavated by drilling with Rotary method,
core method or Percussion method. Rotary drilling consists of
rotating a drill Pipe fitted with a toothed Steel bit at its bottom. In
the Core drilling commonly adopted in rocky areas, the drilling is
done by rotating a hollow pipe fitted with a cutter or drill bit which
cuts the hard rock and makes a hole. Percussion drilling is the
standard method of constructing tube wells in hard rock. This
method consists of alternatively raising and dropping a drill bit on
auger stem or string of tools. While falling the bit breaks the rock in
to small pieces which are removed by sand pump or bailer.
During the drilling operation the position of various depths
of water bearing strata is known. A casing Pipe larger than the well
pipe is introduced in to the Hole. The well Pipe is assembled with
two types of pipes one with perforations and other blind.
(Fig.3.11)This well pipe is lowered such that the perforated portion
lies in the aquifer zone and blind pipe lies in the impervious portion. After well pipe is
lowered, the casing pipe is with drawn. Arrangements for pumping of water are made above
the well pipe.
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YIELD OF WELLS AND RELATED TERMS

i) Yield of Wells: It is defined as the quantity of
water flowing in to the well per unit time. It is
expressed in Liters per second or cubic meters per day.
ii) Drawdown : When the water in the well is pumped

the water level is lowered. The difference between the
water level before the pumping is started and the water
level when the pumping is stopped is called
Drawdown or Depression head.
iii) Critical Drawdown : When the drawdown during
pumping is increased, the velocity of water entering
the well increases and hence the yield of well increases. But at a certain drawdown the soil
particles get disturbed and start coming into the well. The limiting drawdown to avoid such
condition is called “Critical Drawdown” or “Critical depression head”.
iv) Cone of Depression: When the water is pumped from a well its water level is lowered
due to which water table in its surroundings is also lowered and hydraulic gradient assumes
the shape of an inverted cone which is called as “Cone of Depression”.
v) Circle of influence: The base of the cone of depression is called the “Circle of Influence” .
Its radius is called “Radius of Circle of influence” or “Radius of influence” (R)
vi) Specific Yield : The yield of Well under a unit drawdown is called “Specific yield”. It is
also called as “specific Capacity” of the Well.
YIELD OF GRAVITY WELLS:
The yield of Gravity well is given by Dupit’s equation

given below:
Where Q = Yield of well in m3 per day

K = Permeability per unit area
=p
p = porosity ratio
= Transmission constant
R = Radius of circle of influence
r = radius of well
H = Height of water level above bottom of well before pumping
h = Height of water level above bottom of well after pumping
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YIELD OF ARTESIAN WELLS:
The yield of Artesian well is given by the following

equation:
Where Q = Yield of well in m3 per day

K = Permeability per unit area =p
p = porosity ratio
= Transmission constant
R = Radius of circle of influence
r = radius of well
t = Thickness of the confined aquifer
H = Height of water level above bottom of well before pumping
h = Height of water level above bottom of well after pumping
FIELD TESTS FOR DETERMINING YIELD OF WELLS:

Yield of wells can be determined at site using the following methods.
(i) Pumping Test
(ii) Recuperation Test
(I) PUMPING TEST:
In this method the water from the well is pumped at a heavy rate first and then the
pumping rate is so adjusted that a constant drawdown is maintained in the well. That means
the water level in the well is adjusted to remain constant for some hours. The rate of pumping
recorded at this stage gives the yield of well.
(II) RECUPERATION TEST:
In this test the water level in the well is pumped out to a
safe level below the normal level. Pumping is then stopped and
the water in the well is allowed to rise to its original level. The
time taken to the water level to recuperate is recorded. (Fig
3.15)
The Specific yield of the well at different draw downs
can be found using the formula:
Where K = specific yield of the well in m3/hr

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A = Cross sectional area of well (m2)

H1 = Difference in the water levels between the normal level and the
Level at which pumping is stopped.
H2 = Difference in the water levels between the normal level and the
level to which water rises.
T = Time taken for recuperation ( hr )
The yield of well for any given drawdown H, can be found using the general
expression:
Q=KH
WORKEDOUT EXAMPLES:
Ex1. The diameter of a tube well is 30 cm and the depth of the aquifer is 12m. The radius of
circle of influence of the well is 120m. The coefficient of permeability of the soil is 25
m/day. Calculate the drawdown of the well when the yield of the well is 1500m3/day.
Soln. Given dia of well = 30 cm = 0.30 m

Depth of aquifer = H = 12 m
Radius of circle of influence = R = 120 m
Yield of the well = Q = 1500 m3/day
Permeability constant = K = 25 m/day
Radius of the well = 0.30/2 = 0.15m
We have the formula for discharge of gravity well:
Substituting the known values in the above formula,
Solving for h, we get , h = 3.99 m

Drawdown = H - h = 12 - 3.99 =8.01 m
Ex.2 Calculate the yield of an artesian well whose diameter is 50cm.The depths of water in
the well before and after pumping are observed to be 100 m and 70 m. The thickness of
aquifer is 12m. Assume permeability constant as 20 m/day and radius of influence as 230m.
Soln. Given radius of well = r = 50/2 =25 cm= 0.25m
Depth of water in the well before pumping = H = 100m
Depth of water in the well after pumping = h = 70m
Radius of circle of influence for the well = R = 230m
Thickness of confined aquifer = t = 12m
Permeability constant = K = 20 m/ day
We have the formula for discharge of artesian well:
Substituting the above values
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= 6632.05 m3/day
Ex.3 In a recuperative test on a well 2m in diameter with static water level 3m below ground
level, the pumping depresses water level to 11m below ground level. Three hours after
pumping is stopped, the water level rises to 7m. Determine (a) Specific yield of the well (b)
Yield under a head of 2.5m.
Soln:
Given Diameter of the well = 2 m
static water level below ground level = 3m
Depressed water level below ground level =
11m
Rise in the water level = 7m
H1 = Initial drawdown
= 11 – 3 = 8m
H2 = Final drawdown
= (11 - 7) – 3 = 1m
T = Time taken for recuperation = 3 hr
Cross sectional area of well = =
= 3.14 m2
The Specific yield of the well can be found using the formula:
= = 2.177 m3/hr.
The yield of well under the head of 2.5m, can be found using the general
expression:
Q = K H = 2.177x 2.5 = 5.443 m3/hr.
INTAKES:
Intakes are the structures used to collect water from various water sources. The sources may
be lakes, rivers, reservoirs or canals.
The following points should be kept in mind while selecting a site for intake works :
(i) They are constructed near the source where the best quality of water is available so
that the load on the treatment plants is reduced.
(ii) At the site, there should not be heavy current of water which might endanger the
safety of the intake works.
(iii) The site should be such that intake can draw water in all seasons.
(iv) The intakes are constructed in the straight portion of the source to avoid scouring
action.
(v) As far as possible the intake should not be located in the vicinity of the point of
sewage disposal.
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(vi) As far as possible the selection of the site should be near the treatment works, to
reduce the conveyance cost from the source to the water-works.
TYPES OF INTAKES:
Depending on the source of water the intake works are classified as follows:
(a)Lake Intake (b) Canal Intake (C) River Intake (D) Reservoir Intake
LAKE INTAKE:
Lake intakes are used for drawing water

from lakes. These are submersible intakes.
These intakes are constructed in the bed of
the lake below the low water level so as to
draw water in dry season also. It essentially
consists of a pipe laid in the middle of the
river. Its one end, which is in the middle of
the lake, is fitted with bell mouth opening
covered with a mesh and protected by wooden or concrete crib. The water enters in the pipe
through the bell mouth opening and flows under gravity to the bank where it is collected in a
sump-well and then pumped to the treatment plants for necessary treatment. As these intakes
draw small quantity of water, these are not used on big water supply schemes.(Fig 3.17)
CANAL INTAKE:
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Canal intake is a very simple structure constructed on the bank of a canal. It consists
of a brick masonry chamber constructed partially in the canal bank. The chamber is provided
on water side with an opening fitted with a coarse screen for the entrance of water. A bell
mouthed pipe fitted with a hemispherical fine screen is placed inside the chamber as shown in
the Fig.3.18 The out-let of this pipe carries the water to the other side of the canal bank from
where it is taken to the treatment plants. One sluice valve which is operated by a wheel from
the top of the masonry chamber is provided to control the flow of water in the pipe.
RIVER INTAKE:
River Intakes are the circular masonry towers of 4 to7 meters in diameter constructed along
the bank of the river at a suitable place from where required quantity of water can be drawn
even in the dry period. The Intake is provided
with three or more Penstocks fitted with screens
to prevent the entry of floating solids. The
Penstocks are provided with Valves to control the
inflow of river water. These valves can be
operated with the help of wheels provided at the
pump-house floor located at the top of the Intake
chamber. The Penstocks which are under the
existing water levels are operated while the remaining are closed. Water enters in the lower
portion of the intake known as sump-well from penstocks. From the sump it is pumped out to
the treatment plant with necessary pumping units.(Fig 3.19)
RESERVOIR INTAKE:
A reservoir intake is mostly used to draw
the water from dam reservoir. It consists of an
intake tower constructed on the slope of the dam
at such place from where intake can draw
adequate quantity of water in all seasons. Intake
pipes are fixed at different levels, so as to draw
water in all variations of water level in the
Reservoir. These all inlet pipes are connected to
one vertical pipe inside the intake well. Screens
are provided at the mouth of all intake pipes to
prevent the entry of floating and suspended
matter. The water which enters the vertical pipe is taken to the other side of the dam by
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means of an outlet pipe. At the top of the intake chamber sluice valves are provided to control
the flow of water. The valve room is connected to the top of the dam by means of a gang-way
for reaching it.
CONVEYANCE OF WATER
After drawing the water from source through Intakes it is to be transported to the
treatment Plant located somewhere in the city. The water is conveyed to the city by means of
conduits. If the source is at higher elevation than the treatment plant, the water can be
conveyed by gravitational force through open channels, aqueducts, tunnels or pipe lines. If
the water level in the source is at lower elevation than the treatment plant, then the water can
be conveyed by means of closed pipes under pressure.
METHODS OF CONVEYANCE OF WATER
OPEN CHANNELS
These are the open channels which are easily and cheaply constructed by cutting in
high grounds and banking in low grounds. The channels are lined properly to prevent the
seepage and contamination of water. These are given an uniform longitudinal slope to carry
water by gravity.
AQUEDUCTS
Aqueducts are closed conduits constructed with brick or stone masonry or cement
concrete and used for conveying water from source to the treatment plant. In olden days
rectangular aqueducts were used, but now a days horse-shoe or circular sections are used.
TUNNELS
Tunnels are the gravity conduits in which water flows under gravitational force, but
sometimes under pressure. Gravity tunnels are mostly constructed in horse-shoe cross-
section, but pressure tunnels have circular cross-section.
FLUMES
These are open channels supported above the ground over trestles. Flumes are usually
used for conveying water across valleys and low lying areas over drains and other
obstructions. These are constructed with RCC, wood or metal. These are constructed in
rectangular and circular sections.
PIPES: These are circular conduits, in which water flows under pressure. Now a days
pressure pipes have almost eliminated the use of channels, aqueducts and tunnels. These are
made of various materials like cast iron, wrought iron, steel, cement concrete, asbestos,
cement, timber etc.
Factors deciding the selection of material for the pipe
The selection of a material for the pipe depends on the following factors:
i. Carrying capacity of the pipe.

ii. Durability and life of the pipe.
iii. Type of water to be conveyed and its corrosive effect
iv. Ease in Handling and transportation
v. Availability of funds
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vi. Maintenance cost

vii. Ease in repairing
Types of Pipes
Following types of pipes are commonly used for the transportation of water.
i. Cast iron pipes
ii. Steel pipes
iii. Concrete pipes
iv. Asbestos cement pipes
v. Galvanized Iron Pipes
vi. Plastic Pipes
CAST IRON PIPES

