CHAPTER

The Cell -

Its Structure
and Functions
nere are a large variety of organisms on this earth that are all distinct in their
TOrm ànd structure. However, they all possess similarity in their basic structure

and functions. Just as a buildingis made up of bricks, similarly,the'bodies' ofall

or Amoeba,
plants and animals are made up of cells. From microscopic bacteria,
to large organisms, like elephants, whales or gigantic trees, all are made up of

cells, the basic units of all organisms.

Some cells exist as unicellular organisms (single-celled individuals) while others

are a part of multicellular organisms Certain basic functions, like nutrition,

respiration, growth, development and reproduction, are performed by the cells

in all organisms. These functions are essential for the survival of the organisms.

We, therefore, regard the cell as the basic structural as well as functional unit of
all living organisms.) D:3 (a)
will study about the variety in the shape, size, structure and
In this Chapter, we

functions of the cells of different organisms.

totlno0 Discovery of the Cell
Cells are the basic structural unit' of all living beings. Ihey retnalned urdiscerethe
for a long time because the majorlty of the cells are too snall to be seen y
unaided eye.
It was only after the advent of optical Instrurnents, In the seventeenth century, that

the cell was discovered and its basic features were studied.

Robert Hooke was the first scientist

who, in 1665, observed thin slices
of cork (obtained from the bark
of
a tree) through his self-designed
microscope. He observed that they
had honey-comb like structures
consisting of little compartments
(in Latin, 'cellhmeans 'a little room').
it was later explained that these
'compartments' were actually 'dead Robert Hooke Honey comb' structure of
cells, bound by a 'cell wall. Crk tell

The Cell
We now know that living organisms are made up of cells. The cells have the same
basic structure, but they are diferent, with respect to their number, shape and size,
in different living organisms.

Do Uou Know
The outermost layer of our skin consists of dead cels. This layer is shed periodically and is replaced
bynewer cells. You may be surprised to know that a person may lose about four kilograms of skin
cells every year

Variation in Cell Number, Shape and Size in Living Organisms

CellCell Number
An Amoeba and an earthworm are of
different sizes. This difference, in the size
of the organism, is due to the
number of cells present in them. While Amoeba
is a living
organism consistingof a single cell, an earthworm has millions or
cells. Hence, the basis of their 'number of cells,
on
classifed into two categories: unicellular living organisms can be
and multicellular.
 D.2 Living Organisms r e

Unicellular Multicellular

(organisms consist of a single cell) of many cells)

(organisms made up

octi

Animal
Euglena Amoeba Paramoecium Humans Bird

CellCell Shape
The shapes of cells differ not only in different organisms but also in different
fibre-
organs of the same organism. They may be oval, spherical, cuboidal,
IKe or polygonal. Ihese differencesin shapes are dueto their locationn
andfunction in the tissue. For instance, a nerve cell has to transmit nerve

impulses to organs located in different parts of the body. Hence, they

E possess a long fibre-like structure.

Liver cel Fat cell Smooth muscle

cells

Oll

Red blood cells Amoeba Chlamydomonas Nerve cel

Variety in the shape of Cells

Cell Size
Cells vary considerably in their size. The smallest cell PPLO (Pleuro
oneumonia-like organism), also called mycoplasma, is about 0.1 micron
(denoted as 'w') in diameter ( = 10°m). The ostrich egg, considered to
be the largest cell, is (nearly) 170 mm in diameter.
 to be seen with
represents a single cell; it is big enough
The hen's egg also
the unaided eye.
Cell
Air sac
Activity 1 membrane
Yolk
break its shell and
Take a hen's egg. Gently
a flat plate. You
transfer the contents to
The central Albumen
will observe two clear portions.
mass is the yolk. It is
surrounded by
yellow Outer shell
a transparent
white jelly-like fluid, called
albumen. Albumen and yolk represent the
reserve food material in the cytoplasm.
Hen's egg is a single cell. Its different parts
have been labelled in the diagram given here. Cross-section of a hen's egg

The (approximate) sizes, of some of the plant and animal cells, are given in
Table 1.
Table 1
Cell Size
1. Amoeba 1000 umn
60 mm
2. Hen's egg
3. Ostrich eg9g 170 mm

4. Green alga, Chara 10 cm

The (approximate) sizes, of some cells of human body, are given in Table2.

