Unit-3

A fluid system has a pump driven by a prime mover (such as an electric motor or internal combustion
engine) that converts mechanical energy into fluid energy, Pressurized fluid is controlled and directed
by valves into an actuator device such as a hydraulic cylinder or pneumatic cylinder, to provide linear
motion, or a hydraulic motor or pneumatic motor, to provide rotary motion or torque.
Hydraulic Systems
Introduction
The controlled movement of parts or a controlled application of force is a common requirement in the
industries. These operations are performed mainly by using electrical machines or diesel, petrol and
steam engines as a prime mover. These prime movers can provide various movements to the objects
by using some mechanical attachments like screw jack, lever, rack and pinions etc. However, these are
not the only prime movers. The enclosed fluids (liquids and gases) can also be used as prime movers
to provide controlled motion and force to the objects or substances. The specially designed enclosed
fluid systems can provide both linear as well as rotary motion. The high magnitude controlled force
can also be applied by using these systems. This kind of enclosed fluid based systems using pressurized
incompressible liquids as transmission media are called as hydraulic systems. The hydraulic system
works on the principle of Pascal’s law which says that the pressure in an enclosed fluid is uniform in
all the directions. The Pascal’s law is illustrated in figure. The force given by fluid is given by the
multiplication of pressure and area of cross section. As the pressure is same in all the direction, the
smaller piston feels a smaller force and a large piston feels a large force. Therefore, a large force can
be generated with smaller force input by using hydraulic systems.

Principle of hydraulic system

The hydraulic systems consist a number of parts for its proper functioning. These include storage
tank, filter, hydraulic pump, pressure regulator, control valve, hydraulic cylinder, piston and leak
proof fluid flow pipelines. The schematic of a simple hydraulic system is shown in figure. It consists
of:

• a movable piston connected to the output shaft in an enclosed cylinder

• storage tank
• filter
• electric pump
 • pressure regulator
• control valve
• leak proof closed loop piping.

The output shaft transfers the motion or force however all other parts help to control the system. The
storage/fluid tank is a reservoir for the liquid used as a transmission media. The liquid used is
generally high density incompressible oil. It is filtered to remove dust or any other unwanted particles
and then pumped by the hydraulic pump. The capacity of pump depends on the hydraulic system
design. These pumps generally deliver constant volume in each revolution of the pump shaft.
Therefore, the fluid pressure can increase indefinitely at the dead end of the piston until the system
fails. The pressure regulator is used to avoid such circumstances which redirect the excess fluid back
to the storage tank. The movement of piston is controlled by changing liquid flow from port A and
port B. The cylinder movement is controlled by using control valve which directs the fluid flow. The
fluid pressure line is connected to the port B to raise the piston and it is connected to port A to lower
down the piston. The valve can also stop the fluid flow in any of the port. The leak proof piping is
also important due to safety, environmental hazards and economical aspects. Some accessories such
as flow control system, travel limit control, electric motor starter and overload protection may also
be used in the hydraulic systems which are not shown in figure.

Schematic of hydraulic system

Applications of hydraulic systems
The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of larger forces. The main applications of
hydraulic system can be classified in five categories:
Industrial: Plastic processing machineries, steel making and primary metal extraction applications,
automated production lines, machine tool industries, paper industries, loaders, crushes, textile
machineries, R & D equipment and robotic systems etc.
Mobile hydraulics: Tractors, irrigation system, earthmoving equipment, material handling equipment,
commercial vehicles, tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, building and construction machineries
and drilling rigs etc.
Automobiles: It is used in the systems like breaks, shock absorbers, steering system, wind shield, lift
and cleaning etc.

Marine applications: It mostly covers ocean going vessels, fishing boats and navel equipment.
Aerospace equipment: There are equipment and systems used for rudder control, landing gear, breaks,
flight control and transmission etc. which are used in airplanes, rockets and spaceships.
Hydraulic Pump
The combined pumping and driving motor unit is known as hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pump takes
hydraulic fluid (mostly some oil) from the storage tank and delivers it to the rest of the hydraulic circuit.
In general, the speed of pump is constant and the pump delivers an equal volume of oil in each
revolution. The amount and direction of fluid flow is controlled by some external mechanisms. In some
cases, the hydraulic pump itself is operated by a servo controlled motor but it makes the system
complex. The hydraulic pumps are characterized by its flow rate capacity, power consumption, drive
speed, pressure delivered at the outlet and efficiency of the pump. The pumps are not 100% efficient.
The efficiency of a pump can be specified by two ways. One is the volumetric efficiency which is the
ratio of actual volume of fluid delivered to the maximum theoretical volume possible. Second is power
efficiency which is the ratio of output hydraulic power to the input mechanical/electrical power. The
typical efficiency of pumps varies from 90-98%.
The hydraulic pumps can be of two types:
• centrifugal pump
• reciprocating pump
Centrifugal pump uses rotational kinetic energy to deliver the fluid. The rotational energy typically
comes from an engine or electric motor. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating
axis, accelerates in the propeller and flung out to the periphery by centrifugal force as shown in figure.
In centrifugal pump the delivery is not constant and varies according to the outlet pressure. These
pumps are not suitable for high pressure applications and are generally used for low-pressure and high-
volume flow applications. The maximum pressure capacity is limited to 20-30 bars and the specific
speed ranges from 500 to 10000. Most of the centrifugal pumps are not self- priming and the pump
casing needs to be filled with liquid before the pump is started.

Centrifugal pump
The reciprocating pump is a positive plunger pump. It is also known as positive displacement pump or
piston pump. It is often used where relatively small quantity is to be handled and the delivery pressure
is quite large. The construction of these pumps is similar to the four stroke engine as shown in figure.
The crank is driven by some external rotating motor. The piston of pump reciprocates due to crank
rotation. The piston moves down in one half of crank rotation, the inlet valve opens and fluid enters
into the cylinder. In second half crank rotation the piston moves up, the outlet valve opens and the fluid
moves out from the outlet. At a time, only one valve is opened and another is closed so there is no fluid
leakage. Depending on the area of cylinder the pump delivers constant volume of fluid in each cycle
independent to the pressure at the output port.

Reciprocating or positive displacement pump

Pump Lift
In general, the pump is placed over the fluid storage tank as shown in figure. The pump creates a
negative pressure at the inlet which causes fluid to be pushed up in the inlet pipe by atmospheric
pressure. It results in the fluid lift in the pump suction. The maximum pump lift can be determined by
atmospheric pressure and is given by pressure head as given below:
Pressure Head, P = rgh
Theoretically, a pump lift of 8 m is possible but it is always lesser due to undesirable effects such as
cavitation. The cavitation is the formation of vapor cavities in a liquid. The cavities can be small liquid-
free zones ("bubbles" or "voids") formed due to partial vaporization of fluid (liquid). These are usually
generated when a liquid is subjected to rapid changes of pressure and the pressure is relatively low. At
higher pressure, the voids implode and can generate an intense shockwave. Therefore, the cavitation
should always be avoided. The cavitation can be reduced by maintaining lower flow velocity at the
inlet and therefore the inlet pipes have larger diameter than the outlet pipes in a pump. The pump lift
should be as small as possible to decrease the cavitation and to increase the efficiency of the pump.
 Pump lift
Pressure Regulation
The pressure regulation is the process of reduction of high source pressure to a lower working pressure
suitable for the application. It is an attempt to maintain the outlet pressure within acceptable limits. The
pressure regulation is performed by using pressure regulator. The primary function of a pressure
regulator is to match the fluid flow with demand. At the same time, the regulator must maintain the
outlet pressure within certain acceptable limits.
The schematic of pressure regulator and various valves placement is shown in figure. When the valve
V1 is closed and V2 is opened then the load moves down and fluid returns to the tank but the pump is
dead ended and it leads to a continuous increase in pressure at pump delivery. Finally, it may lead to
permanent failure of the pump. Therefore some method is needed to keep the delivery pressure P1
within the safe level. It can be achieved by placing pressure regulating valve V3 as shown in figure.
This valve is closed in normal conditions and when the pressure exceeds a certain limit, it opens and
fluid from pump outlet returns to the tank via pressure regulating valve V3. As the pressure falls in a
limiting range, the valve V3 closes again.