Cast-iron pipes are most commonly used in water supply schemes. These are
manufactured by Sand moulding or Centrifugal casting methods. These are manufactured in
lengths of 2.50m to 5.50m. These pipes are joined by Spigot and Socket joint.
Advantages:
i. These are highly resistant to corrosion
ii. These are durable and have long life-about 100 years
iii. These are strong and can withstand high internal pressure
iv. They can be easily jointed
v. Economical
Disadvantages:
i. These are very heavy and difficult to transport
ii. Due to brittleness they break or crack easily. Therefore, these are most suitable
as distribution pipes.
iii. Need cement mortar lining inside the pipe to avoid tuberculation.
STEEL PIPES
These are generally manufactured by rolling the flat plates of the metal to the proper
diameter and welding the edges. These pipes have the following merits and demerits.
Advantages:
i. These Pipes can resist high internal pressures
ii. These are strong and light in weight
iii. They can be easily transported
iv. They are cheaper than C.I.Pipes
v. Available in large sizes
Disadvantages:
i. They are less durable than C.I.Pipes
ii. These are more liable to corrosion
iii. Difficult to get the pipe specials for joining
iv. They need protective coatings to increase their life.
v. They may be destroyed when subjected to external loads, if partial
vacuum is created by emptying the pipe
CONCRETE PIPES
Concrete Pipes may be precast or cast-in-site. Plain concrete pipes may used for
conveying water under gravity. For Pressure flows and for dia. of pipe more than 60 cm RCC
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pipes are used. The concrete pipes are available from 80 cm to 1.2 m. Now a days Prestressed
Cement Concrete Pipes are used to carry water under high heads. These are joined by Collar
Joint.
Advantages:
i. These are strong and can withstand high external pressure
ii. These are durable and life is more than 75 years.
iii. They can be easily constructed in factories or at site
iv. RCC pipes have least coefficient of thermal expansion than other types of
pipes. Hence they do not require expansion joint.
v. They are not susceptible for corrosion
vi. They withstand high traffic loads when laid below the roads.
Disadvantages:
i. The Pipes may leak due to the formation of shrinkage cracks during their
manufacturing
ii. They are heavy and difficult to handle and transport
iii. They may be affected by acids, alkalis and salty water
iv. Their connections and repairs are difficult.
ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES

These are manufactured from a mixture of cement and asbestos fiber. These pipes are
manufactured from 5 cm to 130 cm in diameter and in five different grades to withstand
internal pressure from 5 to 25 kg/cm2. These are joined by Simplex joint.
Advantages:
i. These are light in weight and can be easily transported. These are
durable and life is more than 75 years.
ii. They can be easily cut, drilled, fitted and jointed.
iii. They are not susceptible to corrosion
iv. They have smooth inside surface and hence their carrying capacity is
more
v. Expansion joints are not required
Disadvantages:
v. These are costly
vi. Suitable only for the minor works of distribution system
vii. Due to their brittle nature they may break or crack during their
transportation
viii. They have poor structural resistance and can not bear high pressures.
PLASTIC PIPES
Plastic pipes are now a day’s replacing all other pipes in their use. Different types of
pipes are available in the market for different applications and conditions of use.
(A) Low Density Polyethylene Pipes (LDPE)
(B) High Density Polyethylene Pipes (HDPE)
(C) Rigid Pvc (Poly Venyl Chloride) Pipes
Out of these the PVC pipes are most commonly used for cold water services,
internal/external water supply systems, water mains, rain water system etc.
Advantages:
i. These are durable and cheap
ii. These are light in weight and can be easily transported
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iii. Their handling is easy

iv. They are not susceptible to corrosion
v. They are good electric insulators
vi. They have good strength to weight ratio
vii. They can be easily joined
viii. They have better resistance to bacterial contamination
Disadvantages:
i. They are not suitable for hot water supplies
ii. They may give bad taste and odour
iii. Due to their high expansive characteristics they should not be placed in
hot places
iv. Due to manufacturing defects, uniform composition may not be
obtained.
GALVANISED IRON PIPES (GI PIPES)
These are the steel or wrought iron pipes which are galvanized inside and outside i.e.
coated with zinc. They are generally used for service connections in the distribution system.
Advantages:
i. These are cheap
ii. These are light in weight and can be easily transported
iii. Their handling is easy
iv. They can be easily joined
v. They can resist corrosion to large extent.
Disadvantages:
i. They are not suitable for main and trunk pipes
ii. Life span is less generally less than 10 years
iii. They may be damaged due to the actions of acids and alkalis in water.
iv. Large dia pipes are not economical.
PIPE-JOINTS:
For easy handling purpose pipes are manufactured in small lengths of 2 to 6 meters.
After placing in position, these small pieces of pipes are joined together to make one
continuous length of pipeline.
The requirements of a Good Joint should be as follows:
i. Imperviousness or water tight
ii. Flexible for repairs
iii. Strong
iv. Durable
v. Adhesive
vi. Made with materials which are easily available
vii. Economical
viii.Made with easily workable jointing materials.
Types of Joints:
Various types of joints which are mostly used are as follows:
(I) Spigot and socket joint
(II) Expansion joint
(III) Flanged joint
(IV) Collar joint
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(V) Simplex joint.
SPIGOT AND SOCKET JOINT
This is also called Bell and Spigot joint. This type of joint
is mostly used for cast iron pipes. For this joint to be
made the Cast Iron Pipes are made with a Socket (Bell
mouth end) at one side and spigot (Plain end) on the
other side. (Fig. 3.21) Yarn of hemp is wrapped around
the spigot end of pipe and is inserted in to the socket end
of the other pipe. More hemp is packed in to the joint.
The remaining space is filled with molten lead, which
gets solidified and tightly caulked in to the joint after
cooling, and thus making a water tight joint.
EXPANSION JOINT:
Expansion Joints are provided at certain intervals of

the Pipe line to resist the Thermal stresses produced due to
the variations in temperature. In this joint the socket end is
flanged with cast iron follower ring, which can freely slide
on the spigot end or plane end of other pipe. An elastic
rubber gasket is tightly pressed between the annular space
of socket and spigot by means of nut and bolts as shown in
the Figure 3.22. While making the joint a small space is left
between the socket and the spigot end for the free movement of the pipes under variation of
temperatures. The rubber gasket keeps the joint water tight.
FLANGED JOINT
The pipes to be joined in this case have flanges on its both ends.
The two ends of the pipes which are to be jointed together are brought in
perfect level near one another. A hard rubber washer is placed between
the flanges and these flanges are bolted using the nut and bolts placed in
the holes of flanges. (Fig 3.23) These joints are commonly used where it
may be necessary to occasionally dismantle and reassemble the pipe
lines.
COLLAR JOINT
This type of joint is mostly used for joining big

diameter concrete pipes. The ends of the two pipes are brought
in one level before each other. Then Hemp or Jute rope soaked
in cement is kept in the grove and the collar is placed at the
joint covering both the pipes. Now 1:1 cement mortar is filled
in the space between the pipes and the collar as shown in
Fig.3.24
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JOINT FOR A.C.PIPES
This joint is used for joining smaller dia.

A.C.Pipes. The two ends of pipes are butted against each
other, and two rubber rings are slipped over the pipes.
The coupling is pushed over the rubber rings as shown in
Fig.3.25. The rubber rings make the joint water-proof.
This Joint is called simplex Joint.
LAYING OF WATER SUPPLY PIPES:
Pipes are generally laid below the ground level, but sometimes when they pass in
open areas, they may be laid over the ground.
The following are the steps involved in laying the pipe lines:
i) Initially, the detailed map showing all roads, streets, lanes etc. are prepared. On this map
the proposed pipe line with the sizes and the position of valves and other pipe specials, etc.
will also be marked.
ii)After the general planning the centre line of the pipe line will be transferred on the ground
from the detailed plan. The centre line will be marked by means of stakes driven at 30m
interval on straight lines and 15 m spacing on curves.
iii) After the centre line has been marked on the ground the excavation for the trenches will
be started. The width of the trench should be 30cm to 45cm more than the external diameter
of the pipe. The depth of the trench should be such that at least 90cm of ground cover is
available above the top barrel of the pipe.
iv)After the excavation of trenches the pipes are lowered in it. The pipe laying should be
started from the lower level and proceed towards higher level with socket end towards higher
side. The jointing of pipes should also be done along with the laying of pipes.
v)After laying the pipes in position, they are tested for water leakage and pressure.
vi)After the pipe line is tested, the back filling of the excavated material will be done. The
soil which was excavated is filled back in the trenches all around the pipes and should be well
rammed. All the surplus soil will be disposed off and the site should be cleaned.
Precautions in Laying of Pipe Lines:
I. The Pipes carrying Treated water should not be cross connected to the Pipes
carrying waste water.
II. The Pipes buried should be protected by an Earth cushion of at least 75 cm.
III. Pipe Lines should not be laid through Sewers, Cess pools and other
contaminated sources.
IV. In unavoidable situations where water pipes and waste drainage are to be
carried together, the water pipes should be laid at least 30 cm above the waste
drain.
V. Before put into use the water service pipes are chlorinated.
VI. All the standard specifications are strictly followed in laying the Pipe lines.
TESTING OF PIPES
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After laying the new pipe line, jointing and back filling, it is tested under pressure for
leakages if any.
The test is carried out in sections Up to 500m, as the pipe laying proceeds. The test
consists of filling the pipe line with water, expelling all the air from within, allowing it to
stand full for some time and then applying a test pressure of about 5 kg/cm 2. The pressure is
applied by manual operated test pump or power driven pump fitted with a pressure gauge.
The pipe line is kept in observation for a period of 24 hours and the joints are inspected for
leakage. The quantity of water leaked should not exceed that given by the
following formula:
Where Q = allowable leakage in cm3/hr

N = No. of Joints
D = Diameter of the Pipe in mm
P = Average test pressure during the test in kg/cm2.
CORROSION OF PIPES
The Phenomenon which leads to the progressive disintegration of the pipe when water
flows through it is known as “Corrosion”. Corrosion reduces the life of the pipe and its
carrying capacity.
PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Corrosion of metal pipes can be controlled using the following prevention methods:
i. Using Protective Coatings like Paints, bituminous compounds, cement lining
or Galvanizing.
ii. By selecting proper materials which can resist corrosion or metals made with
alloys of Iron or steel with chromium, copper or nickel.
iii. The water flowing through the pipes is made less corrosive by raising the pH
of water and by reducing the dissolved oxygen and CO2 using certain chemicals.
iv. By Cathodic protection which is achieved by connecting the pipe with
negative terminal of a D.C.Generator and connecting its positive terminal with
blocks of Zinc or magnesium buried in the ground near the pipe.
v. Using certain chemicals like meta phosphates, Sodium hexa meta phosphate or
Calgon, Chromates, Silicates, Benzoates etc. which inhibit the corrosion by the
deposition of ions on the pipe surface.
UNIT 4
IMPURITIES IN WATER
Any undesirable substance present in water in any form which makes it unfit for
drinking and domestic use is called an impurity. The water containing such pollutants is
called “polluted water”. But the water which is tasteful for drinking, aesthetically good and
does not contain any pathogens is called “potable water”.
Classification of Impurities
The Impurities in water may be classified as follows:
(a) Based on their Form :
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i. Suspended Impurities
ii. Colloidal impurities
iii. Dissolved impurities
(b) Based on their nature:

i. Physical impurities
ii. Chemical Impurities
iii. Biological impurities
These are discussed in detail as given below:

Suspended Impurities
These are the solid particles present in water under suspension. These are large
enough to be removed by Filtration. Suspended impurities include clay, algae, fungi, organic,
inorganic and mineral matter. These impurities are macroscopic and cause turbidity in the
water.
Colloidal Impurities
These are very finely divided electrically charged microscopic particles which remain
in water under continuous motion. These particles are not visible to the naked eye and are so
small that these cannot be removed by ordinary filters. These colloidal impurities are
generally associated with organic matter containing bacteria and responsible to many
diseases.
Dissolved Impurities:
These are some Solids, liquids or gases existing in dissolved state in natural waters.
These are dissolved in water when it moves over the rocks, soil etc. These may contain
organic compounds, inorganic salts and gases etc. These are obtained by weighing the residue
after evaporation of the water sample from a filter paper.
Physical Impurities
These are the impurities which impart Colour, Taste, Odour, Turbidity and
Temperature to water.
Chemical Impurities
These are the impurities which impart chemical properties to water like hardness,
acidity, alkalinity etc. to water. These may be organic or inorganic in nature. Ex: Chlorides,
Fluorides, Sulphates etc.
Biological impurities:
These are the living organisms in water such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
These impurities make water harmful for human consumption and health. Some organisms
like Algae and Plankton cause taste and odour in water and render the water unfit for drinking
and cause sudden death of cattle and fish.
Need for Laboratory testing of Water:
Samples are collected from different sources of water and examined in the
Laboratories. A series of tests are conducted in the laboratories on water samples.
The objectives of these tests are:
i) To determine the quality of the raw water
ii) To find out the Concentration of impurities present in water
iii) To decide the process of purification which is to be carried out on the basis of
these tests
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iv) To assess the suitability of water for domestic and industrial use.
v) To check whether the treated water is as per the required standards.
Sampling of Water
Water samples are collected from their sources and tested in laboratories to assess
their quality and suitability for different uses. The quality of water varies from place to place
and season to season. Hence the samples for analysis should be collected frequently and over
a long period of time so that they may be truly representative of the actual quality of water
being used.
Grab Samples
These are the water samples collected more or less instantaneously and analyzed
separately. The no. of samples to be collected and the frequency of sampling are decided
judiciously by the analyst.
Composite Samples:
These are the samples collected in the sources where fluctuations are rapid. These
samples are collected in regular intervals say 15 to 30 minutes and pooled into one large
sample over a period of 24 hours.
Method of obtaining samples for testing
For physical examination, water can be collected in fully cleaned buckets or plastic
cans. If the water is to be collected for chemical tests, the container is thoroughly washed
and cleaned. Glass bottles of minimum 2 liters capacity should be used. For bacteriological
tests 200 to 500 CC capacity bottles are sufficient for collection of samples.
The following precautions should be kept in view while collecting the samples:
(I) If the water is to be collected from a tap or faucet, sufficient quantity of water
should be allowed to pass through the tap, before collecting sample from it, to
eliminate the stagnant water if any.
(II) If the water is to be collected from the surface stream or river, it should be
collected about 40-50cm below the surface, to avoid the collection of surface impurities, oils,
tree leaves and other floating matter.
(III) If the water is to be collected from the under ground sources i.e., through wells or
tube wells, sufficient quantity of water should be pumped out before collecting the
samples.
(IV) In the case of samples for bacteriological analysis the bottles and stoppers are
properly sterilized. Also if the water to be collected is tap water, the mouth of the tap or
faucet is flamed by the application of burning methylated spirit to kill all pathogens
sticking on it.
TESTS ON WATER:
The following tests are conducted on water samples to analyse the quality of water.
i.e. to know the concentration of Physical, Chemical and biological impurities in water.
PHYSICAL TESTS
These include the tests on water samples for Temperature, Colour, taste, odour and
Turbidity of water. These are discussed below in detail.
Temperature:
The temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers. The
temperature of water affects its properties like density, viscosity, vapour pressure and surface
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tension. The desirable temperature for public water supplies is around 10 0 C. The
temperatures above 250 C are not acceptable for drinking.
Colour:
The Colour of water may be due to the colloidal and dissolved organic matter and
inorganic minerals. The growth of algae and aquatic micro-organisms also impart colour to
the water. The colour of water is not harmful but aesthetically objectionable and has
psychological effect on consumers.
The suspended solids in the water sample to be tested for colour are first removed by
the process of Centrifuging. Then the colour of the sample is compared with that of the
colour of the standard solutions contained in colour discs. The standard unit of colour is that
produced by 1mg of platinum cobalt dissolved in one liter of distilled water.
The Permissible colour for domestic water is 20 ppm. on platinum cobalt
scale.
Taste and Odour:
Tastes and odours generally occur together in water. These may be due to the
presence of dissolved organic materials or the inorganic salts and mineral substances such as
sodium chloride, iron compounds or the dissolved gases like Hydrogen sulfide, methane,
carbon dioxide etc. The presence of living or dead microorganisms also causes taste and
odours. The water having bad smell or odour is objectionable and should not be supplied to
the public.
The intensities of the odours are measured using “Osmoscope” in terms of threshold
odour number. This number is defined as the dilution ratio at which the odour is just
detectable or the amount of sample of water in ccs. required to be added to one liter of
distilled water to produce the odour. The threshold number for public water supplies should
never exceed 3.
Turbidity
Turbidity is due to the presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the water. It is a
measure of the resistance of water to the passage of light through it. It is expressed in parts
per million ( ppm ) or milligrams per litre ( mg/l).The turbidity produced by one
milligram (one part) of silica in one litre ( i.e. million parts) of water is the unit of turbidity.
The permissible turbidity for drinking water is 5 to 10 ppm.
MEASUREMENT OF TURBIDITY:
Turbidity can be measured using the following devices:
i. Turbidity Rod
ii. Jackson Turbidimeter
iii. Modern Turbidi meters
Turbidity Rod
Turbidity rod is a graduated aluminum rod, whose upper end is

attached with a non-stretchable tape. A screw containing
platinum needle and a nickel ring is fitted at the lower end of
the rod as shown in Fig.4.1. The platinum needle is 1mm in dia
and 25mm long. A vertical stick is inserted in the ring to
support and keep the rod in a vertical position. The top of the tape is provided with a mark for
eye position.
To measure the turbidity, the graduated aluminum rod is lowered slowly in to the water
keeping the eye at the mark provided. The reading corresponding to the depth at which the
platinum needle disappears from the eye sight is noted. This will give the value of turbidity
directly in mg/l on the silica scale.
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Jackson’s Turbidimeter
It consists of a metal stand and a metal container which holds
a calibrated graduated tube as shown in Fig.4.2. A standard candle
placed at bottom is used as a light source. Water is gradually added
in to the tube and the image of the candle flame is observed from
top. The addition of water is stopped when the image just disappears
from sight. The reading on the graduated tube corresponding to the
depth of water is noted. This reading will give the turbidity of water
in JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit)
Modern Turbidimeters
For measuring lowest values of turbidity such as that for
treated waters, Turbidimeters like Baylis Turbidimeter, Nephelo
Turbidimetres are used. The modern turbidimeters uses a photometer to measure the intensity
of light passing through the turbid water, after the same is scattered at right angles to the
incident light.
CHEMICAL TESTS
The chemical tests involve the determination of Total solids, Hardness, pH value,
chlorides, Residual chlorine, iron and manganese, organic matter etc. The details of the
chemical analysis are given below.
Total Solids
Total solids include the solids in suspension, colloidal and in dissolved form. The
total solids (suspended and dissolved) in water sample can be directly determined by
evaporating the water and weighing the residue left. The quantity of suspended solids is
determined by filtering the sample of water through a fine filter, drying and weighing the
residue left on the filter paper. The difference between the total solids and the suspended
solids will give the quantity of dissolved solids.
Hardness:
Hardness is the property of water which does not allow the soap to give leather with
it. Bicarbonates and Carbonates of Calcium and magnesium render Temporary hardness to
water. This type of Hardness is also called as Carbonate hardness. The hardness caused due
to Sulphates, Chlorides and nitrates of Calcium and magnesium is called Non carbonate
hardness or Permanent hardness. Total hardness is the sum of carbonate and non carbonate
hardness. Hardness is expressed in mg/l or ppm of calcium carbonate in water.
Effect of hardness in water:

i. Result in greater soap consumption
ii. Cause Scaling of boilers
iii. Aid corrosion and incrustation of pipes
iv. Make food tasteless
Determination of Hardness
Hardness is determined by versenate Method (EDTA method). In this method, the
water is titrated against EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid using Eriochrome Black
T as indicator until the colour changes from wine red to blue.The Hardness ca be calculated
as given below:
Hardness in mg/l = (ml of EDTA used X 1000) / ml of sample
For public water supplies the desirable hardness should be within 300 ppm.
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pH Value
pH value is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of water. It is defined as the negative
logarithm of a hydrogen Ion concentration or the logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion
concentration in water.
pH = - log [H+ ] = log ( 1/ [ H+ ] )
The pH value varies from 0 to 14. For pure or neutral waters the pH is 7. For alkaline water
the pH is more than 7 and for the acidic water the pH is less than 7. Fig 4.3 below explains
the range of pH.
Importance of pH
The significance of pH is given below:
i. pH Plays major role in chemical and
biochemical reactions
ii. Control of pH is a major factor in water

and waste water treatment.
iii. Maintenance of proper pH is necessary during chemical flocculation,

neutralization, softening etc.
iv. Lower values of ph result in Corrosiveness
v. High values of pH cause physiological effects, sediment deposits and

difficulty in chlorination.
Measurement of pH
pH is measured in the laboratory using Colorimetric method or using a Potentiometer.
In the Colorimetric method colour indicators or reagents are added in the sample of water
and the colour so produced is compared with standard colours of known pH values prepared
and kept ready in the laboratory in a set of tubes.
In the Potentiometric Method an Electronic Potentiometer is used to measure the
electric potential exerted by the positively charged Hydrogen Ions and the corresponding
value expressed by the Potentiometer is recorded.
For Public water supplies pH value should be 6.5 to 8.5.
Chlorides
Chlorides are mostly present in water in the form of Sodium chloride which enters
water from mines and Oceans. Chlorides are also added to the streams when the sewage and
industrial effluents are discharged in to them. Chlorides impart brackish taste to water.
Excess of chlorides is dangerous and unfit for drinking. Their permissible limit in drinking
water is 250 ppm.
Chlorides are determined in the laboratory using a volumetric analysis called Mohr’s
Method. This method involves the titration of water sample with the standard solution of
Silver Nitrate with Potassium chromate as indicator The solution turns reddish brown at the
end point. The amount of chlorides present is calculated quantitatively.
Residual Chlorine
The chlorine which remains as residual in treated water after the chlorine dose is
applied during the disinfection is called Residual chlorine. It provides safety against
pathogenic bacteria in the treated water during its transit from supply point to the consumer
point. It is determined in the laboratory using Starch-iodide test or Orthotolodin test.
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In starch-iodide test, potassium iodide and starch solutions are added to the sample of
water due to which blue colour is formed. This blue colour is then removed by titrating with
Sodium thiosulphate solution, and the quantity of chloride is calculated.
In the orthotolodine test, orthotolodine solution is added to the sample of water. If
yellow colour is formed, it indicates the presence of residual chlorine in the water. The
intensity of this yellow colour is compared with standard colours to determine the quantity of
residual chlorine.
The residual chlorine should remain between 0.05 to 0.02p.p.m. in the water supplied
to the people to fight against future bacterial contamination.
Fluorides
Fluorides are added to water from the chemical wastes discharged from industries and
from the effluents of atomic power plants. These are essential up to a concentration of 1 mg/l
for the formation of teeth in children and to prevent their dental caries. When their
concentration exceeds 1.5 mg/l in water staining of teeth and skeletal deformation or the
disease called “Fluorosis” is caused.
Fluorides are measured using “SPADNS” method. This method is based on the colour
produced by fluoride to Zirconium-spadns complex. The colour produced is compared with
the standard colour solutions of known Fluoride concentrations.
Biological Tests:
Out of all microorganisms Bacteria is present in large quantities in water. The bacteria
which cause diseases is called Pathogenic Bacteria.
Bacteriological analysis mainly consists of determining the concentration of coli
form group of organisms which are closely associated with the pathogens. The coli form
group mainly consists of a particular type of bacteria called E coli or Escherichia coli. They
appear in large numbers in the faecal discharges of humans and animals. Their presence is
tested in the laboratory which serves as indication for the presence of pathogenic bacteria.
The following bacteriological tests are conducted in the laboratory.
i. Standard plate count test
ii. E coli test
iii. Membrane Filter Technique
Standard Plate Count Test

In this method the bacteria is cultured on a special medium of Agar which contains
nutrients for bacteria for different dilutions of water samples with sterilized water. The
diluted sample is placed in the incubator for 24 hours at 37 0C.The bacteria will grow and
develop in to colonies or clusters which are counted and the results are computed for 1 c.c.
For potable water the total count should not exceed 100 per c.c.
E Coli Test:
This test is also called as B Coli test. This test is done in three stages.
a. Presumptive test
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b. Confirmed test
c. Completed test
a) Presumptive test: Definite quantities of diluted water samples are taken in

standard fermentation tubes containing lactose broth as culture media. The tube is
incubated at 370C for 48 hours. If the gas is evolved from the tube the test is said to be
positive and indicates the presence of E coli group bacteria.
b) Confirmed test: This test is needed to decide further that the bacteria tested
positive in the previous test belongs to the Coliform group. In this test a portion of the
sample from the fermentation tube evolving gas in the previous test is placed in other
fermentation tube containing brilliant lactose bile as culture medium and the tube is
incubated at 370C for 48 hours. If the gas is evolved from the tube the test is said to be
positive and the presence of E coli group bacteria can be confirmed.
c) Completed test: This test is done in some doubtful cases to certainly decide
that the bacteria present belong to that of E Coli group. This test involves streaking of
Endo or Eosin methylene blue plates from each brilliant green lactose bile tube
showing gas and incubating it for 24 hours at 370C. Then discreet colonies are picked
out and planted in lactose broth fermentation tubes and again incubated for 37 0C for
48 hours. If the gas is formed from the tube the test is said to be positive.
Membrane Filter Technique

This is the latest method for testing coli form group organisms. In this method
the water sample is filtered through a specially prepared sterile membrane filter having very
fine pores. The bacteria isolated on the membrane is cultured in M-Endo’s nutrient medium
and incubated for 24 hours at 370C. The coliform microorganisms are grown into colonies
and are counted under microscope to know their numbers.
Coliform Index
Coli form Index (C.I.) is defined as the reciprocal of the smallest quantity of a sample
which would give a positive E-coli test. It is a measure of the concentration of E-coli in a
water sample.
Most Probable Number
MPN is the statistical number obtained using the application of laws of statics to the
results of the bacterial tests. It represents the bacterial density which is most likely to be
present in the water sample.
Quality standards of water for domestic and industrial purposes as per Indian
Standards
The following are the quality standards of water for domestic and industrial purposes
as per Indian Standards ( IS 10500-1991 ) laid down by Bureau of Indian standards and are
given in tables 4.1 and 4.2 given below.
Quality standards of water for domestic purpose.

