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CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

Introduction to Chemical Processing

The business of the chemical industry is to change the chemical structure of natural materials in
order to derive products of value to other industries or in daily life. Chemicals are produced
from these raw materials-principally minerals, metals and hydrocarbons-in a series of
processing steps. Further treatment, such as mixing and blending, is often required to convert
them into end-products (e.g., paints, adhesives, medicines and cosmetics). Thus the chemical
industry covers a much wider field than what is usually called “chemicals” since it also includes
such products as artificial fibres, resins, soaps, paints, photographic films and more.

Chemicals fall into two main classes: organic and inorganic. Organic chemicals have a basic
structure of carbon atoms, combined with hydrogen and other elements. Oil and gas are today
the source of 90% of world organic chemical production, having largely replaced coal and
vegetable and animal matter, the earlier raw materials. Inorganic chemicals are derived chiefly
from mineral sources. Examples are sulphur, which is mined as such or extracted from ores,
and chlorine, which is made from common salt.

The products of the chemical industry can be broadly divided into three groups, which
correspond to the principal steps in manufacture: base chemicals (organic and inorganic) are
normally manufactured on a large scale and are normally converted to other chemicals;
intermediates are derived from base chemicals. Most intermediates require further processing in
the chemical industry, but some, such as solvents, are used as they are; finished chemical
products are made by further chemical processing. Some of these (drugs, cosmetics, soaps) are
consumed as such; others, such as fibres, plastics, dyes and pigments, are processed still
further.

The main sectors of the chemical industry are as follows:

1. basic inorganics: acids, alkalis and salts, mainly used elsewhere in industry and industrial
gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen and acetylene

2. basic organics: feedstocks for plastics, resins, synthetic rubbers, and synthetic fibres;
solvents and detergent raw materials; dyestuffs and pigments

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3. fertilizers and pesticides (including herbicides, fungicides and insecticides)

4. plastics, resins, synthetic rubbers, cellulosic and synthetic fibres

5. pharmaceuticals (drugs and medicines)

6. paints, varnishes and lacquers

7. soaps, detergents, cleaning preparations, perfumes, cosmetics and other toiletries

8. miscellaneous chemicals, such as polishes, explosives, adhesives, inks, photographic film

and chemicals

Unit Operation and Unit Process

Every industrial chemical process is based on Unit Operations (physical treatment) and Unit
Process (chemical treatment) to produce economically a desired product from specific raw
materials. The raw materials are treated through physical steps to make it suitable for
chemical reaction. So, knowledge of unit operations like ‘Mixing and agitation of liquid’ and’
heat flow’ is very much necessary. The subject Unit Operations is based on fundamental laws,
physicochemical principles. Unit Operations gives idea about science related to specific physical
operation; different equipments-its design, material of construction and operation; and
calculation of various physical parameters (mass flow, heat flow, mass balance, power and
force etc.). Examples of Unit Operations are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. List of Some Unit Operations

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Examples of Unit operations

Example 1 – Distillation of Methylene Di Chloride with water

In a process, the separation of Methylene Di Chloride with water using a liquid-liquid separation
technique can be called as a unit operation.|
Explanation – In the above process, only separation is taking place which will be done base on
density difference. This is a physical change and no chemical reaction taking place, hence this
process is considered as unit operation.

Example 2 – Distillation of acetone and water

The distillation of acetone from the water is an example of unit operation. In the distillation
process, acetone is separated and that is due to boiling point difference or volatility of the
components. This is also a physical change and no chemical reaction is carried out. Hence
distillation is a unit operation.

Classifications of Unit Operation

Now we had seen the definition of unit operation and hereby learned what is unit operation.
There are 4 classification of unit operation, classification of unit operation are listed below.

1. Material handling, transportation / Fluid flow process

Pumping
Compression
fluidization
2. Mechanical unit operations
Size reduction
Size enlargement
Mixing, agitation, blending, etc
3. Mass transfer Operations
Evaporation

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Distillation
Absorption
Extraction
leaching.
4. Heat transfer operations
conduction
convection
radiation
Unit Process

The unit process is a process in which chemical changes take place to the material present in
the reaction and result in the chemical reaction is known as the Unit process. This basically
consists of a reaction between two or more chemical which results in another chemical can also
be defined as unit process. Sulphonation, nitration, oxidation, halogenation, and many more.