Schematic of pressure regulation

When valve V1 is closed, the whole fluid is dumped back to the tank through the pressure regulating
valve. This leads to the substantial loss of power because the fluid is circulating from tank to pump and
then pump to tank without performing any useful work. This may lead to increase in fluid temperature
because the energy input into fluid leads to the increase in fluid temperature. This may need to the
installation of heat exchanger in to the storage tank to extract the excess heat. Interestingly, the motor
power consumption is more in such condition because the outlet pressure is higher than the working
pressure.
Design of Hydraulic Circuit
Example1
Problem Definition: Package lifting device

Schematic of a Package lifting system for LED TVs

For a dispatch station of a LED TV production house, design a package lifting device to lift packages
containing 21” to 51” LED TVs from the inspection conveyor to the dispatch conveyor. Draw the
hydraulic circuit diagram. List the components. Assume suitable data.
Solution
By applying the principle of hydraulics and after studying the various sensors, pumps, valves and hydraulic
actuators, the proposed hydraulic circuit is shown in Figure. Components required are listed in table.

List of Components
S. No. Item No. Quantity Description
Two direction Hydraulic
1 1A 1 Motor with constant
displacement volume
2 0Z1 1 Hydraulic Power Pack
3 0Z2 1 Pressure gauge
4 1V1 1 Shut-off valve
5 1V2 1 Pressure relief valve
6 1S 1 Flow sensor
7 5 Hose line
8 2 Branch tee
Proposed hydraulic circuit and its operation

Hydraulic circuit design for package lifting device

Figure shows the circuit design for package lifting device. The two direction hydraulic motor is run by
using a hydraulic power pack. Required valves and pressure sensors are also included for desired
control action. Readers are requested to carefully read the circuit and comprehend the circuit.
Once the hydraulic circuit has been assembled and checked, valve 1V1 and pressure relief valve 1V2
can be operated in sequence to obtain the rotary motion of hydraulic motor in required direction
(clockwise/counter clockwise). This rotary motion can further be converted into linear motion by using
suitable motion converter mechanism viz. Rack and pinion mechanism. Linear motion is used to lift
the packages. It is required to develop a PID based controller to control the operation of the valves.
The pressure gauge and flow sensor are used to monitor the operation continuously.
Example2
Problem Definition: Furnace door control
Design a hydraulic circuit for a furnace door to be opened and closed. Figure shows the schematic of
the furnace and its door that to be controlled. Propose a suitable hydraulic technology. List the
components. Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram. Compute stroke speeds and stroke times by assuming
assume suitable data.

Furnace and its door

Solution
A double-acting cylinder can be used to control the movements of furnace door. The cylinder is to
be activated by a 4/2-way valve with spring return. This will ensure that the door opens only as long
as the valve is actuated. When the valve actuating lever is released, the door closes again. Table
lists the required hydraulic and mechanical components. Figure shows the proposed hydraulic
circuit.
List of components
S. No. Item No. Quantity Description
1 0Z1 1 Hydraulic Power Pack
2 0Z2 1 Pressure gauge
3 1S1, 1S2 2 Pressure sensor
4 0V 1 Pressure relief valve
5 1V 1 4/2 way valve, manually operated
6 1A 1 Cylinder
7 6 Hose line
8 2 Branch tee
9 1 Stop watch
Proposed hydraulic circuit and its operation

Hydraulic circuit for furnace door control

Figure shows the hydraulic circuit for furnace door control. Once the circuit has been assembled
and checked, the hydraulic power pack should be switched on and the system pressure set on the
pressure relief valve 0V to a pre-set value. By operating the hand lever of valve 1V the opening and
closing of the furnace can easily be carried out. When this 4/2-way valve is actuated, the piston rod
of the cylinder will advance until the lever is released or the piston rod runs against the stop. When
the lever is released, the piston rod will immediately return to its retracted end position. The hand
lever can also be remotely operated by using suitable mechanism. Pressure sensors should be used
to measure the travel and back pressures.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic system

Advantages
• The hydraulic system uses incompressible fluid which results in higher efficiency.
• It delivers consistent power output which is difficult in pneumatic or mechanical drive
systems.
• Hydraulic systems employ high density incompressible fluid. Possibility of leakage is less in
hydraulic system as compared to that in pneumatic system. The maintenance cost is less.
• These systems perform well in hot environment conditions.

Disadvantages
• The material of storage tank, piping, cylinder and piston can be corroded with the hydraulic
fluid. Therefore one must be careful while selecting materials and hydraulic fluid.
• The structural weight and size of the system is more which makes it unsuitable for the
smaller instruments.
• The small impurities in the hydraulic fluid can permanently damage the complete system,
therefore one should be careful and suitable filter must be installed.
• The leakage of hydraulic fluid is also a critical issue and suitable prevention method and
seals must be adopted.
• The hydraulic fluids, if not disposed properly, can be harmful to the environment.
Pneumatic system
Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behavior and applications of compressed air in our
daily life in general and manufacturing automation in particular. Pneumatic systems use air as the
medium which is abundantly available and can be exhausted into the atmosphere after completion
of the assigned task.
Basic Components of Pneumatic System:

Components of a pneumatic system

Important components of a pneumatic system are shown in figure.
Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air compressors are either
diesel or electrically operated. Based on the requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity
compressors may be used.
Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases. Therefore coolers are used to
reduce the temperature of the compressed air.
Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air by using a dryer.
Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for control of direction
flow, pressure etc.
Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required movements of mechanical
elements of pneumatic system.
Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used to drive the
compressor.
Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in the air receiver.
Receiver tank
The air is compressed slowly in the compressor. But since the pneumatic system needs continuous
supply of air, this compressed air has to be stored. The compressed air is stored in an air receiver
as shown in Figure. The air receiver smoothens the pulsating flow from the compressor. It also
helps the air to cool and condense the moisture present. The air receiver should be large enough to
hold all the air delivered by the compressor. The pressure in the receiver is held higher than the
system operating pressure to compensate pressure loss in the pipes. Also the large surface area of
the receiver helps in dissipating the heat from the compressed air. Generally the size of receiver
depends on,
• Delivery volume of compressor.
• Air consumption.
• Pipeline network
• Type and nature of on-off regulation
• Permissible pressure difference in the pipelines

Air receiver
Compressor:
It is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy. The compressor
increases the air pressure by reducing its volume which also increases the temperature of the
compressed air. The compressor is selected based on the pressure it needs to operate and the
delivery volume.
The compressor can be classified into two main types
• Positive displacement compressors and
• Dynamic displacement compressor
Positive displacement compressors include piston type, vane type, diaphragm type and screw type.
Piston compressors