S.No. Item Desirable Permissible
0 0
1 Temperature 10 C 25 C
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2 Colour 5 mg/l 20 mg/l

On platinum-cobalt scale On platinum-cobalt
scale
3 Odour Threshold no. not exceeding Unobjectionable
3
4 Turbidity 5 mg/l on silica scale 10 mg/l on silica scale
5 pH 6.5 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.5
6 Total Dissolved 500 mg/l 2000 mg/l
solids (TDS)
7 Hardness 300 mg/l 600 mg/l
8 Alkalinity 200 mg/l 600 mg/l
9 Iron 0.3 mg/l 1 mg/l
10 Manganese 0.1 mg/l 0.3 mg/l
11 Sulphate 200 mg/l 400 mg/l
12 Nitrate 45 mg/l 100 mg/l
13 Chloride 250 mg/l 1000 mg/l
14 Fluoride 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
15 Arsenic, cyanide, 0.05 mg/l 0.05 mg/l
lead
16 Total Coliform 95 % of samples should not 10 coliform /100 ml
bacteria contain coliform in 100 ml
17 E coli NIL in 100 ml NIL in 100 ml
TREATMENT OF WATER - OBJECTIVES

Knowing the concentrations of different impurities in water samples collected
from water sources by laboratory testing, the water is to be purified in the treatment plant to
remove the impurities present and make it fit for consumption. The objectives of purification
of water collected from a source are as follows:
i. To remove all the pathogenic microorganisms
ii. To remove unpleasant taste and odour
iii. To remove objectionable colour
iv. To remove the turbidity and make it appear pleasantly
v. To remove undesirable chemical properties like hardness, excess acidity or
vi. alkalinity
vii. To make it suitable for domestic and industrial use
Methods of Purification of Water
The following are the important stages or methods of purification of water:
i. Aeration
ii. Sedimentation
iii. Sedimentation with coagulation
iv. Filtration
v. Disinfection
vi. Softening
vii. Miscellaneous treatments.
Flow diagram of different treatment units in a treatment plant

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The different stages in the process of water treatment are shown in the flow diagram
(fig 4.4 ) given below:
AERATION – OBJECTIVES
Aeration is the process of bringing the water in contact with air. The following
are the objectives of Aeration:
i. To increase the dissolved oxygen content in water.
ii. To oxidize the organic matter
iii. To remove bad tastes and odour
iv. To make water fresh and sparkle
v. To remove Iron and Manganese
vi. To remove the volatile oils
vii. To oxidize the organic matter
Methods of Aeration
Aeration of water is done by any one of the following methods:
(a) Aeration by Cascade aerators:
In this method water is allowed to fall through some

height over a series of steps in thin layers due to which the
water gets thoroughly mixed with the atmospheric air and
gets aerated.(Fig 4.5)
(b) Aeration by Spray Nozzles:
In this type of aeration, water is sprinkled in the

form of fine droplets into the atmosphere through
no. of spray nozzles fitted to the pipes. This helps
water to increase its contact area with air and
water gets aerated. (Fig 4.6)
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(c) Aeration by Multiple Pan aerators:
In this method, water is made to trickle through

perforated pans arranged one below the other. During this
process the water droplets trickling through
the pores get aerated due to their contact with the air. ( Fig 4.7 )
(d) Aeration by Diffusion aerators:
In this method the compressed air is

blown from bottom into the water contained in
a tank. The water is agitated rigorously and
stirred well with the air bubbles. The water is
mixed thoroughly with air and gets aerated.
(Fig.8)
Sedimentation:
Sedimentation is the process of removing the suspended impurities from water by
making them settle down due to the force of gravity. It is also called as Plain sedimentation.
Objectives of Sedimentation
The following are the purposes of Plain Sedimentation:
i. Removes most of the suspended impurities from water.
ii. Reduces the load on the next treatment unit.
iii. Delivers less variable quality water and hence the further treatment
processes can be controlled easily.
iv. No chemical is lost with sludge discharge from the plain sedimentation
tanks
v. Reduces cost of cleaning the chemical coagulation tanks.
vi. Reduces the quantity of chemicals required for the next treatment
processes.
Principle of Plain Sedimentation

Many impurities in water remain suspended in water due to the turbulence or currents
produced in water. When this turbulence is reduced all the particles whose specific gravity is
more than one, i.e more than that of water will settle to the bottom from where they can be
removed.
The settling of suspended particles depends on the following factors:
i. Size and shape of the particle.
ii. Specific gravity of the particle.
iii. Horizontal velocity of flow
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iv. Viscosity and temperature of flow
Detention Period and Flow through Period

Detention time is the theoretical time for which the water is detained in the settling
tank.
Flow through period is the actual time of flow required for a water particle to pass
through the basin at the given rate of flow. It can be determined in the laboratory using colour
dyes.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS ( OR CLARIFIERS)

Sedimentation tanks are classified as follows:
( a ) Depending on the operating conditions:
i. Intermittent or “Fill and draw “type
ii. Continuous flow type
( b) Depending on the shape
i. Rectangular Tanks
ii. Circular tanks
iii. Hopper bottom tanks
( c ) Depending on the flow conditions circular tanks are classified as
i. Radial flow type
ii. Circumferential or spiral flow type
TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS:

The sedimentation tanks mentioned in the above classification are explained in
detail as given below.
Fill and Draw type Sedimentation tank
In this type of tanks water is filled and

allowed to detain for certain time. During this
detention time, the suspended particles will settle
down at the bottom of the tank and the clear water
is withdrawn from top ( Fig 4.9 ). Their working
period is more and required minimum three no’s of
standby units. These tanks are nowadays out of
use.
Continuous Flow type Sedimentation tank

The principle of this tank is to reduce the velocity of
flow of water there by removing large amount of
suspended impurities. The water enters from the inlet of
the tank from one side and travels slowly towards the
outlet. (Fig 4.10) Its velocity is checked by baffle walls
constructed across the tank with openings. The tank is
designed for the flow velocity such that time of travel of a
water particle through the tank is slightly more than the
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settling time of solids. The suspended solids will settle to the bottom and the sludge formed is
flushed out through the flush valve.
Rectangular Tanks
These are rectangular in plan with the ratio of their length to breadth 2 to 3 times. The
width is generally 10 to 12 m and depth varies from 2 to 4 m. Water flows horizontally from
inlet to the out let in these tanks. They provide more length of travel for water and help the
suspended solids to settle due to reduced velocity of flow.
Radial Flow Circular Sedimentation tanks
These are the Sedimentation

tanks circular in plan and water flows
radially from centre towards the
periphery. Dorr model of Sedimentation
tanks ( Fig 4.11) are most widely
employed.
This clarifier consists of a

circular masonry or concrete tank. The
water enters in this tank through the
central inlet pipe placed in-side the
deflector box. The water entered is
deflected downwards and flows radially from the deflector box towards the circumference of
the tank. This clarified water overflows into the outlet channel provided on the full periphery
of the tank. The suspended particles settle down on the sloppy floor and clear water goes
through the outlet. The sludge is removed by scrapper having raking arms which continuously
moves slowly around the floor. The sludge is removed through the sludge outlet pipe.
Circumferential Flow Circular Sedimentation tanks
It consists of a circular masonry or

concrete tank. Water enters in the tank through
the inlet provided at the circumference. The
tank consists of a rotating raking arm in the
tank, which allows the water to move along the
circumference of the tank.(Fig 4.12). All the
suspended impurities settle in the tank at the
bottom, during the slow movement of water
with very slow velocity. The settled sludge is
removed through the sludge outlet. The clear
water is withdrawn over a small weir type
outlet.
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Vertical Hopper Bottom Sedimentation Tank
These are vertical tanks with hopper bottom

constructed with masonry or concrete. Water enters
vertically in these tanks through the inlet chamber and
flows down after getting deflected by a deflector box.
After flowing downward inside the deflector box the water
reverses its direction and starts flowing upward around the
deflector box (Fig 4.13). The suspended particles heavier
than water, failing to flow upwards settle in the bottom.
The sludge so formed is removed through sludge outlet
pipe. The clear water passes (through the rows of
decanting channels provided at the top)upwards and
finally collected in the outlet channel provided at the top
of the tank.
SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: NECESSITY

Plain sedimentation cannot remove very fine suspended particles like silt and clay
particles. They require very long time to get settled and detaining them for such a long time is
practically difficult. Also the electrically charged colloidal particles present in water remain
in continuous motion and do not settle easily due to gravity. Hence it is necessary to remove
those fine particles by the method of sedimentation with Coagulation.
Coagulation is the process of removing the very fine suspended particles and
electrically charged colloidal particles from water with the help of adding certain chemicals.
The chemical added for this purpose are called Coagulants.
PRINCIPLE OF COAGULATION
When certain chemicals called coagulants are added to water an insoluble, gelatinous,
flocculent precipitation is formed. This gelatinous precipitate absorbs the very fine suspended
matter and colloidal impurities.
The process takes place in two stages. In the first stage which is charge neutralization
stage, coagulants are first mixed rapidly with water for some time to produce the gelatinous
precipitate and forms sponge like substance called Floc which absorbs the impurities.
In the second stage called flocculation stage, the mixing is carried out slowly for some
more time so that the small flocs formed grow bigger in size. This water is then sent to
sedimentation basins where these flocs settle to the bottom due to gravity.
CHEMICALS USED AS COAGULANTS
The following chemicals are most commonly used as coagulants:
i. Aluminum Sulphate or Alum [AL2(SO4)318H2O]
ii. Sodium Aluminate [Na2Al2O4]
iii. Chlorinated Copperas ( Mixture of ferric chloride and ferric sulphate )
iv. Ferrous Sulphate and Lime
v. Magnesium Carbonate
vi. Sodium Aluminate
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vii. Polyelectrolytes
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD COAGUALNT