Example of Unit process

Example 1 – Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution

Here, electrolysis of NaCl is being done and the concentration of sodium chloride is taken as
305 (around) GPL (gram per liter) concentration is feed to electrolysis cell in which electricity is
passed and sodium hydroxide is produced. In this reaction, decomposition reaction takes place
hence, this is a unit operation.

Example 2 – Production of Hydrogen

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Hydrogen is produced using very popular method i.e. Steam-methane reforming reaction. In
this method, methane reacts with steam at a pressure under 3–25 bar pressure in the presence
of a Nickel catalyst at about 750 to produce hydrogen.

In this Steam-methane reforming reaction, chemical reaction under pressure and temperature is
being conducted to react Methane with steam and generate Hydrogen. As here the reaction is
begin conducted, this process comes under unit process.

Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing process consists of a combination of various unit operations and unit processes
which being conducted considering factors like optimization, design of equipment and selection
of equipment, use of suitable utilities, and many more to make product.

Examples of Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing Process of cement

Cement is considered as a product which is a result of unit operation and unit process. There
are various unit operations and unit processes are involved in the manufacturing process of
cement. We will not go in-depth into the manufacturing process and will consider the relevant
things only. For the manufacturing process of cement. The main raw material of cement is
limestone which is present in the hard solid rock form. It is crushed into a fine powder using a
jaw crusher. Using Jaw crusher, only physical changes will be conducted hence it is a unit
operation. In the chemical process, limestone is heated and decomposes into lime and carbon
dioxide is released which is a unit process.

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Table 2. Difference of Unit Operation and Unit Process

Roles of Chemical Engineer in a Processing Plant

Chemical engineering involves the production and manufacturing of products through chemical
processes. This includes designing equipment, systems, and processes for refining raw
materials and for mixing, compounding, and processing chemicals.

Chemical engineers translate processes developed in the lab into practical applications for the
commercial production of products, and then work to maintain and improve those processes.
They rely on the main foundations of engineering: math, physics, and chemistry. Biology also
plays an increasingly important role.

Broadly, chemical engineers conceive and design processes involved in chemical manufacturing.
The main role of chemical engineers is to design and troubleshoot processes for the production
of chemicals, fuels, foods, pharmaceuticals, and biologicals, to name just a few. They are most
often employed by large-scale manufacturing plants to maximize productivity and product
quality while minimizing costs.

Chemical engineers affect the production of almost every article manufactured on an industrial
scale. Some typical tasks include:

 Ensuring compliance with health, safety, and environmental regulations

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 Conducting research into improved manufacturing processes

 Designing and planning equipment layout
 Incorporating safety procedures for working with dangerous chemicals
 Monitoring and optimizing the performance of production processes
 Estimating production costs

Chemical engineers who work in business and management offices often visit research and
production facilities. Interaction with other people and team collaboration are critical to the
success of projects involving chemical engineering.

Chemical engineers typically work in manufacturing plants, research laboratories, or pilot plant
facilities. They work around large-scale production equipment that is housed both indoors and
outdoors. Accordingly, they are often required to wear personal protective equipment (e.g.,
hard hats, goggles, and steel-toe shoes).

Process Flow Chart

A chemical process is a combination of steps in which starting materials are converted into
desired products using equipment and conditions that facilitate that conversion.

Some useful process terminology

In a batch process, an allotment of starting material is introduced into the process, and a
sequence of steps to treat that material is started and finished within a certain period of time,
often within the same piece of equipment. The process is then interrupted, the processed
material is removed, another allotment of the starting material is introduced, and the sequence
of steps is repeated. Example: materials are loaded into a reactor, a reaction is carried out in
the reactor, and then the final materials are removed.
A continuous process operates without interruption in the flows and reactions of the process.
The starting material enters continuously, is usually subjected to various steps by moving from
one piece of equipment to another, and exits the process continuously. Example: materials
continually flow into and out of a reactor, while the reaction proceeds as the material moves
through the reactor.
Steady-state is a condition on any process in which none of the characteristics of interest
(temperatures, flow rates, pressures, and so forth) change with time. A process that is not
steady-state is termed unsteady-state, time-dependent, or transient.

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Graphically representing processes

 block diagram
 process flow diagram
 piping and instrumentation diagram
 other (manufacturing fishbone diagram, molecular interaction diagram, …)

Block diagram

Includes an overview of the process, treating processes as black boxes that are used to
represent either a single equipment item or a combination of equipment items that collectively
accomplish one of the principal steps in the process.