Single acting piston compressor

Piston compressors are commonly used in pneumatic systems. The simplest form is single cylinder
compressor. It produces one pulse of air per piston stroke. As the piston moves down during the
inlet stroke the inlet valve opens and air is drawn into the cylinder. As the piston moves up the inlet
valve closes and the exhaust valve opens which allows the air to be expelled. The valves are spring
loaded. The single cylinder compressor gives significant amount of pressure pulses at the outlet
port. The pressure developed is about 3-40 bar.
Double acting compressor

Double acting piston compressor

The pulsation of air can be reduced by using double acting compressor as shown in Figure. It has
two sets of valves and a crosshead. As the piston moves, the air is compressed on one side whilst
on the other side of the piston, the air is sucked in. Due to the reciprocating action of the piston, the
air is compressed and delivered twice in one piston stroke. Pressure higher than 30bar can be
produced.
Multistage compressor

Multi-stage compressor
As the pressure of the air increases, its temperature rises. It is essential to reduce the air temperature
to avoid damage of compressor and other mechanical elements. The multistage compressor with
intercooler in-between is shown in Figure. It is used to reduce the temperature of compressed air
during the compression stages. The inter- cooling reduces the volume of air which used to increase
due to heat. The compressed air from the first stage enters the intercooler where it is cooled. This
air is given as input to the second stage where it is compressed again. The multistage compressor
can develop a pressure of around 50bar.
Combined two stage compressors

Combined to stage compressor

In this type, two-stage compression is carried out by using the same piston. Initially when the piston
moves down, air is sucked in through the inlet valve. During the compression process, the air moves
out of the exhaust valve into the intercooler. As the piston moves further the stepped head provided
on the piston moves into the cavity thus causing the compression of air. Then, this is let out by the
exhaust port.
Air Treatment and Pressure Regulation
Air treatment stages
For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system the compressed air needs to be cleaned and
dried. Atmospheric air is contaminated with dust, smoke and is humid. These particles can cause
wear of the system components and presence of moisture may cause corrosion. Hence it is essential
to treat the air to get rid of these impurities. The air treatment can be divided into three stages as
shown in Figure.

Stages of air treatment

In the first stage, the large sized particles are prevented from entering the compressor by an intake
filter. The air leaving the compressor may be humid and may be at high temperature. The air from
the compressor is treated in the second stage. In this stage temperature of the compressed air is
lowered using a cooler and the air is dried using a dryer. Also an inline filter is provided to remove
any contaminant particles present. This treatment is called primary air treatment. In the third stage
which is the secondary air treatment process, further filtering is carried out. A lubricator introduces
a fine mist of oil into the compressed air. This will help in lubrication of the moving components
of the system to which the compressed air will be applied.
Filters
To prevent any damage to the compressor, the contaminants present in the air need to be filtered
out. This is done by using inlet filters. These can be dry or wet filters. Dry filters use disposable
cartridges. In the wet filter, the incoming air is passed through an oil bath and then through a fine
wire mesh filter. Dirt particles cling to the oil drops during bubbling and are removed by wire mesh
as they pass through it. In the dry filter the cartridges are replaced during servicing. The wet filters
are cleaned using detergent solution.
Cooler
As the air is compressed, the temperature of the air increases. Therefore the air needs to be cooled.
This is done by using a cooler. It is a type of heat exchanger. There are two types of coolers
commonly employed viz. air cooled and water cooled. In the air cooled type, ambient air is used to
cool the high temperature compressed air, whereas in the water cooled type, water is used as cooling
medium. These are counter flow type coolers where the cooling medium flows in the direction
opposite to the compressed air. During cooling, the water vapor present will condense which can
be drained away later.
Main line filter
These filters are used to remove the water vapors or solid contaminants present in the pneumatic
systems main lines. These filters are discussed in detail as follows.
Air filter and water trap
Air filter and water trap is used to
• prevent any solid contaminants from entering in the system.
• condense and remove water vapor that is present in the compressed air.

Air filter and water trap

The filter cartridge is made of sintered brass. The schematic of the filter is shown in Figure. The
thickness of sintered cartridge provides random zigzag passage for the air to flow-in which helps in
arresting the solid particles. The air entering the filter swirls around due to the deflector cone. The
centrifugal action causes the large contaminants and water vapor to be flung out, which hit the glass
bowl and get collected at the bottom. A baffle plate is provided to prevent the turbulent air from
splashing the water into the filter cartridge. At the bottom of the filter bowl there is a drain plug
which can be opened manually to drain off the settled water and solid particles.
Refrigerated dryers

Refrigerated dryers
It consists of two heat exchangers, refrigerant compressor and a separator. The system circuitry is
shown in Figure. The dryer chills the air just above 0 °C which condenses the water vapor. The
condensate is collected by the separator. However such low temperature air may not be needed at
the application. Therefore this chilled air is used to cool the high temperature air coming out from
the compressor at heat exchanger 2. The moderate temperature dry air coming out from the heat
exchanger 2 is then used for actual application; whilst the reduced temperature air from compressor
will further be cooled at heat exchanger 1. Thus, the efficiency of the system is increased by
employing a second heat exchanger.
Chemical dryers
When absolute dry air is needed chemical dryers are used. These dryers are of two types viz.
adsorption dryer and absorption dryer.
Adsorption dryers

Adsorption dryer
In Adsorption dryers, the moisture collects on the sharp edges of the granular material. The
adsorbing materials can be silicon dioxide (silica gel) or other materials which exist in hydrated and
dehydrated state (copper sulphate, activated alumina). Moisture from the adsorbing material can be
released by heating in the column as shown in Figure. At a given time, one column will dry the air
while the other column will regenerate the adsorption material by heating and passing low purge
air. The column B dries the air and column C regenerates. The rotary valves are opened using time
clock at regular interval to reverse the process. These dryers are also called regenerative dryers.
Absorption dryers
These are also called as deliquescent dryers. Figure shows a schematic of the same. It uses chemical
agents like phosphoric pentoxide or calcium chloride as drying agents. The moisture in the
compressed air chemically reacts with the drying agent. The agent dissolves to form a liquid
compound which collects at the bottom of the dryer where it can be drained out. The deliquescent
agent has to be replenished regularly as it gets consumed during the drying process.
 Absorption dryer
Lubricators

Air lubricator
The compressed air is first filtered and then passed through a lubricator in order to form a mist of
oil and air to provide lubrication to the mating components. Figure shows the schematic of a typical
lubricator. The principle of working of venturimeter is followed in the operation of lubricator. The
compressed air from the dryer enters in the lubricator. Its velocity increases due to a pressure
differential between the upper and lower changer (oil reservoir). Due to the low pressure in the
upper chamber the oil is pushed into the upper chamber from the oil reservoir through a siphon tube
with check valve. The main function of the valve is to control the amount of oil passing through it.
The oil drops inside the throttled zone where the velocity of air is much higher and this high velocity
air breaks the oil drops into tiny particles. Thus a mist of air and oil is generated. The pressure
differential across chambers is adjusted by a needle valve. It is difficult to hold an oil mixed air in
the air receiver as oil may settle down. Thus air is lubricated during secondary air treatment process.
Low viscosity oil forms better mist than high viscosity oil and hence ensures that oil is always
present in the air.
Pressure regulation
In pneumatic systems, during high velocity compressed air flow, there is flow- dependent pressure
drop between the receiver and load (application). Therefore the pressure in the receiver is always
kept higher than the system pressure. At the application site, the pressure is regulated to keep it
constant. There are three ways to control the local pressure, these are shown in Figure.