A good coagulant should have the following characteristics.
i. It should mix easily with water
ii. It should be easily available in the market
iii. It should be cheap
iv. It should react quickly with water
v. It should be such that its handling, storing and mixing is easy.
vi. It should not render any side effects to water due to its addition
vii. It should not make water toxic
viii. It should not cause any harm to the operator working with it.
Note: Since Alum possesses most of the above characteristics it is most widely used as a
coagulant all over the world.
Components of a Coagulation Sedimentation Plant
The coagulation sedimentation Plant essentially consists of the following units:

i. Feeding devices
ii. Mixing Basin
iii. Flocculation tank or Flocculator
iv. Settling tank or Clarifier or Sedimentation tank
The chemical coagulants are fed in to the raw water through feeding devices in dry or
wet form. The coagulant is thoroughly mixed in the Mixing Basin due to which Flocs are
formed. In the Flocculation tank or Floculator mixing is done slowly with the rotating
paddles and the Flocs from previous tank get agglomerated into bigger size with more and
more entrapped fine suspended and colloidal particles. The Flocculated water is then sent to
the sedimentation tank where the impurities settle down and removed. A Clariflocculator is
modern device containing all these four units assembled into a single unit.
FILTRATION :: NECESSITY
The process of passing the water through the thick layers of sand or through the bed
of granular materials is known as filtration.
Filtration is necessary to achieve the following objectives which can not be achieved
by the preceding treatment processes viz., plain sedimentation or sedimentation aided with
coagulation:
i. To remove any Suspended or Colloidal impurities escaped from the preceding units
from water
ii. To remove Iron & Manganese from water
iii. To remove Colour, Odour & Taste from water
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iv. To change undesirable chemical properties of water

v. To remove Biological impurities like algae, zooplankton, bacteria etc., from water
vi. To remove the “flocs" formed during coagulation from water.
TYPES OF FILTERS
Filters are mainly classified as shown in the

Fig.4.15 below
i. Gravity Filters : The Filters in which

water passes through the Filter media by
gravity are called Gravity Filters.
ii. Pressure Filters : The Filters in

which water passes through the Filter
media under pressure are called Pressure Filters.
iii. Slow Sand Filters: The Gravity Filters of very large size having very fine size
filter media that can remove large amount of impurities and bacteria but with a
low rate of filtration are called Slow Sand Filters.
iv. Rapid Sand Filters: The Gravity Filters of small size having Course size
filter media that can remove appreciable amount of impurities and bacteria with a
very high rate of filtration are called Rapid Sand Filters.
Mechanism of Filtration:
Filtration takes place due to the following actions or processes:
i. Mechanical Straining : The suspended impurities bigger in size than
that of voids between the sand particles of filter media are detained in the
voids due to “Mechanical Straining”.
ii. Sedimentation and adsorption: The voids between the sand grains
act as tiny sedimentation tanks, which allows the suspended & colloidal
particles to settle and absorbed to the surface of sand grains.
iii. Biological Metabolism: The microorganisms present in the water get

attached to sand grains and oxidize the organic impurities passing around them
and filter the water.
iv. Electrolytic action: The opposite electric charges in the sand grains
and suspended, colloidal particles get neutralized changing the chemical
characteristics of water.
Properties of Filter Media and Base material:

The following are the requirements of good filter media (Sand):
i. It should be free from dirt, clay, loam and other impurities
ii. It should be uniform in nature and size
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iii. It should be hard and resistant
iv. It should not lose more than 5% of its weight after placing in HCl for
24 hours.
The base material is Gravel which supports the Sand above it and allows the
filtered water to pass through the under drains. The Gravel should be hard, durable, free from
dust and impurities, and properly rounded.
Effective Size and Uniformity Coefficient

The effective Size of the sand may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through
which 10 % of the sand by weight will pass. It is denoted as D 10. The size of the sand is
specified in terms of its effective size.
Uniformity coefficient (Cu) is defined as the ratio of sieve sizes in mm through which
60 % of sand will pass (D60) to the effective size (D10 ).
Cu = D60/D10
SLOW SAND FILTERS
I.Construction of Slow sand filter : The filter consists of the following parts as shown in
Fig 4.16.
a. Enclosure Tank: It is a masonry or

concrete rectangular Open
water tank with plan area
100 to 2000 sq.m. and
depth varying from 2.5 to
3.5 m. The bed is given a
slope about 1 in 100
towards the central drain.
b. Filter media: The filter media

consists of sand layers
packed over a Gravel bed up to a depth of 90 to 110 cm. The effective size D 10 of
sand varies from 0.2 to 0.4 and the uniformity coefficient varies from 1.8 to 3. The
sand layers are so arranged that fine sand is placed above the coarse sand in the
bed.
c. Base material: It consists of 3 to 4 layers each of 15 to 20 cm thick gravel packed under

sand bed for a total depth of 30 to 75 cm. The size of the Gravel varies from 3 to
65mm.Finer gravel is placed over the coarser one while packing.
d. Under drainage System: This system arranged underneath the gravel bed, consists of a
central drain connected by porous later drains sloping towards it (Fig 4.17). The
filtered water is collected by lateral drains and sent it to the centre main drain
which discharges it to the out let chamber.
e. Inlet and Outlet Arrangements: The enclosure tank consists of an inlet chamber for
admitting water to the filter and an outlet chamber to receive the filtered water. An
adjustable telescopic tube is provided in the outlet channel to maintain constant
discharge through the filter.
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II. Operation of the Filter

The water treated with plain sedimentation process enters the filter through the inlet
chamber, passes over the overflowing weir and distributed uniformly all over the filter media.
Water percolates through the pores of sand and gravel and gets purified. The filtered water is
collected by the under drainage system and carried to the outlet chamber.
III. Cleaning of the Filter
The filter gets exhausted after some days due to the clogging of the pores in the filter
bed. A thick dirty film containing impurities and bacteria, called “Schmutzdecke” is formed
on the filter media. The rate of filtration is reduced at this stage. Then the filter bed is cleaned
by scrapping the top 15 to 30 mm sand layer. The Filter is again put to use. Generally the
filter needs cleaning when the loss of head (Difference of water levels in inlet and outlet
chambers) reaches a value of 0.7 to 1.2m.
IV. Efficiency of Filter

Rate of Filtration : 100 to 200 lit/ hr / sq.m area of filter
Removal of Bacteria : 98 to 99 %
Removal of Turbidity : Up to 50 mg/l
RAPID SAND FILTERS
I. Construction of Rapid sand filter : The filter

consists of the following parts as shown in Fig
4.18.
a. Enclosure Tank: It is a masonry or concrete
rectangular open water tank with plan area 10 to 80
sq.m. and depth varying from 2.5 to 3.5 m. No. of
Rapid sand filters are arranged in rows in a
building called filter House.
b. Filter media: The filter media consists of

sand layers packed over a Gravel bed up to a depth
of 60 to 90 cm. The effective size D10 of sand
varies from 0.35 to 0.55 and the uniformity
coefficient varies from 1.2 to 1.8. The sand layers are so arranged that fine sand is placed
above the coarse sand in the bed.
c. Base material: It consists of 5 to 6 layers each of 10 to 15 cm thick gravel packed

under sand bed for a total depth of 60 to 90 cm. The size of the Gravel varies from 3 to
65mm. The size of the gravel increases from top to bottom. The Gravel not only supports the
sand bed but also helps in cleaning the filter by distributing the back wash water.
d. Under drainage System: This system arranged underneath the gravel bed receives
the filtered water and also supplies the water for back washing. It consists of a central
Manifold Pipe of 40 cm dia. connected by porous later drains connected at right angles to it
@ 15 to 20 cm c/c sloping towards it .
e. Miscellaneous Units: The enclosure tank consists of an inlet chamber for admitting
water to the filter. There are also arrangements provided to supply water and air from bottom
to clean the filter. The water for back washing is stored in a storage tank. A compressed air
unit is provided to release air under pressure. Dirty water during cleaning is collected
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through the wash water troughs and sent to the main gutter. Valves are fitted to the various
pipes to control the water.
II. Operation of the Filter

The valve 1 is opened and the water treated with sedimentation aided with
coagulation process enters the filter through the inlet chamber, and distributed uniformly all
over the filter media. It percolates through the pores of sand and gravel and gets purified. The
filtered water is collected by the under drainage system and carried to the Clear water storage
tank by opening Valve 2.
III. Cleaning of the Filter:

The filter gets exhausted after some time due to the clogging of the pores in the filter
bed. The rate filtration is reduced at this stage. Then the filter bed is cleaned by “Back
Washing” method. Valves 1 and 2 are closed and valves 4 and 6 are opened. The wash water
and compressed air are forced upward from under drainage system and gravel bed. The filter
bed is agitated and cleaned . Valve 6 is closed. The cleaned water is carried to the wash water
drain by opening valve 3. Now Valve 4 is also closed. Valve 1 is opened and Filter is again
put in to use. The dirty water in the beginning is discharged out by opening valve 5. Then
valve 5 is closed and valve 2 is opened to collect the filtered water. Generally the filter needs
cleaning when the loss of head reaches a value 2.5 to 3.5 m.
IV. Efficiency of Filter
Rate of Filtration : 3000 to 6000 lit/ hr / sq.m area of filter
Removal of Bacteria : 80 to 90 %
Removal of Turbidity : 35 to 40 mg/l
COMPARISON OF SLOW SAND FILTER AND RAPID SAND FILTER

S.No. Item Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter
1 Influent Water treated with Plain Water treated with sedimentation
sedimentation is fed in to the filter aided by coagulation is fed in to
the filter
2 Area 100 to 2000 sq.m 10 to 80 sq.m
3 Effective size of 0.2 to 0.4 0.35 to 0.55
sand
4 Uniformity 1.8 to 3 1.2 to 1.8
coefficient of
sand
5 Under drainage Receives filtered water Receives filtered water and also
system distributes back wash water
6 Rate of filtration 100 to 200 lit/hr/sq.m 3000 to 6000 lit/hr/sq.m
7 Operation cost Low High
8 Bacterial removal 98 to 99 % 80 to 90 %
9 Flexibility Can not meet variations in demand Flexible for meeting variations in
demand
10 Suitability Suitable for small villages Suitable for towns and cities
11 Ease in Simple Complicated
construction
12 Skilled Not required Required
supervision
13 Method of Scrapping top layers of sand By back washing with water
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cleaning
14 Period of cleaning 1 to 3 months 1 to 3 days
15 Quantity of wash 0.2 to 0.6 % of total filtered water 1 to 5 % of total filtered water
water required
16 Limiting loss of 0.8 to 1.2 m 2.5 to 3.5 m
head
PRESSURE FILTER
Pressure filter is a rapid sand filter

enclosed in a closed, watertight steel
cylinder. The water passes through the sand
bed under a pressure greater than
atmospheric. The size of vertical filters
varies from 0.3 to 2.75m in diameter and
height may be 2 to 2.5meters.The horizontal
units are generally 2 to 3meters in diameter
and up to 9 m in length.
The filter consists of sand bed 45 to
90 cm thick, placed over a graded gravel bed of sufficient thickness. The under drainage
system with porous laterals connected to the central drain is provided under the gravel bed.
Water from coagulation sedimentation tank is admitted into the filters under a pressure of 0.3
to 0.7 N/mm2.
These filters are similar in working and operation to rapid sand filters. The cleaning
of filter bed is done by back washing .The rate of filtration is 6,000to 15,000 liters/hours/m 2
area of filter bed. Mostly pressure filters are used for industrial plants, swimming pools and
for small public supplies. The quality of water treated is comparatively poor in these filters.
DISINFECTION OF WATER
Disinfection is the process of killing the pathogenic bacteria from the water and
making it safe to the consumers. It slightly defers form the word Sterilization which means
the total destruction of all living organisms. The chemicals added for disinfecting water are
called “disinfectants”.
The following are the objectives of disinfecting water:
I. To kill pathogenic microorganisms present in drinking water which are
remaining even after the primary water purification methods.
II. To take care of the contamination during transportation of water.
III. To make water safe for consumption
IV. To protect the public health from the infections
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISINFECTANTS

The following are the requirements of good disinfectants
i. They should destroy all the harmful pathogenic organisms from the
water and make it safe for use.
ii. They should kill the bacteria quickly
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iii. They should be able to kill the pathogens at normal temperature

iv. They should be cheaply and easily available
v. They should not require high skill and costly requirement for their
application.
vi. They should not make water toxic and objectionable
vii. They should be such that their concentration can be easily determined
viii. They should have some residual effect to resist future contamination
and retention
METHODS OF DISINFECTION
The disinfection of water can be done by the following methods:
i. By the Boiling of water

ii. By Ultra-Violet rays
iii. By the use of ozone
iv. By the use of excess lime
v. By the use of Iodine and Bromine
vi. By using Potassium permanganate
vii. By treatment with silver or electro-katadyn process
viii. By chlorination
.
DISINFECTION BY BOILING
In this method water is boiled for 15 to 20 minutes. Boiling of water kills all the
disease-producing bacteria and water becomes safe for use. This method can only kill the
existing germs but does not provide any protection against future possible contamination
.This method is costly and can be used only for individual purpose but not practically
possible to employ it in public water treatment works.
DISINFECTION BY ULTRA-VOILET RAYS
Ultra-violet rays are invisible light rays having wave lengths of 1000 to 4000 mµ. In
the laboratory U-V rays are produced by passing the electric current through quartz bulbs
containing mercury. Ultra-violet rays are highly disinfectants and kill the pathogenic bacteria.
The water which is free from colour and turbidity is allowed to pass round the bulbs several
times in layers of 10 cm thickness. These rays penetrate in water and kill the bacteria. Since
no chemicals are added in this process no taste and odour are produced. This method requires
technical skill and costly equipments. It is used for the disinfection of swimming pools and in
commercial water productions.
DISINFECTION WITH OZONE
Ozone is an unstable allotropic form of oxygen, with its every molecule containing
three ozone atoms. In the laboratory, Ozone is produced by passing a high tension electric
current through a stream of air in a closed chamber. But as the ozone is highly unstable, it
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breaks down in to the ordinary oxygen and nascent oxygen as given by the following
equation:
O3 = O2 + O
The nascent oxygen ( O ) is very powerful oxidizing agent and kills all the bacteria as well as
oxidizes the organic matter present in the water.
For disinfecting water, it is passed through the inlet of the sterilizing chamber and
Ozone is released to react with water. The disinfected water is collected through the outlet of
the chamber. Ozone also removes the colour, odour and taste from water. It is also a costly
method.
DISINFECTION WITH IODINE AND BROMINE
Iodine and Bromine in the water, kills all the pathogenic bacteria. These disinfectants
are easily available in the form of pills and can be used very easily. These are costly. These
are used for treating small water supplies, swimming pools, water for army troops, private
estates or mini industry.
DISINFECTION BY EXCESS LIME
Lime is usually used for reducing the hardness of water. If lime is added in excess
quantity it will disinfect the water while removing the hardness. The addition of excess lime
increases pH value of water to around 9.5, all the bacteria will be killed. Next the excess lime
is to be removed after disinfection, by the method of recarbonation. Hence this method is not
adopted for public water supplies.
DISINFECTION BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
This method is mostly employed in villages for the disinfection of wells and Ponds.
Small amount of potassium permanganate is added in a bucket of water and mixed with the
well or Pond water frequently, to kill the bacteria and oxidize the organic matter.
DISINFECTION WITH SILVER OR ELECTRO-KATADYN PROCESS
In this method water is passed through a tube containing solid silver electrodes
connected to a D.C.supply of 1.5 Volts. When the current is passed and the metallic silver
ions are introduced into the water and kill all the bacteria. This method is called Electro
Katadyn process. This is very costly method of disinfection, hence not used at the water
works.
CHLORINATION
The addition of Chlorine to water for killing bacteria is called chlorination.

When Chlorine is added to the water the following reactions take place.
Cl2 + H2O = HCl + HOCl
HOCl = H + OCl (Reversible)
The Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and Hypochlorite Ions (OCl) are responsible for the
disinfection of water.
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Chlorine existing as the sum of Hypochlorous acid, Hypochlorite ions and molecular
chlorine is termed as “Free available” chlorine.
APPLICATION OF CHLORINE
Chlorine is generally applied to the water in the following forms:

i. Liquid or Gaseous chlorine (Free Chlorine)
ii. Bleaching Powder (Hypo Chlorination)
iii. Chloramines (Mixture of chlorine and ammonia)
APPLICATION OF LIQUID OR GASEOUS CHLORINE
Chlorine gas is applied to the water in gaseous form. When this gaseous chlorine is
subject to a pressure of 0.7 N/mm2 it is converted in to liquid which can be stored in the
cylinders and applied to the water. The apparatus through which chlorine gas is added to
water is called “Chlorinator”. The Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and Hypochlorite Ions (OCl)
produced during this process kill the bacteria and disinfect water.
CHLORINATION USING BLEACHING POWDER
Bleaching Powder consists of Hypochlorites of calcium and sodium .It is used for the
disinfection of small water works, private industries, colonies or estates. This method is
called Hypochlorination.
When the hypochlorites are added in water following chemical action takes place.
Ca(OCl)2 = (Ca+ ) + 2 (OCl-)
The hypochlorite ions further combine with the hydrogen ions present in water and form
hypochlorous acid as follows:
OCl- + H+  HOCl
The hypochlorous acid so formed kills the bacteria present in the water. The ordinary
bleaching powder contains only 25-30% of chlorine. But the commercial compounds like
HTH (High test Hypochlorite) contains 65 to 70 % chlorine.
CHLORINATION USING CHLORAMINES
When chlorine is added in water containing ammonia and organic nitrogen
compounds, Monochloramine (NH2CL), Dichloramine (NHCL2) and Tri-chloramine (NCl3)
are released. The combined chlorine with ammonia in the form of chloramines is called
“Combined chlorine”.
i. NH3 + HOCl → NH2Cl + H2O

ii. NH2Cl + HOCl → NHCl2 + H2O
iii. NHCl2 + HOCl → NCl3 + H2O
Chloramines are effective at killing bacteria and some protozoa but they are not
effective in killing viruses.
TYPES OF CHLORINATION
Depending upon the application of chlorine at different stages in the treatment
of water the chlorination can be classified as follows:
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i. Pre-Chlorination
ii. Post-Chlorination
iii. Super Chlorination
iv. Double Chlorination
v. Break point Chlorination
vi. Dechlorination
Pre-Chlorination
Application of chlorine to the raw water before the process of sedimentation is called Pre-
chlorination. This is done if the raw water contains large quantities of algae and other
microorganisms, which if not removed in sedimentation, will quickly clog the filter beds.
Post-Chlorination
Application of Chlorine for the purpose of disinfection, at the end of all other
treatments i.e after filtration and before sending into the consumers is called Post-
Chlorination.
Super Chlorination
It is the process of adding extra dosage of chlorine than usually required. This is done
during the outbreak of Epidemics or water borne diseases when water is highly polluted
during floods. After disinfection the extra chlorine should be removed.
Double Chlorination
It is the process of disinfecting water using both Pre-chlorination and Post-
chlorination methods in a water treatment plant.
BREAK PONT CHLORINATION
Addition of Chlorine at a point called

break point, beyond which any additional
dose added in water appears as the residual is
called Break Point Chlorination.
Break Point Chlorination can be explained
with the help of following graph (Fig 4.20.)
If Chlorine is slowly added to the

water and the residual is measured it will go
on increasing with the addition of chlorine.
Some chlorine added is consumed for killing
bacteria and the amount of residual chlorine is slightly less than that added as shown by the
line AB. If the addition of chlorine continued beyond the point B, the organic matter present
in water gets oxidized and the residual chlorine suddenly falls down as represented by the
curve BC. If the dose of chlorine added exceeds correspond to the point C, it will appears
freely as residual. The point C is called break point and the application of chlorine beyond the
break point is called break point chlorination.
DECHLORINATION
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It is defined as the reduction of residual chlorine in water by the application of certain

chemicals like Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Sodium bi- Sulphate (NaHSO3), Sodium thiosulphate
(Na2S2O3), Activated Carbon etc. Dechlorination can also be done using Aeration.
SOFTENING OF WATER
The removal of hardness from the water is known as softening. The main advantages
of water softening are reduction in the consumption of soap and to remove operational
difficulties of industries using hard waters.
REMOVAL OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS
Temporary hardness can be removed by the following methods:

(a) By boiling
(b) By addition of lime
(a) Boiling
When the water is boiled having temporary hardness, the bicarbonates are converted
into the insoluble carbonates and settle to the bottom and can be removed as explained in the
following chemical reactions:
Ca(HCO3)2 + Heat  CaCO3 ( Insoluble ppt) + CO2 + H2O

(b) Addition of lime water (Clark’s Process)
If the lime water [ Ca (OH) 2 ] is added in the water containing temporary hardness,
the following chemical reactions take place:
Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH) 2  Ca (CO3) 2 + Mg (OH) 2

(Both are Insoluble precipitates)
Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH) 2  2CaCO3 ( Insoluble ppt) + 2H2O
The calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are insoluble in water and get
precipitated and can be removed by sedimentation tanks.
4.43.2 REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS
Following are the various methods used for the removal of permanent hardness from
the water.
(a) Lime- soda process.
(b) Base-Exchange process.
(c) Demineralization process.
(a) LIME-SODA PROCESS
In this method Lime [Ca (OH) 2 ] , and soda ash [Na2CO3 ] are added to the hard water
which react with the calcium and magnesium salts to form insoluble precipitates of calcium
carbonate [CaCO3] and magnesium hydroxide [ Mg (OH) 2 ] . The following are the
chemical reactions taking place:
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Mg (HCO3) + Ca (OH) 2  Ca (HCO3)2 + Mg (OH) 2 (ppt)

Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH) 2  2CaCO3 (ppt) + 2H2O
MgCO3 + Ca (OH) 2  Mg (OH) 2 (ppt) + CaCO3 (ppt)
MgSO4 + Ca (OH) 2  Mg (OH) 2 (ppt) + CaSO4
CaSO4 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 (ppt) + Na2SO4
These precipitates are removed in the sedimentation tanks.
(b) BASE EXCHANGE PROCESS
This method of softening of water is also called Zeolite or Cation Exchange Process.
In this method hard water is passed through a bed of zeolite sand (complex hydrated silicates
of aluminium and sodium), while passing through it the Ca and Mg cations get replaced by
sodium from the exchanger and the water becomes soft. The sodium from the zeolite sand is
exhausted after some time and can be regenerated by passing a solution of 10% common salt
(Brine solution) through it.
REMOVAL OF COLOUR, ODOUR AND TASTE
These are removed by the following treatment methods.
(a) Aeration
(b) Treatment with activated carbon.
(c) Treatment with copper sulphate.
(d) Oxidation of organic matters.
UNIT -5
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

A Good distribution system should satisfy the following requirements:
i. It should be able to distribute water in adequate quantities and pressures.
ii. It should be able to distribute water to all the parts of the area to be served.
iii. It should be able to meet the domestic, commercial and industrial demands.
iv. It should be able to provide sufficient quantity of water for firefighting purpose.
v. The system should be reliable and should ensure uninterrupted supply of water.
vi. The system should be such that all its supply mains and appurtenances are well
protected from damages.
vii. It should be economical in its design, layout and construction.
viii. The system should be water tight and leakages are brought down to the minimum
ix. The system should not give any scope for water pollution.
x. It should permit easy repairs.
SYSTEMS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION

Depending upon the way in which the water is distributed or conveyed from the
source to the area to be served to meet the required pressure, the systems of water distribution
are classified as follows:
i. Gravity system
ii. Direct Pumping system
iii. Dual System or Combined Gravity and Pumping system
Gravity system
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In this system water from

distribution reservoir is conveyed by
gravity only. It is suitable when the source
of water supply is situated at a higher
level than that of distribution area. (Fig
5.1)
Advantages:
i. System is most reliable
ii. Economical system
iii. No pumping is necessary
iv. Adequate pressure will be available after allowing frictional and other losses in pipes
Disadvantages:
i. Water source may not be available at higher elevation in all places for gravity
distribution
ii. Use of motor pumps may be necessary for developing high pressure for fire fighting
Direct Pumping System

In this system the treated water is
directly pumped into the distribution mains
without storing it. Pumps are used to
develop the necessary pressure to distribute
the water to the consumers. (Fig 5.2)
Advantages:
i. No storage of water is required
ii. High Pressure water demand can be
met using more no. of pumps
iii. Large quantity of water with high
pressure can be forced for extinguishing fires during fire accidents.
Disadvantages:
i. The system is costly as it involves Pumping
ii. Water supply is not possible during power failures
iii. Needs skilled supervision and constant attendance
iv. Failure of pumps would lead to difficulties
Combined Gravity and Pumping System
It is also called as Dual System or Pumping with Storage system. In this system the
treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated reservoir and supplied to the consumers by
gravity. The excess water during low demands is stored in the elevated reservoir and is
supplied to the consumers during peak demands(Fig 5.3). This is most commonly adopted
system.
Advantages:
i. The system is economical and
reliable
ii. Pumps are worked at uniform rate
and suffer less wear and tear
iii. Water can be directly send by
pumping under high pressure for
Fire fighting purpose
iv. Constant attendance is not required
v. Water is always available and
system does not face problems during power failures
Disadvantages:
The system is the recommended system with no disadvantages.
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SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY

Water is supplied to the consumers using the following methods:
i. Intermittent System ii.Continuous System
Intermittent System of water supply

In this method water is supplied to the consumers only for a few fixed hours of the
day. Generally water is supplied during the hours of peak demand. Ex: 6 to 7 am; 5 to 6 pm.
Advantages:
i. This system can provide high pressure supply to even elevated areas.
ii. Wastages are minimum in this system
iii. Can be adopted by cities and big towns facing water scarcity
iv. The area to be served can be divided in to zones and the timings of each zone are so
adjusted that good working pressure is maintained in each zone.
v. Repair works can be taken up during the non-supply hours.
vi. The system is economical and simple
Disadvantages:
i. It is difficult to meet the fire demand during non-supply hours.

ii. The water taps might remain open during non supply hours due to the negligence of
consumers and considerable water will be wasted when the supply starts.
iii. The consumers have to store water during non-supply hours
iv. The unused stored water may be thrown away once fresh water is released leading to
some wastage
v. There is possibility of contamination of stored water for a long period
vi. The system requires large dia. size pipes to meet the demand in short time
vii. Large no. of valves needed to be operated for the working of the system
viii. Consumers have to wait patiently for the supply
ix. During non-supply hours vacuum may be developed inside the pipe which
leads to the intrusion of external polluted water.
Continuous System of water supply
In this method of supply, the water is supplied to the consumers throughout the day. Hence
water will be received by the users for 24 hours of the day.
Advantages:
i. The consumers need not wait patiently for the supply of water
ii. Water is always available for the purpose of firefighting
iii. Fresh and treated water is supplied all the times
iv. Storage in containers is avoided hence no contamination of water
v. People will maintain good sanitation due to the continuous availability of water
vi. Use of air relief and pressure relief valves can be minimized
vii. Smaller dia. Pipes are sufficient in the system since water distribution is uniform
throughout the day
Disadvantages:
i. The system is difficult to implement in water scarce areas
ii. Wastages due to leakage of pipes if any will be more
iii. People unnecessarily use more water than required
iv. Not economical system
v. System needs metering policy to stop the over use of water
SERVICE RESERVOIRS – NECESSITY
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Service reservoirs are also called as Distribution reservoirs. These are required for
storing water before distributing it to the consumers. These are generally constructed with
RCC or Steel.
Service reservoirs are necessary to serve the following purposes:
i. They allow pumps to run at uniform rate
ii. They make the design and construction of treatment units and distribution system
economical
iii. They will meet the emergencies like breakdown of pumps, breakage of mains, fire
accidents, power failure etc
iv. They serve as balancing reservoirs to maintain constant pressure in water mains.
v. They allow the provision for smaller dia. mains in distribution and make the system
economical
vi. They absorb the fluctuation in hourly demand of water
TYPES OF SERVICE RESERVOIRS

The Service reservoirs or Distribution storage reservoirs are of the following types:
i. Underground Reservoirs
ii. Ground Level Surface Reservoirs
iii. Elevated Reservoirs
Underground Reservoirs
These are water tight Masonry, concrete or RCC tanks constructed below the ground
level through open excavation. To the maximum extent they are located at highest available
point in the distribution system. These are designed to take up the Earth pressure also. They
consist RCC roof at top and sloped concrete floor at bottom. Bituminous joints are used for
water tightness in construction joints. The tanks are provided with proper inlet and outlet
pipes, overflow pipes and drainage pipes. These are also provided with manholes for going
inside and inspection, ventilation pipes to prevent accumulated gases and steps to go inside.
These are provided with two compartments. One serves as the standby during cleaning
periods.
Ground Service Reservoirs

These are
the Ground level Service
Reservoirs (GLSR) located at
highest points in the distribution
system. Water can also be sent to
the distribution by gravity from
the surface reservoirs located at
sufficient height. All the
construction features are similar
to underground storage reservoirs
(Fig 5.4). The main features are
plastered side walls, RCC roof
provided with manholes and
ventilation pipes, Sloped concrete floor at bottom, arrangements for inlet, outlet, overflow
and scour pipes. Some times the city is divided into zones and a separate reservoir is located
at each highest point of the zone for distribution of water.
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Elevated Reservoirs or Overhead Storage Reservoirs (OHSR)

These are constructed at a higher elevation from
ground level. Their location depends upon, the area to be
served, water demand, pressure to be maintained and layout
of the system. These are Circular, Rectangular or elliptical
in shape. These are built elevated using the frame work of
columns and beams. These tanks are generally made of
RCC, PSC or Steel. These are most widely constructed in
distributing areas in the combined pumping and storage
system of conveying water.
The following are the accessories of elevated storage
reservoirs and their functions:
i. Inlet Pipe for entry of treated water
ii. Outlet Pipe for the exit of water for distribution
iii. Overflow Pipe for the safe exit of excess water
above full supply level
iv. Wash water pipe or drain pipe for removing the cleaned water
v. Ladder to reach the top of the reservoir
vi. Manhole provided in the RCC roof for inspecting the inside of the reservoir
vii. Ventilating pipes for the circulation of air and keeping the water fresh
viii. Water level indicator to know the inside level of water from out side
ix. Valves for controlling water in different pipes
LAYOUTS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Depending on the method of arrangement of pipes in the distribution system, the
layouts of distribution are classified as follows:
i. Dead end or Tree system

ii. Grid Iron system
iii. Circle or Ring system
iv. Radial system
Dead end or Tree system
The system consists of one

main laid from service reservoir along
the main road. Sub mains are
connected to the main and laid along
the other roads. In other streets and
lanes, branch pipes are laid connecting
to the sub main. These branches are
taken to the point wherever needed
forming no. of dead ends. (Fig 5.7)
This system is suitable for old towns
and cities which were developed with
irregular roads without any planning.
Advantages:
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i. Initial cost of the system is less

ii. Net work distribution can be solved easily
iii. It is easy to determine the discharge and pressure at any point in the
system
iv. Laying of water pipes is simple
v. Shorter lengths of pipes with smaller dia. are required
vi. Expansion of the pipes is easy
vii. No. of cutoff valves required are less
Disadvantages:
i. During repairs to a pipe line, the entire area served by that pipe line is
affected because water can reach a point only through one route.
ii. The no. of dead ends formed prevents the free circulation of air.
iii. Stagnation of water takes place at the dead ends effecting water
quality.
iv. No. of Scour valves are required to drain of stagnated water at dead
ends.
v. During fire breakouts water can be supplied in only one route. The
discharge cannot be increased by diverting other supplies from any other side.
Grid Iron system
In this method the Mains, Sub mains and

branches are all interconnected with each other
forming a gird. This method is also known as
“Interlaced” or “Reticulation” system. The main
line is laid along the Main road of the town (Fig
5.8). Sub mains are taken in both sides of the main
along other roads. From these sub mains, the branch
pipes are taken along small lanes. This system is
most suitable for the towns and cities having
rectangular pattern of roads.
Advantages:
i. Water circulates freely throughout the system

ii. Dead ends of the pipes are eliminated
iii. Stagnation of water due to dead ends is also eliminated
iv. In case of repairs, less area is effected, water being available from
some other route
v. Large quantity of water is available from all directions in the case of
fires.
vi. Friction losses in pipes are minimum and hence smaller dia. size pipes
are sufficient in the network.
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Disadvantages:
i. System requires longer lengths of pipes

ii. No. of valves required is also more
iii. For repairing one section more no. of valves are required to be closed
iv. The system is costlier
v. Design of the system is difficult
Circle or Ring system
In this system the entire area to be served is divided into

circular or rectangular blocks. The Water Main is then laid along
the peripheral roads of the area. The sub mains are placed along
the internal roads and streets as shown in Fig 5.9.The ring or
circle system is suitable for well planned towns and cities having
a good pattern of roads.
Advantages:
i. Every point receives water from two directions

ii. During repairs water can be supplied from all directions
iii. Dead ends of the pipes are eliminated and hence no stagnation of water
iv. Air circulates freely among the pipes and water will be fresh
v. Design calculations are simple
vi. System has the advantages of both the Dead end and Grid iron systems
vii. Meets the fire demand with the supply of large quantity of water form
all directions
Disadvantages:
i. System requires longer lengths of pipes

ii. No. of valves required is also more
iii. Costly system
Radial system
In this system the area to be served is divided in to no. of distribution zones 1,2,3,4...
etc. as shown in Fig 5.10. A distributing reservoir is placed in the centre of each zone. The
system consists of the water mains laid along the main roads. The sub mains are connected to
the mains and convey water to the distribution reservoirs. The water is served to the
consumers through the radial supply covering the entire zone. The system is reverse of the
Ring system and suitable to the towns or cities having a system of radial roads emerging from
different centers.
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Advantages:
i. Design calculations are

simple
ii. Ensures high pressure
water distribution
iii. Efficient system
iv. System gives quick and
satisfactory water supply
Causes of Leakages in the Distribution Pipes:
The following are some of the reasons for leakages of pipes:
I. Damage of water taps

II. Damage of joints
III. Damage of pipes
IV. Damage of fittings
V. Careless use of water by the consumers
VI. Damage by the external agencies like traffic
Detection of Leakage in the Distribution Pipes
The leakage of water from the underground water mains can be detected using the
following methods.
i. By direct observation
ii. Using the Sounding Rods
iii. By Plotting Hydraulic Gradient Line
iv. Using Waste detecting Meters.
Direct observation
In this method the road along which the Pipe line is buried is surveyed. If any wet
spots, Growth of green grass or emergence of springs are noticed, they indicate that water is
leaking in that area. The ground is excavated and the pipe joint or pipe is repaired.
Sounding Rods
In this method a metallic rod with a sharp pointed end is driven in to the ground
touching the pipe. If the ear is placed on the top of the rod the sound of leaking water can be
heard. The sound can also be heard by magnifying it with an aquaphone or sonoscope. The
necessary repairs of the pipe in that area can be taken up.
Plotting Hydraulic Gradient Line

In this method the pressure at various points along the suspected pipe line are
measured and the hydraulic gradient line is plotted. The sudden drop in the slope of the HGL
will indicate the leakage at that point. This is the correct method of leak detection.
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Waste Detecting Meters

In this method the leakages is detected by waste detecting meters which actually
measure any unusual high flow passing through a water main during the period of low
consumption. Deacon’s waste water meter is most widely used. The meter automatically
records the rate of flow on a graph sheet. The test is conducted during nights on a section of
the water main isolating it from other mains. All sub mains and branches are gradually shut
off. At each shut off the recorded flow through the meter will drop. A large and dis-
proportionate drop in the recorded flow indicates the leakage in that pipe and necessary
repairs for rectification are under taken. This is the most scientific method.
Method of Rectification and Prevention of Leakages
The following are some precautions in minimizing the leakages in pipes.