Process flow diagrams (PFDs)

Includes major unit operations (components), their interconnections, and sometimes state
conditions (e.g., temperatures, pressures). It may also include a stream table.
Symbols used in PFD

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Example of Simple PFD

Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID)

Includes piping, sensors, and other instrumentation

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Other useful diagrams

Fishbone diagram for diagnosing problems with a manufacturing process

Process hazard analysis

After the process safety information is compiled, a thorough and systematic multi-disciplinary
multi
process hazard analysis, appropriate to the complexity of the process, is conducted in order to
identify, evaluate and control the hazards of the process. Persons performing the process
hazard analysis should be knowledgeable and experienced in relevant chemistry, engineering
and process operations. Each analysis team normally includes at least one person who is
thoroughly familiar with the process being analysed and one person who is competent in the
hazard analysis methodology being used.

The priority order used to determine where within the facility to begin conducting process
hazard analyses is based on the following criteria:

· extent and nature of the process hazards

· number of potentially affected workers

· operating and incident history of the process

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· age of the process.

A number of methods for conducting process safety analyses are used in the chemical industry.

The “what if?” method asks a series of questions to review potential hazard scenarios and
possible consequences and is most often used when examining proposed modifications or
changes to the process, materials, equipment or facility.

The “checklist” method is similar to the “what if?” method, except that a previously developed
checklist is used which is specific to the operation, materials, process and equipment. This
method is useful when conducting pre-startup reviews upon completion of initial construction or
following major turnarounds or additions to the process unit. A combination of the “what if?”
and “checklist” methods is often used when analysing units that are identical in construction,
materials, equipment and process.

The hazard and operability (HAZOP) study method is commonly used in the chemical and
petroleum industries. It involves a multi-disciplinary team, guided by an experienced leader.
The team uses specific guide words, such as “no”, “increase”, “decrease” and “reverse”, which
are systematically applied to identify the consequences of deviations from design intent for the
processes, equipment and operations being analysed.

Fault tree/event tree analyses are similar, formal deductive techniques used to estimate the
quantitative likelihood of an event occurring. Fault tree analysis works backward from a defined
incident to identify and display the combination of operational errors and/ or equipment failures
which were involved in the incident. Event tree analysis, which is the reverse of fault tree
analysis, works forwards from specific events, or sequences of events, in order to pinpoint
those that could result in hazards, and thereby calculate the likelihood of an event’s sequence
occurring.

The failure mode and effects analysis method tabulates each process system or unit of
equipment with its failure modes, the effect of each potential failure on the system or unit and
how critical each failure could be to the integrity of the system. The failure modes are then
ranked in importance to determine which is most likely to cause a serious incident.

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No matter which method is used, all chemical process hazard analyses consider the following:

· process location, siting and hazards of the process

· identification of any prior incident or near miss with potential catastrophic consequences

· engineering and administrative controls applicable to the hazards

· interrelationships of controls and appropriate application of detection methodology to

provide early warnings

· consequences of human factors, facility siting and failure of the controls

· consequences of safety and health effects on workers within areas of potential failure.

Management of change

Chemical process facilities should develop and implement programmes which provide for the
revision of process safety information, procedures and practices as changes occur. Such
programmes include a system of management authorization and written documentation for
changes to materials, chemicals, technology, equipment, procedures, personnel and facilities
that affect each process.

Management of change programmes in the chemical industry, for example, include the
following areas:

· change of hydrocarbon process technology

· changes in facility, equipment or materials (e.g., catalysts or additives)

· management of change personnel and organizational and personnel changes

· temporary changes, variances and permanent changes

· enhancement of process safety knowledge, including:

- technical basis for proposed change

- impact of change on safety, health and environment

- modifications to operating procedures and safe work practices

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- modifications required to other processes

- time required for the change

- authorization requirements for the proposed change

- updating documentation relating to process information, operating procedures and safety

practices

- required training or education due to change

· management of subtle change (anything which is not replacement in kind)

· non-routine changes.

The management of change system includes informing employees involved in the process and
maintenance and contractor personnel whose tasks would be affected by any changes of the
changes and providing updated operating procedures, process safety information, safe work
practices and training as needed, prior to the startup of the process or affected part of the
process.

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