Types of pressure regulation

In the first method, load X vents the air into atmosphere continuously. The pressure regulator
restricts the air flow to the load, thus controlling the air pressure. In this type of pressure regulation,
some minimum flow is required to operate the regulator. If the load is a dead end type which draws
no air, the pressure in the receiver will rise to the manifold pressure. These type of regulators are
called as ‘non-relieving regulators’, since the air must pass through the load.
In the second type, load Y is a dead end load. However the regulator vents the air into atmosphere
to reduce the pressure. This type of regulator is called as ‘relieving regulator’.
The third type of regulator has a very large load Z. Therefore its requirement of air volume is very
high and can’t be fulfilled by using a simple regulator. In such cases, a control loop comprising of
pressure transducer, controller and vent valve is used. Due to large load the system pressure may
rise above its critical value. It is detected by a transducer. Then the signal will be processed by the
controller which will direct the valve to be opened to vent out the air. This technique can be also be
used when it is difficult to mount the pressure regulating valve close to the point where pressure
regulation is needed.
Relief valve

Relief valve
Relief valve is the simplest type of pressure regulating device. The schematic of its construction
and working is shown in the Figure. It is used as a backup device if the main pressure control fails.
It consists of ball type valve held on to the valve seat by a spring in tension. The spring tension can
be adjusted by using the adjusting cap. When the air pressure exceeds the spring tension pressure
the ball is displaced from its seat, thus releasing the air and reducing the pressure. A relief is
specified by its span of pressure between the cracking and full flow, pressure range and flow rate.
Once the valve opens (cracking pressure), flow rate depends on the excess pressure. Once the
pressure falls below the cracking pressure, the valve seals itself.
Non-relieving pressure regulator
In a non-relieving pressure regulator the outlet pressure is sensed by a diaphragm which is preloaded
by a pressure setting spring. If outlet pressure is too low, the spring forces the diaphragm and poppet
to move down thus opening the valve to admit more air and raise outlet pressure. If the outlet
pressure is too high the air pressure forces the diaphragm up hence reduces the air flow and causing
a reduction in air pressure. The air vents away through the load. At steady state condition the valve
will balance the force on the diaphragm from the outlet pressure with the preset force on the spring.

Non-relieving type pressure regulator

Service units
During the preparation of compressed air, various processes such as filtration, regulation and
lubrication are carried out by individual components. The individual components are:
separator/filter, pressure regulator and lubricator.
Preparatory functions can be combined into one unit which is called as ‘service unit’. Figure shows
symbolic representation of various processes involved in air preparation and the service unit.

Actuators
Actuators are output devices which convert energy from pressurized hydraulic oil or compressed
air into the required type of action or motion. In general, hydraulic or pneumatic systems are used
for gripping and/or moving operations in industry. These operations are carried out by using
actuators.
Actuators can be classified into three types.
Linear actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into linear motion.
Rotary actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into rotary motion.
Actuators to operate flow control valves: these are used to control the flow and pressure of fluids
such as gases, steam or liquid.
The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is similar. However they differ at their
operating pressure ranges. Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about 100 bar and of pneumatic
system is around 10 bar.
Single acting cylinder

Single acting cylinder

These cylinders produce work in one direction of motion hence they are named as single acting
cylinders. Figure shows the construction of a single acting cylinder. The compressed air pushes the
piston located in the cylindrical barrel causing the desired motion. The return stroke takes place by
the action of a spring. Generally the spring is provided on the rod side of the cylinder.
Double acting cylinder

Double acting cylinder

The main parts of a hydraulic double acting cylinder are: piston, piston rod, cylinder tube, and end
caps. These are shown in Figure. The piston rod is connected to piston head and the other end
extends out of the cylinder. The piston divides the cylinder into two chambers namely the rod end
side and piston end side. The seals prevent the leakage of oil between these two chambers. The
cylindrical tube is fitted with end caps. The pressurized oil, air enters the cylinder chamber through
the ports provided. In the rod end cover plate, a wiper seal is provided to prevent the leakage of oil
and entry of the contaminants into the cylinder. The combination of wiper seal, bearing and sealing
ring is called as cartridge assembly. The end caps may be attached to the tube by threaded
connection, welded connection or tie rod connection. The piston seal prevents metal to metal
contact and wear of piston head and the tube. These seals are replaceable. End cushioning is also
provided to prevent the impact with end caps.
Cylinder end cushions

Cylinder end cushioning

Double acting cylinders generally contain cylinder cushions at the end of the cylinder to slow down
the movement of the piston near the end of the stroke. Figure shows the construction of actuating
cylinder with end cushions. Cushioning arrangement avoids the damage due to the impact occurred
when a fast moving piston is stopped by the end caps. Deceleration of the piston starts when the
tapered plunger enters the opening in the cap and closes the main fluid exit. This restricts the exhaust
flow from the barrel to the port. This throttling causes the initial speed reduction. During the last
portion of the stroke the oil has to exhaust through an adjustable opening since main fluid exit
closes. Thus the remaining fluid exists through the cushioning valve. Amount of cushioning can be
adjusted by means of cushion screw. A check valve is provided to achieve fast break away from the
end position during retraction motion. A bleed screw is built into the check valve to remove the air
bubbles present in a hydraulic type system.
Gear motor: a rotary actuator
Rotary actuators convert energy of pressurized fluid into rotary motion. Rotary actuators are similar
to electric motors but are run on hydraulic or pneumatic power.

Gear motor
It consists of two inter meshing gears inside a housing with one gear attached to the drive shaft.
Figure shows a schematic diagram of Gear motor. The air enters from the inlet, causes the rotation
of the meshing gear due to difference in the pressure and produces the torque. The air exists from
the exhaust port. Gear motors tend to leak at low speed, hence are generally used for medium speed
applications.
Vane motor: a rotary actuator
A rotary vane motor consists of a rotor with sliding vanes in the slots provided on the rotor. The
rotor is placed eccentrically with the housing. Air enters from the inlet port, rotates the rotor and
thus torque is produced. Air is then released from the exhaust port (outlet).

Vane motor
Limited rotation actuators
It consists of a single rotating vane connected to output shaft as shown in Figure. It is used for
double acting operation and has a maximum angle of rotation of about 270°. These are generally
used to actuate dampers in robotics and material handling applications. Other type of limited
rotation actuator is a rack and pinion type actuator.

Semi rotary vane type actuator

Speed control
For an actuator, the operational speed is determined by the fluid flow rate and the cylinder actuator
area or the motor displacement. The speed can only be controlled by adjusting the fluid flow to the
actuator, because the physical dimension of the actuator is fixed. Since the air is compressible, flow
control is difficult as compared to the hydraulic system. There are various ways of controlling the
fluid flow. One of the methods is discussed as below-

Speed control by pump volume

Figure shows the circuit diagram of hydraulic system developed to control the speed of motion of
a piston. Consider a pump which delivers a fluid volume of ‘V’ per minute. The pump has a fixed
displacement. The volume of fluid goes either to the pump or to the actuator. When the direction
control valve moves from its center position the actuator of area ‘A’, the piston moves with a
velocity,
𝑉
v=
𝐴
If the pump delivery volume ‘V’ can be adjusted by altering swash plate angle of a piston pump or
by using a variable displacement vane pump, no further speed control will be needed.
Pneumatic controllers
In automated industrial processes, it is always essential to keep the process variables such as
temperature, flow rate, system pressure, fluid level, etc. at the desired value for safety and
economical operation. Consider an example where the flow of water through a pipe has to be kept
constant at some predetermined value. Let the value of flow to be measured is ‘V’ (process variable
PV). This flow rate is compared with the required flow value say ‘V1’ (set point SP). The difference
between these two values is the error which is sent to the controller. If any error exists, the controller
adjusts the drive signal to the actuator, informing it to move the valve to give the required flow
(zero error). This type of control system is called closed loop control system. It mainly includes a
controller, actuator and a measuring device.