i. All unauthorized connections can be detected by thoroughly inspecting
the pipe lines and house connections.
ii. Only the authorized licensed plumbers are permitted to execute the
plumbing work
iii. Leakages and carelessness in private buildings can be detected by
inspecting the fittings and pipe joints.
iv. Sudden and unexpected inspection by the authority during nights will
control the illegal connections and wastages
v. Valves and fixtures should be fitted at all necessary points
vi. Leaky Pipes and joints should be immediately repaired
vii. All the fittings should be done as per the standard specifications.
viii. Damaged Pipes and valves should be immediately replaced
Appurtenances in the Distribution System
For the easy and effective functioning of the distribution system the distribution pipes
are provided with various appurtenance or accessories. The following are some of the
important appurtenances in the distribution system:
i. Sluice Valves
ii. Check Valves or Reflux Valve
iii. Air Valves
iv. Drain Valves or Blow-off Valves
v. Scour Valves
vi. Fire Hydrants
vii. Water Meters
Scour Valve
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These are also called as “Gate Valves”. These are used

to control the flow of water in the pipes. They are placed at an
interval of about 150 to 200 m and at all the junctions. For long
straight lengths they can be placed at an interval of 1 to 3 km.
They are helpful in dividing the water mains into suitable
sections.
These are made of cast iron with brass, bronze or
stainless steel mountings. The valve consists of a wedge
shaped circular disc connected to a handle (or Wheel) by
means of a threaded spindle as shown in Fig 5.11.The valve
can be raised or lowered by rotating the handle. Rotating the
valve in one direction allows water to pass and in other direction it stops the passage of water.
Check Valve or Reflux Valve
These valves are also called as “Non-return

valves”. It is an automatic device which allows water
in one direction only and prevents it from flowing
backwards. The valve consists of a metallic disc
hinged from the crown or pivot which fits tightly
against the valve seat(Fig 5.12). During normal flow
conditions it is always kept opened in horizontal
position. When the flow stops, the valve disc
automatically falls down and closes the opening and thus preventing the reverse flow. These
are generally provided on the delivery pipe of a pump to prevent the back flow of water
which may damage the pump.
Air Valves
These are also called “Air Relief Valves”. These are
provided at the high points or summits along the pipe
line to relieve the air accumulated at those points. These
are located at points higher than Hydraulic Gradient
Line. They will help in preventing the air blocking of
pipes due to which discharge through the pipes is
affected.
The air valve consists of a cast iron chamber or casing,

a lever and a Floating valve (Fig 5.13). When the pipe is
running full under pressure, the chamber is filled with
water, the Float and the lever remain in a raised position
and the air inlet of the valve is closed. If any air is
accumulated at the top, the water level gets depressed, the float falls down opening the valve.
The air escapes out. The valve again comes to the original position.
Drain Valves
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These are also called “Blow off valves” or “Scour Valves”. These are nothing but
sluice valves which are located at dead ends and depressions or lowest points of the
distributing mains. They are intended to remove the sand or silt deposited at these points in
water mains.
FIRE HYDRANTS
A Hydrant is an outlet provided in a water main or submain for

tapping water especially during Fires. These are provided at all
important road junctions and at intervals generally not exceeding about
300 m.
Fire Hydrants are two types:
i. Post Hydrant
ii. Flush Hydrant
The Post Hydrant (Fig 5.14) consists of a Barrel projecting 0.6 to 0.9 m above the
ground surface. It has a valve with a vertical post or stem with a
screw and nut at the top to regulate the flow. For opening the
Hydrant, the nut is operated and to raise the valve connected to
the post. During the breakout of Fires the hydrant is
connected to the Fire Hose and the water obtained from the
Hydrant is used for extinguishing the Fire.
In the Flush Hydrant the barrel and outlet for hose

connection are covered by a cast iron box or a brick masonry
chamber made flush with the ground surface ( Fig 5.15) . It is
well protected than the Post hydrant. Plate bearing the sign
“F.H.” is fixed nearby for their easy location.
Water meters
Water meters are the devices used for measuring quantities of water supplied to the
consumers through pipes. (i.e. for buildings, houses, industrial areas etc.) . Water charges are
levied on the consumers based on the meter readings. Consumers use water carefully if the
metering system is introduced for collecting water charges.
Water Meters are classified as follows:
i. Positive displacement meters

ii. Velocity meters or inferential meters
The displacement meters are used for measuring small flows of water. These are
designed on displacement principle and record the no. of times a vessel of known volume is
filled and emptied. Using this information the rate of flow is calculated. These are used in
residential buildings.
Velocity meters are generally ventury or turbine type meters. They consists of a
device by which a vane or propeller turns in direct ratio to the rate of flow of water around
the propeller. They can measure large quantities of flow even if the water is turbid. They can
be used in Industries and Treatment Plants.
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Water Supply arrangements in Buildings – Terminology
Water supply arrangements in buildings involve the practice, materials and fixtures
used in the installation or maintenance of all pipes, fixtures, appliances and other
appurtenances. The following are the associated terms used in connection with the water
supply arrangements in buildings:
i. Plumbing system: It is the entire system of providing Pipes, fixtures, appliances etc.
for water supply or drainage to a building.
ii. Available Head: The Available head or Residual head is the pressure of water
available from a water main at the ground floor level of the building premises.
iii. Water main: A Water main or Street main is the Pipe Line supplying water to the
Public and maintained by local administrative authority.
iv. Service Pipe: It is the Pipe extending from the Water main and used for conveying
water from the water main to the building.
v. Communication Pipe: It is the part of the service pipe lying between the water main
and Stop Cock. It is under the control of local authority.
vi. Supply Pipe: It is the part of the service pipe lying between stop cock and the
entrance of the water storage tank in the building. It is under the control of consumer.
vii. Distribution Pipe: It is the pipe connecting the storage tank to the various sanitary
fixtures, taps etc. for the
purpose of distribution of
water inside the building.
(Fig 5.17 explains different types of

water supply pipes arranged in
a building)
viii. Back Flow: It is the flowing
back of water or waste water
in to the distribution pipes
carrying potable water from
any source other than its
intended source.
ix. Air Gap: It is the
unobstructed vertical distance
( Fig 5.16) through the free
atmosphere between the
lowest opening from any pipe or fitting supplying water to a tank or plumbing fixture
and the flood – level rim or the top edge of the receptacle. Provision of sufficient air
gap prevents the back flow of water and contamination from other sources.
x. Back Siphonage: It is the flowing back of used or polluted water from a plumbing
fixture or vessel into a water supply pipe due to negative or suction pressure developed
in such a pipe.
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General Layout of Water Supply arrangements for Single Storey Buildings:
The lay out of water distribution pipes in

single storey buildings is basically a horizontal
arrangement in which under ground mains under
pressure supply water to various fixtures of the
building.
The Plan given in Fig 5.18 below shows

the general layout of water supply arrangements
in a single storey residential building:
General Layout of Water Supply arrangements for

Multi Storeyed Buildings:
In case of multistoried buildings, there

should be provision of under ground reservoir,
Overhead tanks and pumping arrangement since
pressure available in municipal mains would not
be adequate.
The entire building is sectionalized in suitable zones consisting of 4 to 8
stories each. For each zone a separate overhead tank is provided on the top most story
of that particular zone. Water is distributed from these tanks to all the Floors under its
control.
The following figure shows the general layout of water supply arrangements
in Multi storeyed residential building:
General Principles and precautions in laying Pipelines within the premises of a

building:
The layout of pipe lines should be in accordance with I.S. 2065 – 1972. The following
are some of the principles and precautions in laying Pipelines within the building premises.
I. The layout should be as per

the standard specifications
II. It should be direct and as
simple as possible
III. It is so planned that
maximum efficiency and economy
are achieved
IV. The pipes should be laid as
straight as possible to minimize
friction losses at bends
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V. The layout should be such that it can be easily inspected, maintained and
repaired
VI. The layout should be free from the occurrence of air pockets, sediment traps
and noise transmission
VII. The potable water supply pipes are not permitted to be cross connected with
pipes carrying water of less quality to avoid their contamination.
VIII. The water supply and the drainage pipes should not be laid very close to each
other.
IX. No pipe line shall pass through any sewer, scour outlet, drain, manhole,
manure pit etc.
X. Consumer pipes shall not be laid with out the approval of Authority
XI. Service pipe or supply pipe shall not be connected directly to any water closet
or urinal
XII. The Plumbing work should be done carefully to make the pipe net work
completely water tight to prevent wastage and to avoid contamination.
XIII. In the design of pipe work a minimum air gap (twice the diameter or 150 mm
which ever is less of the fixture) in all the appliances or taps shall be maintained to
avoid the back flow of water.
XIV. The Communication service pipe line is laid at sufficient depth (Min 60 cm)
below the ground level so as to avoid damage due to traffic and extremes weather
conditions.
XV. When laid above the ground in exposed conditions, the service pipes should
run clear of wall with a clearance of 2.5 cm and when crossing wall or floor it should
be contained in suitable sleeves for entire length.
XVI. Water supply pipes should carry water inside the buildings under adequate
pressure in the water main
XVII. When the available pressures are insufficient and it becomes necessary to
pump water, as in the case of multistoreyed buildings, separate storage tanks may be
used for providing necessary suction lift.
XVIII. The booster pump, if any, should not be allowed directly on the service pipe.
XIX. For all other details “IS 2065-1972 Code of Practice for Water Supply in
Buildings” may be referred.
Connections from Water main to the Building
The water supply connection to a building is taken from the Street main with the prior
permission of municipal authorities. The water supply connection to a house starts with the
water main. The supply pipe is connected to the main with help of Ferrule. A flexible bent
pipe called Goose neck is provided to avoid thermal stresses and strains on the joint due to
the temperature variations. The service pipe is also connected to the stop cock outside the
compound wall of the building and to a water meter inside the premises to measure the
quantity of water consumed. A typical water connection to a building is shown in the Fig
5.20 below:
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Water Supply Fittings in the Buildings:
The following are the fittings used for a water connection to a building from a water
main.
a) Stop Cock: It is simple gate valve provided before the water enters the water
meter in the house. It is housed in a suitable masonry chamber with a removable
cover. It is fixed in the street close to the compound wall of the building by the
authorities.
b) Ferrule: It is a right angled sleeve 10 to 50 mm in size made of brass or gun
metal and is fitted to a hole made in the water main to which it is screwed down with
a plug. It is connected to the goose neck at the other end.
c) Goose neck: It is a small sized curved pipe made of a flexible material usually
lead and is about 75 cm in length forming a flexible connection between the water
main and the service pipe. It protects the service connection joint from the thermal
stresses and strains occurring due to temperature variations.
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26. Known gaps
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Known gaps
The subject Environmental Engineering – I perfectly suits the requirement of Diploma level
student in imparting basic knowledge that requires in water supply engineering and the
student further studies the design part in higher level of his studies. No gaps are identified.
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27. Faculty feedback
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28. References, Journals, websites and E-links
Textbooks
1. Environmental Engineering – G.S. Birdie

2. Elements of Public Health engineering – K.N. Duggal
Reference books
1. Environmental Engineering – Baljeet Kapoor

2. Public Health Engineering – S.K. Hussain
3. Water supply and sanitary Engineering – V.N. Vazirani.
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4. Environmental Engineering --N.N.Basak /TMH

5. Water Supply Engineering - S.K. Garg
Signature of faculty in-charge Verified by HOD
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GPT 008 SKLM

Department of Civil Engineering

EE-I (C-502) CIV

CONSTRUCTION FAILURES, REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE

Course code : CE-604

Name : K.Srinivasa Murty

Designation : Lecturer in Civil Engineering

Name : M.Malli Babu

Designation : Head of Civil Engineering Section

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EE-I (C-502) CIV

EE-I (C-502) CIV

CONSTRUCTION FAILURES, REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE

Subject Title : Construction failures, repairs and maintenance

Sl.No Major Topics Periods Weightage Short Essay

Upon completion of the subject the student shall be able to

2.0 Understand subsurface construction failures and repairs

3.0 Understand Surface construction failures and repairs

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4.0 Understand Masonry and concrete failures, repairs

5.0 Understand Manmade and natural failures and repairs

6.0 Understand the Maintenance problems and their solutions

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be taken – retaining walls and abutments – geo-membranes – Rivetment and

EE-I (C-502) CIV

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To inculcate technical skills and to ensure high quality education

through dissemination of knowledge, insights and make them skilled to

suit the requirement of the society.

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EE-I (C-502) CIV

← M1. To promote Quality Education, Research and

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4. PEOs and POs

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Program Educational Objectives of the Program

Program Outcomes of DCE Program

1. Basic knowledge: An ability to apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science and

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5. Course objectives and outcomes

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i) To know about the errors & failures in constructions

Course Course Outcomes

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2. Understands the reasons for occurrence of various Construction Failures

4. Knows the importance of constructing structures with care.

6. Understands the methods of water treatment for eliminating the contaminants.

7. Understands the maintenance of buildings.

8. Understands the maintenance of Roads, Canals etc.

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Basic Knowledge In Construction Material And Construction Practice.

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8. Instructional Learning Outcomes

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1. Understands about errors, defects and failures in constructions..

1. Understands the types of failures in surface construction and slides –

5. Understands the types of failures in masonry – Wall failure, construction error,

7. Understands the types of failures in concrete – Improper mix design, curing,

1. Understands the types of failures in manmade and natural disasters-