Table 2
The cell of the human body Size
1. Red blood cell 9 um
2. Liver cell 20 um

3. Human ovum 0.1 mm or 100 um

Nerve cell about 1 m

4
(Note: 1 um 10 metres =10 millimetres)

Do ou Know
The life span of a red blood cell is about 120
days.
.lo observe animal cells
make a temporary mount of cheek ce
Take a clean
toothpick.
Scratch it gently on the inner side of your cheek. Nucleus
Some frothy material appears on the toothpick. Cell
membrane
Rub it in the centre
of a clean
glass slide. Cytoplasm
Put a drop of
methylene
blue.
Let it stain for Cheek cells
a minute.
Put a cover slip and observe it under the microscope
You will observe polygonal, isolated cells, or cel]s in clusters. Observe the darKLy
stained nucleus in each cell. (hoet CelA DIEFERENICE

is
Olow the instructions given belowto makea slide of onion peel. (Onion peel
the thin membrane-like layer present around fleshy scale leaves of onion.)

Put a drop of water on a glass slide.

Nucleus
Place a small piece of neatly cut
onion peel on it.
Cytoplasm
Put a drop, or two, of saffranin.
- Cell Wall

Stain for a minute.

Put a cover slip and observe it under Onion peel showing its cells

the microscope.
(You will see that the cells here are arranged in rows. Observe their boundaries. There
is a dark structure in the centre of each cell. It is the nucleus. ) Onion Yed

3. To different types of cells present in blood

see
a slide of human
request your teacher to prepare
blood. (You may also use a permanent slide of
blood to various types of blood cells.)
study
You can observe red blood cells theirhaving
characteristic red colour and their disc shape.
You can also observe a white
few Amoeba-like

blood cells, present between the red blood cells, Microscopic view of blood cells
 Parts of a Cell
A cellconsists of a living protoplasm
surrounded by a cell membrane. The Cell

protoplasm consists of the cytoplasm and membrane

the nucleus.
Nucleus
Cytoplasmcontains a number of structures,
which called cell organelles. Organelles
are
are, therefore, structures
Cytoplasm
present within a cell
that help it to perform its relevant functions. E 6 Structure of a
typical cell
Let us learn more about the different parts of a cell.

Cell Membrane
All living cells are bound by a membrane called the plasma membrane, or
the cell membrane. It surrounds its inner gel-like material called protoplasm.
5 (The plasma membrane controls the
entry and exit of substances as per the
requiremetsof the cell he ,Ce mer , 29 doa
a
The cells of plants,ungi
fungi and
and bacteria have
bacterisTLofl

additional outer covering

an
called the cell wall. n Si de Ihe tou Pperly
The cell wall is an important
covering in plant cells; it provides rigidity and
protection to the cell against variations in the environment. It also
definite shape, size and support to the cell. gives a

Cytoplasm
The portion of the protoplasm, lying inner to the cell membrane but
outside the nuclear membrane, is called
cytoplasm [kytos (hollow), plasma
(liquid)]. It acts as a 'ground substance' for all cell
activities. It is made up
of carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins, along with a large
proportion of water. All these components work together to provide a
unique living nature to the protoplasm.
Nucleus
It is the most
important part of the cell. It generally lies in the centre
the cell,
however, in some cases, it may also occupy o
controls all the activities of the peripheral positions. It
cell.
The nucleus is a dense structure bound by a nuclear membrane. 1nE
 protoplasm of the nucleus Do Uou Know
is called
nucleoplasm. It
has a thread-like network of
chromosomes in a cell differs
The number Some are shown below.
organisms.
called chromatin. in different
When the
cell is ready to divide, this Organisms
Chromosome number