Closed loop control system

The control can be achieved by using control electronics or by pneumatic process control. The
pneumatic systems are quite popular because they are safe. In the process industries like refinery
and chemical plants, the atmosphere is explosive. Application of electronics based systems may be
dangerous in such cases. Since the pneumatic systems use air, there are very scant chances of any
fire hazards. Even though electrical actuators are available, but most of the valves employed are
driven by pneumatic signals.
Components of a pneumatic controller
• Flapper nozzle amplifier
• Air relay
• Bellows
• Springs
• Feedback arrangements
Flapper nozzle amplifier
A pneumatic control system operates with air. The signal is transmitted in the form of variable air
pressure (often in the range of 0.2 to 1.0 bar (3-15 psi)) that initiates the control action. One of the
basic building blocks of a pneumatic control system is the flapper nozzle amplifier. It converts very
small displacement signal (in order of microns) to variation of air pressure. The basic construction
of a flapper nozzle amplifier is shown in Figure.
 Nozzle flapper amplifier
Constant air pressure is supplied to one end of the pipeline. There is an orifice at this end. At the
other end of the pipe, there is a nozzle and a flapper. The gap between the nozzle and the flapper is
set by the input signal. As the flapper moves closer to the nozzle, there will be less airflow through
the nozzle and the air pressure inside the pipe will increase. On the other hand, if the flapper moves
further away from the nozzle, the air pressure decreases. At the extreme, if the nozzle is open
(flapper is far off), the output pressure will be equal to the atmospheric pressure. If the nozzle is
blocked, the output pressure will be equal to the supply pressure.
Air Relay
The major limitation of a flapper nozzle amplifier is its limited air handling capacity. The variation
of air pressure obtained cannot be used for any useful application, unless the air handling capacity
is increased. It is used after the flapper nozzle amplifier to enhance the volume of air to be handled.
The principle of operation of an air relay can be explained using the schematic diagram shown in
Figure. It can be seen that the air relay is directly connected to the supply line (no orifice in
between). The output pressure of the flapper nozzle amplifier (p2) is connected to the lower chamber
of the air relay with a diaphragm on its top. The variation of the pressure p 2 causes the movement
(y) of the diaphragm. There is a double-seated valve fixed on the top of the diaphragm. When the
nozzle pressure p2 increases due to decrees in xi, the diaphragm moves up, blocking the air vent line
and forming a nozzle between the output pressure line and the supply air pressure line. More air
goes to the output line and the air pressure increases. When p2 decreases, the diaphragm moves
downwards, thus blocking the air supply line and connecting the output port to the vent. The air
pressure will decrease.
Applications of pneumatic systems
In this section we will study the application of various pneumatic components in designing a
pneumatic circuit. The graphical symbols of pneumatic components and equipment have already
been discussed in lecture 7 of module 5.
Example1
Consider a simple operation where a double-acting cylinder is used to transfer parts from a
magazine. The cylinder is to be advanced either by operating a push button or by a foot pedal. Once
the cylinder is fully advanced, it is to be retracted to its initial position. A 3/2-way roller lever valve
is to be used to detect the full extension of the cylinder. Design a pneumatic circuit for the above-
mentioned application.
Components used
The pneumatic components which can be used to implement the mentioned task are as follows:
• double acting cylinder
• 3/2 push button valve
• 3/2 roller valve
• shuttle valve
• 3/2 foot pedal actuated valve
• 5/3 pneumatic actuated direction control valve
• compressed air source and connecting piping
Working

Pneumatic circuit for shuttle valve operation

Figure shows the proposed circuit diagram. As the problem stated, upon actuation of either the push
button of valve (S1) or the foot pedal valve (S2), a signal is generated at 1 or 1(3) side of the shuttle
valve. The OR condition is met and the signal is passed to the control port 14 of the direction control
valve (V2). Due to this signal, the left position of V2 is actuated and the flow of air starts. Pressure
is applied on the piston side of the cylinder (A) and the cylinder extends. If the push button or pedal
valve is released, the signal at the direction control valve (V2) port is reset. Since DCV (V2) is a
double pilot valve, it has a memory function which doesn’t allow switching of positions. As the
piston reaches the rod end position, the roller valve (S3) is actuated and a signal is applied to port
12 of the DCV (V2). This causes actuation of right side of DCV (V2). Due to this actuation, the
flow enters at the rod- end side of the cylinder, which pushes the piston towards left and thus the
cylinder retracts.
Example2
A plastic component is to be embossed by using a die which is powered by a double acting cylinder.
The return of the die is to be effected when the cylinder rod has fully extended to the embossing
position and the preset pressure is reached. A roller lever valve is to be used to confirm full
extension. The signal for retracting must only be generated when the piston rod has reached the
embossing position. The pressure in the piston chamber is indicated by a pressure gauge.
Components used
The pneumatic components to be used to implement this task are:
• double acting cylinder
• 3/2 push button valve
• 3/2 roller valve
• shuttle valve
• 5/3 pneumatic actuated direction control valve
• pressure sequence valve
• compressed air source
• pressure gauge and connecting piping
Working

Pneumatic circuit for embossing application

The proposed pneumatic circuit diagram for embossing application is shown in figure. When the push
button valve (S1) is pressed, the flow takes place through the valve and a signal is sent to the control
port 14 of the direction control valve (V2). The left position of the direction control valve (V2) is
switched-on and the flow enters at the piston-end of the cylinder (A). It causes the extension of the
cylinder. Even if the push button is released the position of the DCV (V2) will not change due to its
memory function. As the piston nears the end position, the roller valve (S2) is actuated and pressure
line is connected to the pressure sequence valve (V1). During the embossing process the pressure at
the piston-side of the cylinder (A) increases. This increase in pressure is indicated by the pressure
regulator (Z1). When the pressure reaches to its pre-set value in the pressure sequence valve (V1), the
3/2 valve of pressure sequence valve switches and the signal is applied to port 12 of the DCV (V2).
The right position of the DCV is actuated and the piston retracts. During the retracting movement, the
roller valve (S2) is released and the signal at the control port 12 of the DCV (V2) is reset and the
pressure sequence valve is also reset.
Example3
Sequencing application
In process control applications such as sequencing, the Pneumatics systems are generally employed.
Electrical components such as relays, programmable logic controllers are used to control the operations
of Pneumatic systems. A simple example of a pneumatic sequencing is shown in Figure,