46
chromatin condenses to form Man
E thicker, thread-like structures, Dog
78
80
called chromosomes. These Pigeon
32
chromosomes are the structures Yeast
42
responsible for the characters Wheat
(genes) inherited by one
generation from the earlier generations,
present in
the cell. These are equivalent
structures are
Uy Small living Hence, they are named
as 'cell organelles.
body.
E organs ofthe
Cell Organelles
The main cell organelles are:
characteristic of plant cells.
Plastids : These arelarge cell organelles, colour to the cell.
The
contain pigments
that provide
These may
are called chloroplasts. They manufacture
green-coloured plastids The plastids,
for green plants by the process of photosynthesis.(like fruits,
food different coloured parts of the plants
associated with the
9 flowers) are called chromoplasts.
They are responsible
and
vegetables different parts of the
colour (other than green) to the
for imparting called leucoplasts;
Plants also contain some colourless plastids
plant. etc.
store starch, proteins, oils,
these provide space to
or spherical structures. They are
Mitochondria: These are rod-shaped
in different physiological
present in large numbers in cells engaged
for cellular respiration and for generation
activities They are responsible the
for different activities of life. Hence, they are also called
of energy
powerhouse of the cell.)
network of membranes. It provides
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): It is a
cell. ER is of two types:
channels for transport of materials in a
as it is studded with
Rough ER: This type of ER has a rough appearance
ribosomes. It plays a vital role in synthesis of proteins.
attached to it; it,
Smooth ER: This type of ER does not have ribosomes
of fats.
therefore, has a smooth appearance. It helps in the synthesis
one above the
Golgi Complex:They are sac-like structures stacked
 involved in the processing and packaging of materials
other. They are

produced by the cell.

Vacuole: It appears as an empty space in the cytoplasm. It is generally
stores excess of water and waste products. In
large in plant cells. It
Amoeba, food materials are held in its food vacuoles for digestion.
Ribosomes: These are tiny granules present in the cytoplasm and on
the rough ER. They help in protein synthesis.
Cilia and flagella: Some cells have these small extensions on their cell
membrane. They help in locomotion and collection of food. Unicellular
organisms, like Paramoecium,have numerous cilia while Euglena has
a single flagellum.
Cillia
-Flagellum Contractile
vacuole

Nucleus (macro)
Cytoplasm Nucleus (micro)

Pellicle Food vacuole

Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Chloroplast

Paramoecium
Euglena
perform different functions of
All these cell organelles work together to
the cell.

Levels of Organisation in an Organism

In unicellular organisms, like Amoeba, a single cell performs all the necessary
functions. It captures and digests food, respires, excretes, grows and reproduces.

Multicellular organisms have cells that are specialised to perform specific functions.
A group of cells, performing a specialised function, forms a tissue (for example,
nervous tissue). A group of tissues, performing a specific function, forms an organ
(for example, kidney). A number of such organs work together to form an organ
system (for example, digestive system).

Levels of Organ Organism

Organisation Cell Tissue Organ System

(8
 Do you Know?
The following organ systems work in the human body.
(iv) Excretory (v) Skeletal
i) Digestive (ii) Respiratory (ii) Circulatory
Reproductive (ix) Endocrine (x) Integumentary
(vi) Muscular (vii) Nervous (vii)

can appear different in

All the cells have some common features. However, they
blood and liver cells (in animals),
different parts of the organism. For example, the
the root or leave cells (in plants) have different appearances.
differences between them.
Ihe plant and animal cells, however, have some major
Let us now, compare the features of the plant and
animal cells.

Comparison Between Plant and Animal Cells

detailed studies reveal some
AIthoughall living cells have certain common features,
major differences between plant and animal cells.
them. In
Plant cells generally have definite shape due to a rigid cell wall around
a
outer cover. This provides
comparison, animal cells have a cell membrane as their
flexibility to animal cells; hence they can show a large variation in their shapes.
Plant cells
Moreover, plant cells have plastids; these are absent in animal cells.
generally have large vacuoles; animal cells, on the other hand, either lack vacuoles,
or have very small vacuoles.

CELLORGANELLES
Cell Wall

Chloroplast
Golgi Complex

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Nucleus
Mitochondria

Cell Membrane
Vacuole

Plant Cell
Animal Cell
 The main points of difference, between a plant cell and an animal cell, have been
summarised in the table given below.

Difference between a Plant and an Animal Cell

Components/Characters Plant Cel Animal Cell

Shape Fixed Irregular/Not fixed

Cell Wall Present Absent

Plastids Present Absent
Vacuoles One large vacuole is Vacuoles are either
absent, or are present
present
only as small vacuoles.

[Note: Cell organelles, other than the ones shown in the diagrams on the previous page, are also
present in the cels. However, they will be discussed in higher classes.