Cylinder sequencing- Oscillating cylinder

Components used
The components used in the circuit are: double acting cylinder, 3/2 roller lever valve, 5/3 pilot operated
direction control valve and a 3/2 push button valve. By using this circuit, a continuous to and fro motion
of the actuator is obtained.
Working
When the 3/2 push button is actuated, the air flows from the source through the push button valve to
the 3/2 roller valve (S1). The roller valve is already actuated by the cylinder when the piston rod hits
the lever of S1. Therefore, there is continuous flow to the 5/3 pilot operated direction control valve
(DCV). The flow given to the pilot line 14 actuates the first position of DCV. The air flows from port
1-4 pushes the piston head which causes the extension of the cylinder. As the cylinder fully extends it
actuates the 3/2 roller lever valve (S2). The roller valve is actuated and air flows through the valve to
the 5/3 DCV. The air enters the DCV through pilot port 12 actuating the second position. Hence the
air flows from port 1-2 to the actuator rod end, causing its retraction. The cylinder reciprocates till the
supply is stopped. In this way, we can achieve the sequencing operation by controlled actuation of
various valves in a pneumatic system.
Control Valves
In a hydraulic system, the hydraulic energy available from a pump is converted into motion and force
by means of an actuator. The control of these mechanical outputs (motion and force) is one of the most
important functions in a hydraulic system. The proper selection of control selection ensures the desired
output and safe function of the system. In order to control the hydraulic outputs, different types of
control valves are required. It is important to know various types of control valves and their functions.
This not only helps to design a proper hydraulic system but also helps to discover the innovative ways
to improve the existing systems. In this lecture and next few lectures, various types of valves will be
discussed.
There are basically three types of valves employed in hydraulic systems:
1. Directional control valves
2. Flow control valves
3. Pressure control valves
Direction control valve
Directional control valves are used to control the distribution of energy in a fluid power system. They
provide the direction to the fluid and allow the flow in a particular direction. These valves are used to
control the start, stop and change in direction of the fluid flow. These valves regulate the flow direction
in the hydraulic circuit. These control valves contain ports that are external openings for the fluid to
enter and leave. The number of ports is usually identified by the term ‘way’. For example, a valve with
four ports is named as four-way valve. The fluid flow rate is responsible for the speed of actuator
(motion of the output) and should controlled in a hydraulic system. This operation can be performed
by using flow control valves. The pressure may increase gradually when the system is under operation.
The pressure control valves protect the system by maintaining the system pressure within the desired
range. Also, the output force is directly proportional to the pressure and hence, the pressure control
valves ensure the desired force output at the actuator.
Directional control valves can be classified in the following manner:
1. Type of construction:
• Poppet/check valves
• Spool valves
 2. Number of ports:
• Two- way valves
• Three – way valves
• Four- way valves.
3. Number of switching position:
• Two – position
• Three - position
4. Actuating mechanism:
• Manual actuation
• Mechanical actuation
• Solenoid actuation
• Hydraulic actuation
• Pneumatic actuation
• Indirect actuation

Type of construction

Poppet/Check Valves

Inline check valve

These are unidirectional valves and permit the free flow in one direction only. These valves have two
ports: one for the entry of fluid and the other for the discharge. They are consists of a housing bore in
which ball or poppet is held by a small spring force. The valve having ball as a closing member is
known as ball check valve. The various types of check valves are available for a range of applications.
These valves are generally small sized, simple in construction and inexpensive. Generally, the check
valves are automatically operated. Human intervention or any external control system is not required.
These valves can wear out or can generate the cracks after prolonged usage and therefore they are
mostly made of plastics for easy repair and replacements.

An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure. The check valve is designed for a
specific cracking pressure which is the minimum upstream pressure at which the valve operates. The
simplest check valve is an inline check valve as shown in Figure. The ball is held against the valve seat
by a spring force. It can be observed from the figure that the fluid flow is not possible from the spring
side but the fluid from opposite side can pass by lifting the ball against. However, there is some pressure
drop across the valve due to restriction by the spring force. Therefore these valves are not suitable for
the application of high flow rate. When the operating pressure increases the valve becomes more tightly
seated in this design.
The advantages of the poppet valves include no leakage, long life and suitability with high pressure
applications. These valves are commonly used in liquid or gel mini-pump dispenser spigots, spray
devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping air, manual air pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes.
Sometimes, the right angle check valve as shown in Figure is used for the high flow rate applications.
The pressure drop is comparatively less in right angle check valve.

Right angle check valve

When the closing member is not a ball but a poppet energized by a spring is known as poppet valve.
The typical poppet valve is shown in Figure. Some valves are meant for an application where free flow
is required in one direction and restricted flow required in another direction. These types of valves are
called as restriction check valve. These valves are used when a direction sensitive flow rate is required.
For example, the different actuator speeds are required in both the directions. The flow adjustment
screw can be used to set the discharge (flow rate) in the restricted direction.

Restriction check valve

Another important type of check valve known as pilot operated check valve which is shown in figure.
The function of the pilot operated check valve is similar to a normal check valve unless it gets an extra
pressure signal through a pilot line. Pilot allows free flow in one direction and prevents the flow in
another direction until the pilot pressure is applied. But when pilot pressure acts, the poppet opens and
the flow is blocked from both the sides. These valves are used to stop the fluid suddenly.

Pilot operated check valve

Spool valve
The spool valves derive their name from their appearance. It consists of a shaft sliding in a bore which
has large groove around the circumference. This type of construction makes it look like a spool. The
spool is sealed along the clearance between moving spool and housing (valve body). The quality of
seal or the amount of leakage depends on the amount of clearance, viscosity of fluid and the level of
the pressure. The grooves guide the fluid flow by interconnecting or blocking the holes (ports). The
spool valves are categorized according to the number of operating positions and the way hydraulic
lines interconnections. One of the simplest two way spool valve is shown in Figure. The standard terms
are referred as Port ‘P’ is pressure port, Port ‘T’ is tank port and Port ‘A’ and Port ‘B’ are the actuator
(or working) ports. The actuators can move in forward or backward direction depending on the
connectivity of the pressure and tank port with the actuators port.
Number of ports
Two-way valves
Two-way valves have only two ports as shown in Figures. These valves are also known as on-off valves
because they allow the fluid flow only in direction. Normally, the valve is closed. These valves are
available as normally open and normally closed function. These are the simplest type of spool valves.
When actuating force is not applied to the right, the port P is not connected with port A as shown in
figure1. Therefore, the actuation does not take place. Similarly, Figure2 shows the two- way spool
valve in the open condition. Here, the pressure port P is connected with the actuator port A.
 Valve closed

Valve opened by actuation

Three-way valves
When a valve has one pressure port, one tank port and one actuating port as shown in Figures, it is
known as three way valve. In this valve, the pressure port pressurizes one port and exhausts another
one. As shown in figures, only one actuator port is opened at a time. In some cases a neutral position
is also available when both the ports are blocked. Generally, these valves are used to operate single
acting cylinders.

Three-way valve: P to A connected and T is blocked

Three-way valve in closed position

Four-way valves
Figure shows a four-way valve. It is generally used to operate the cylinders and fluid motors in both
the directions. The four ways are: pump port P, tank port T, and two working ports A and B connected
to the actuator. The primary function of a four way valve is to pressurize and exhaust two working
ports A and B alternatively.

Three position four way valve in open centre mode

Classification of control valve according to number/ways of switching position
Three position four way (3/4) valves
Three position four way (3/4) valves are used in double-acting cylinders to perform advance, hold and
return operation to the piston. Figures show three position four way valves. These types of valves have
three switching positions. They have a variety of possible flow path configurations but have identical
flow path configuration. When the centered path is actuated, port A and B are connected with both the
ports P and T respectively. In this case, valve is not active because all the ports are open to each other.
The fluid flows to the tank at atmospheric pressure. In this position work cannot be done by any part
of the system. This configuration helps to prevent heat buildup.

Three position four way valve: P to B and A to T

When left end (port B) is actuated, the port P is connected with ports B and T is connected with port A
as shown in Figure 5.5.1. Similarly, when the right end is actuated the port P is connected to A and
working port B is connected to port T as shown in Figure. The three position valves are used when the
actuator is needed to stop or hold at some intermediate position. It can also be used when the multiple
circuits or functions are accomplished from one hydraulic power source.

Three position four way valve: P to A and B to T

 Three position four way valve: closed centre
Figure shows a three position four way valve in the closed center position. The working of the valve is
similar to open center DCV. In closed center DCV all user ports (port A and port B) are closed.
Therefore, these ports are hydraulically locked and the actuator cannot be moved by the external load.
The pumped fluid flows through the relief valve. The pump works under the high pressure condition
which not only wastes the pump power but also causes wear of the pump parts. The fluid temperature
also rises due to heat generation by the pump energy transformation. The increase in fluid temperature
may lead to the oxidation and viscosity drop of the fluid. The oxidation and viscosity drop reduces the
pump life and leakage in the system.

Tandem centred valve

Figure shows a tandem center three position four way direction control valve. In this configuration, the
working ports A and B are blocked and the pump port P is connected to the tank port T. Tandem center
results in the locked actuator. However, pump to tank flow takes place at the atmospheric temperature.
This kind of configuration can be used when the load is needed to hold. Disadvantages of high pressure
pumping in case of closed center can be removed by using this configuration.
The regenerative center is another important type of common center configuration used in hydraulic
circuits. Regenerative means the flow is generated from the system itself. Regenerative center is used
when the actuator movement in one direction requires two different speeds. For example, the half-
length of the stroke requires fast movement during no-load condition and remaining half-length
requires slow motion during load conditions. The regenerative center saves the pump power.

Regenerative Centre
Figure shows the regenerative configuration for the three position four way (3/4) DCV in its mid
position. This configuration increases the piston speed. In the mid position pump Port P is connected
to A and B, and tank port T is blocked.

Floating Centre
Figure shows the floating center 3/4 DCV in its mid position. In this configuration, the pump port is
blocked and both the working ports A and B are connected to the tank port T. Therefore, the working
ports A and B can be moved freely which is reason they are called as floating center. The pumped fluid
passes through the relief valve. Therefore, pump works in the high pressure condition. This
configuration is used only in some special cases.
Two position four way (2/4) valves
The two position four way valves have only two switching positions and do not have any mid position.
Therefore, they are also known as impulse valves. The typical connections of 2/4 valves is shown in
Figures. These valves can be used to operate double acting cylinders. These are also used to reciprocate
or hold an actuator. The operation is faster because the distance between ports of these valves is smaller.
Hence, these valves are used on machines where fast reciprocation cycles are needed such as punching
and stamping etc.

Two position four way DCV: P to B and A to T

Two position four way DCV: P to A and B to T

Classification based on actuation mechanism
Manual actuation
In this type, the spool is operated manually. Manual actuators are hand lever, push button and pedals
etc.
Mechanical actuation
The DCV spool can be operated by using mechanical elements such as roller and cam, roller and
plunger and rack and pinion etc. In these arrangements, the spool end is of roller or a pinion gear type.
The plunger or cam or rack gear is attached to the actuator. Thus, the mechanical elements gain some
motion relative to the actuator (cylinder piston) which can be used for the actuation.
Solenoid actuation
The solenoid actuation is also known as electrical actuation. The schematic of solenoid actuation is
shown in Figure. The energized solenoid coil creates a magnetic force which pulls the armature into
the coil. This movement of armature controls the spool position. The main advantage of solenoid
actuation is its less switching time.

Working of solenoid to shift spool of valve

Hydraulic actuation
This type actuation is usually known as pilot-actuated valve and a schematic is shown in Figure. In this
type of actuation, the hydraulic pressure is directly applied on the spool. The pilot port is located on
one end of the valve. Fluid entering from pilot port operates against the piston and forces the spool to
move forward. The needle valve is used to control the speed of the actuation.

Pilot actuated DCV

Pneumatic actuation
DCV can also be operated by applying compressed air against a piston at either end of the valve spool.
The construction of the system is similar to the hydraulic actuation as shown in Figure. The only
difference would be the actuation medium. The actuation medium is the compressed air in pneumatic
actuation system.
Indirect actuation of directional control valve
The direction control valve can be operated by manual, mechanical, solenoidal (electrical), hydraulic
(pilot) and pneumatic actuations. The mode of actuation does not have any influence on the basic
operation of the hydraulic circuits. Mostly, the direct actuation is restricted to use with smaller valves
only because usually lot of force is not available. The availability of limited force is the greatest
disadvantage of the direct actuation systems. In practice, the force required to shift the spool is quiet
higher. Therefore, the larger valves are often indirectly actuated in sequence. First, the smaller valve is
actuated directly and the flow from the smaller valve is directed to either side of the larger valve. The
control fluid can be supplied by the same circuit or by a separate circuit. The pilot valve pressure is
usually supplied internally. These two valves are often incorporated as a single unit. These valves are
also called as Electro-hydraulic operated DCV.
Flow Control Valves

Flow Control Valve

In practice, the speed of actuator is very important in terms of the desired output and needs to be
controlled. The speed of actuator can be controlled by regulating the fluid flow. A flow control valve
can regulate the flow or pressure of the fluid. The fluid flow is controlled by varying area of the valve
opening through which fluid passes. The fluid flow can be decreased by reducing the area of the valve
opening and it can be increased by increasing the area of the valve opening. A very common example
to the fluid flow control valve is the household tap. Figure shows the schematic diagram of a flow
control valve. The pressure adjustment screw varies the fluid flow area in the pipe to control the
discharge rate.
The pressure drop across the valve may keep on fluctuating. In general, the hydraulic systems have a
pressure compensating pump. The inlet pressure remains almost constant but the outlet pressure keeps
on fluctuating depending on the external load. It creates fluctuating pressure drop. Thus, the ordinary
flow control valve will not be able to maintain a constant fluid flow. A pressure compensated flow
control valve maintains the constant flow throughout the movement of a spool, which shifts its position
depending on the pressure. Flow control valves can also be affected by temperature changes. It is
because the viscosity of the fluid changes with temperature. Therefore, the advanced flow control
valves often have the temperature compensation. The temperature compensation is achieved by the
thermal expansion of a rod, which compensates for the increased coefficient of discharge due to
decreasing viscosity with temperature.
Types of Flow Control Valves
The flow control valves work on applying a variable restriction in the flow path. Based on the
construction; there are mainly four types viz. plug valve, butterfly valve, ball valve and balanced valve.
Plug or glove valve

Plug or glove valve

The plug valve is quite commonly used valve. It is also termed as glove valve. Schematic of plug or
glove valve is shown in Figure. This valve has a plug which can be adjusted in vertical direction by
setting flow adjustment screw. The adjustment of plug alters the orifice size between plug and valve
seat. Thus the adjustment of plug controls the fluid flow in the pipeline. The characteristics of these
valves can be accurately predetermined by machining the taper of the plug. The typical example of
plug valve is stopcock that is used in laboratory glassware. The valve body is made of glass or teflon.
The plug can be made of plastic or glass. Special glass stopcocks are made for vacuum applications.
Stopcock grease is used in high vacuum applications to make the stopcock air-tight.
Butterfly valve
A butterfly valve is shown in Figure. It consists of a disc which can rotate inside the pipe. The angle
of disc determines the restriction. Butterfly valve can be made to any size and is widely used to control
the flow of gas. These valves have many types which have for different pressure ranges and
applications. The resilient butterfly valve uses the flexibility of rubber and has the lowest pressure
rating. The high performance butterfly valves have a slight offset in the way the disc is positioned. It
increases its sealing ability and decreases the wear. For high-pressure systems, the triple offset butterfly
valve is suitable which makes use of a metal seat and is therefore able to withstand high pressure. It
has higher risk of leakage on the shut-off position and suffer from the dynamic torque effect. Butterfly
valves are favored because of their lower cost and lighter weight. The disc is always present in the flow
therefore a pressure drop is induced regardless of the valve position.
 Butterfly valve

Ball Valve
The ball valve is shown in Figure. This type of flow control valve uses a ball rotated inside a machined
seat. The ball has a through hole as shown in Figure. It has very less leakage in its shut-off condition.
These valves are durable and usually work perfectly for many years. They are excellent choice for
shutoff applications. They do not offer fine control which may be necessary in throttling applications.
These valves are widely used in industries because of their versatility, high supporting pressures (up to
1000 bar) and temperatures (up to 250°C). They are easy to repair and operate.