Keywords
cell basic structural and functional unit of life.
cell membrane a thin membrane that surrounds the protoplasm of every cell.
cell organelles a specialised sub-unit, within a cell, that has a specific function.
chromosomes thread-like structures found in the nucleus; responsible for the
inheritance of characters.

cytoplasm portion of protoplasm, lying between the cell membrane and

the nuclear membrane.
cilia and flagella extensions on the cell membrane, these help in locomotion
and procurement of food in organisms like Amoeba and
Paramoecium.
endoplasmic network of membranes which provides channels for transport
reticulum of materials in the cell and helps in synthesis of proteins.
genes unit of inheritance which gets transferred from one generation
to the next.
golgi complex sac-like structures; these help in processing and packaging of
materials produced by the cell.
mitochondria rod-shaped structures inside a cell; these help in cellular
respiration and production of energy.
nucleus a specialised structure in the cells, bound by the nuclear
membrane; responsible for controlling all cellular activities.

(10
 plastids
cell organelles
found in plant cells. These may contain pigments
which help in
colour to fruits,photosynthesis
and are responsible for
imparting
protoplasm vegetables and flowers.
ge-like living matter present inside the cell membrane.
ribosomes
tiny granular structures found in the
cytoplasm and on the
endoplasmic reticulum; they help in protein synthesis.
tissue
group of cells performing a specialised function.
vacuole
sac-like membrane bound structures in cells; used for storing
various materials.

You Must Know

1. Cell is thebasic structural and functional unit of all

2.
living organismns.
Living organisms show variation in their cell number,
3.
shape and size.
Unicellular organisms, like
Amoeba, are made up of a single cell; multicellular-
organisms, like a mango tree or a parrot, are made up of many cells. Cell sizes may
vary from (nearly) 0.1 micron
(Mycoplasma) to 170 mm (Ostrich egg) in diameter.
4. A cell consists of
living matter, called protoplasm, surrounded by a cell membrane.
Plants, fungi and bacteria have an additional cover, known the cell
their cell membrane.
as wall, outside
5. Protoplasm consists of cytoplasm anda nucleus.
6. The nucleus controls all the activities of the cell. The
cytoplasm contains many cell
organelles; these perform various functions in a cell.
7. Some of the cell organelles, and their functions, are as follows:
Mitochondria are responsible for respiration; green coloured
are the site of photosynthesis; golgi complex
plastids, or chloroplasts
processes materials produced by the
cell; vacuoles store excess water and waste; ribosomes help in protein
and cilia and flagella help in locomotion.
synthesis,
8. A tissue is a group of cells performing a specialised function.
9, An organ is formed by a group of tissues that perform a specialised function.
When a number of organs work together, they form an organ system (for
example, digestive system).
10. Plant and animal cells show some major differences. Plant cells possess a cell
wall and plastids; these are not found in an animal cell.
Also, plant cells contain
large vacuoles; the vacuoles are either absent in animal cells, or if present, have
a small size only.
Sometning lo Know

A. Fill in the blanks.

1. All living organisms are made up of cell
2.
2 The Cell oal provides rigidity and protection to the plant cell.
3 All cellular açtivitisoare controlled by the mucleou
4 The
miDuhnd ia
is known as the powerhouse of the cell.
5 TisSue is a
group of cells performing a specific function.
66. It wasPobevt Hookvho observed cells for the first time.
B. Match the following.
1.
Golgi Complex (d) (a) genes
22. Ribosomes e )
(b) cork
3.
3. Chromosomes (a)
(c) chloroplasts
Dead cells6) (d) packaging centre
5.
5 Photosynthesis (c)
(e) protein synthesis
C. Tick () the correct
option.
1. The cell organelle, which acts as a storage bag for a cell, is known as the-
choloroplast
chromoplast
mitochondria
Vvacuole
22. Hen's egg is

a cell organelle
a tissue
a a
single cell an organ
3.
3 The nucleus is
separated from the cytoplasm by the-
cytoplasm nuclear membrane
cell membrane
protoplasm
12
 4. Which of the
an Amoeba? following will not be found in an egg cell, human liver cell and

ribosomes
cell membrane
mitochondria cell wall
5. Which of the
following represents the correct
tissue
sequence
cell >
organ >
organ system
organ tissue organ system cell
cell> organ > tissue > organ system
cell> tissue >
organ > organ system
.6.
Which, amongst the following pairs, can be found only in a plant cell but not
in an animal cell?

cell wall and plastids plastids and cilia

cell wall and cell membrane Lplastids and mitochondria

D. Answer the
following questions in brief.
.List the (main) factors that determine the shape of a cell. location uncH
2. Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms. Give two examples
of each. 3

3 Give reasons for the following:

(a) The cell is called the structural and functional unit of life.
(b) Plant cells are more rigid than the animal cells.

4. Which cell organelle is known as the Powerhouse of the cell?

Why is it so
called?t
5. Name the cell organelles responsible
tor imparting colour to the leaves and
the
fruits of a plant. Chlproplast ancl
le avey frusl
clomopu
6. What are cilia and flagella? Write one similarity and one
the two of them.
dissimilarity between

13
 lt onion peel cells and cheek cells are observed through a microscope, state the
7.
is likely to find. 5
TwO major differences that the observer

8. Classify the following into cells, tissue and organ.

Th
skin, fat cell, RBC, blood, ear, muscle
pla
ma
Cell Tissue Organ eff-
cel
fal Cel Blood Ear fur
RBC Mscle Ckin fu
1.

2.
E. Answer the following questions.
1. "All cells in an organism do not have the same shape." 3.

Justify the above statement by drawing at least three different cell types found
in human beings.

2 Where, and how, are chromosomes formed? State their significance.+

1.
3. With the help of well labelled diagrams, highlight three differences between a
plant cell and an animal cell. 9
4. Write the functions performed by the following cell organelles.
(a) Endoplasmic Reticulum
(b) Golgi Complex
(c) Nucleus

(d) Chromoplasts
(e) Vacuoles
f) Mitochondria
55. The cell membrane is a very important component of a cell. How is damage t
the cell membrane
likely to impact the functions of the cell? 6
6. Define the term 'cell', for
make a cell. plants/animals. Name the different organelles t at
Explain why none, of these is called the structural and
unit
of life. Cell funcioua
orqCneue 7
14
 Value Based Question
The biology teacher started her m

plant cells by lesson on the structure and ru

talking about
matches only when all its a cricket team. She told win* hat a team
members'work
efficient, sincere and embers 'work as aa team hersheir
team' and do
and do their assigned
assigned roles
ro
nimal/pl
cells also work responsible wav, She then went on to say
properly as their
different *d do their Spe cific
funtions. She advised her parts work as a
tea d do their spe*
functions as students to imbibe the 'team sp"*
responsible members of anv 'team' they may be a pa
of.

1. Name two of the

values that the teacher spoke of in her
lave a
cla
g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n in which s t u d e n t s suggest how, ' w o r k i n g as a team cau
2.
improve the overall
working' of a home or a school.
3. Have a play' in the class in which a group of students give themseve 'name
the diífferent cell organelles of a plant/animal cell. Each
Eact" me
corresponding to
has to then explain her/his role in the working of the cell.

Something To Do
1. Hydrilla is an aquatic plant that can be
seen in lakes and ponds. It has small, thin
leaves. Take a Hydrilla leaf and place it on
a glass slide. Observe it under a micro-
scope. Note your observations.
2. Divide the class into four groups of
students. Each group will prepare a short
report on the topics/questions given
below. Two students from each group may Microscopic view of Hydrilla leaf
class.
then present the report to the whole
discovered before after the invention
When were cells discovered? Were they
or
(a)
of the compound microscope?

number of cells depend upon the size of the organism?

(b) Does the size and

(c)List the functions of cell organelles and also mention the organ/organ system,
the human body.
that the organelle is similar to, in

(d) List the advantages

of having a cell wall as the outermost boundary in cells,
15
 Complete the cnossword puzzle given below.

10

Across Down

3. storage structures of a cel 1. help Paramoecium in locomotion.

5. regulates the entry and exit of 2. structure that helps in protein

materials in and out of the cell. synthesis.
7. impart colour to flowers and 4. help plant cells in converting
fruits. solar energy into usable form.

8. provides shape and rigidity to 6. control centre of the cell.

a plant cell.
9. responsible for transferring traits
10.powerhouse of the cell. from one generation to next.