Ball valve
Balanced valve
Schematic of a balanced valve is shown in figure. It comprises of two plugs and two seats. The opposite
flow gives little dynamic reaction onto the actuator shaft. It results in the negligible dynamic torque
effect. However, the leakage is more in these kind of valves because the manufacturing tolerance can
cause one plug to seat before the other. The pressure-balanced valves are used in the houses. They
provide water at nearly constant temperature to a shower or bathtub despite of pressure fluctuations in
either the hot or cold supply lines.
 Balanced valve
Pressure relief valves
The pressure relief valves are used to protect the hydraulic components from excessive pressure. This
is one of the most important components of a hydraulic system and is essentially required for safe
operation of the system. Its primary function is to limit the system pressure within a specified range. It
is normally a closed type and it opens when the pressure exceeds a specified maximum value by
diverting pump flow back to the tank. The simplest type valve contains a poppet held in a seat against
the spring force as shown in Figure. The fluid enters from the opposite side of the poppet. When the
system pressure exceeds the preset value, the poppet lifts and the fluid is escaped through the orifice
to the storage tank directly. It reduces the system pressure and as the pressure reduces to the set limit
again the valve closes. This valve does not provide a flat cut-off pressure limit with flow rate because
the spring must be deflected more when the flow rate is higher. Various types of pressure control valves
are discussed in the following sections:
Direct type of relief valve

Pressure Relief Valve

Schematic of direct pressure relief valve is shown in figure. This type of valves has two ports; one of
which is connected to the pump and another is connected to the tank. It consists of a spring chamber
where poppet is placed with a spring force. Generally, the spring is adjustable to set the maximum
pressure limit of the system. The poppet is held in position by combined effect of spring force and dead
weight of spool. As the pressure exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises and excess fluid
bypassed to the reservoir (tank). The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops below the pre-set value.
A drain is also provided in the control chamber. It sends the fluid collected due to small leakage to the
tank and thereby prevents the failure of the valve.

Unloading Valve

Unloading Valve
The construction of unloading valve is shown in Figure. This valve consists of a control chamber with
an adjustable spring which pushes the spool down. The valve has two ports: one is connected to the
tank and another is connected to the pump. The valve is operated by movement of the spool. Normally,
the valve is closed and the tank port is also closed. These valves are used to permit a pump to operate
at the minimum load. It works on the same principle as direct control valve that the pump delivery is
diverted to the tank when sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move the spool. The pilot pressure
maintains a static pressure to hold the valve opened. The pilot pressure holds the valve until the pump
delivery is needed in the system. As the pressure is needed in the hydraulic circuit; the pilot pressure
is relaxed and the spool moves down due to the self- weight and the spring force. Now, the flow is
diverted to the hydraulic circuit. The drain is provided to remove the leaked oil collected in the control
chamber to prevent the valve failure. The unloading valve reduces the heat buildup due to fluid
discharge at a preset pressure value.
Sequence valve

Sequence valve
The primary function of this type of valve is to divert flow in a predetermined sequence. It is used to
operate the cycle of a machine automatically. A sequence valve may be of direct-pilot or remote-pilot
operated type.
Schematic of the sequence valve is shown in Figure. Its construction is similar to the direct
relief valve. It consists of the two ports; one main port connecting the main pressure line and another
port (secondary port) is connected to the secondary circuit. The secondary port is usually closed by the
spool. The pressure on the spool works against the spring force. When the pressure exceeds the preset
value of the spring; the spool lifts and the fluid flows from the primary port to the secondary port. For
remote operation; the passage used for the direct operation is closed and a separate pressure source for
the spool operation is provided in the remote operation mode.
Counterbalance Valve

Counter Balance Valve

The schematic of counterbalance valve is shown in Figure. It is used to maintain the back pressure and
to prevent a load from failing. The counterbalance valves can be used as breaking valves for
decelerating heavy loads. These valves are used in vertical presses, lift trucks, loaders and other
machine tools where position or hold suspended loads are important. Counterbalance valves work on
the principle that the fluid is trapped under pressure until pilot pressure overcomes the pre-set value of
spring force. Fluid is then allowed to escape, letting the load to descend under control. This valve is
normally closed until it is acted upon by a remote pilot pressure source. Therefore, a lower spring force
is sufficient. It leads to the valve operation at the lower pilot pressure and hence the power consumption
reduces, pump life increases and the fluid temperature decreases.
Pressure Reducing Valve

Pressure Reducing Valve

Sometimes a part of the system may need a lower pressure. This can be made possible by using pressure
reducing valve as shown in Figure. These valves are used to limit the outlet pressure. Generally, they
are used for the operation of branch circuits where the pressure may vary from the main hydraulic
pressure lines. These are open type valve and have a spring chamber with an adjustable spring, a
movable spool as shown in figure. A drain is provided to return the leaked fluid in the spring (control)
chamber. A free flow passage is provided from inlet port to the outlet port until a signal from the outlet
port tends to throttle the passage through the valve. The pilot pressure opposes the spring force and
when both are balanced, the downstream is controlled at the pressure setting. When the pressure in the
reduced pressure line exceeds the valve setting, the spool moves to reduce the flow passage area by
compressing the spring. It can be seen from the figure that if the spring force is more, the valve opens
wider and if the controlled pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and throttles
the flow.
Graphical representation of hydraulic and pneumatic elements
The hydraulic and pneumatic elements such as cylinders and valves are connected through pipelines to
form a hydraulic or a pneumatic circuit. It is difficult to represent the complex functioning of these
elements using sketches. Therefore graphical symbols are used to indicate these elements. The symbols
only specify the function of the element without indicating the design of the element. Symbols also
indicate the actuation method, direction of flow of air and designation of the ports. Symbols are
described in various documents like DIN24300, BS2917, ISO1219 and the new ISO5599, CETOP RP3
and the original American JIC and ANSI symbols.

The symbol used to represent an individual element display the following characteristics:
• Function
• Actuation and return actuation methods
• Number of connections
• Number of switching positions
• General operating principle
 • Simplified representation of the flow path

The symbol does not represent the following characteristics:

• Size or dimensions of the component
• Particular manufacturer, methods of construction or costs
• Operation of the ports
• Any physical details of the elements
• Any unions or connections other than junctions
Earlier the ports were designated with letter system. Now as per ISO5599 the ports are designated
based on number system. The port designations are shown in table.

Symbols for ports

Port Letter system Number system

Pressure port P 1
Working port A 4
Working port B 2
Exhaust port R 5
Exhaust port S 3
Pilot port Z 14
Pilot port Y 12

The graphical representation, designation and explanation of various components and equipment used
in hydraulic and pneumatic system are given in table. Readers are suggested to study these
representations carefully.

Graphical symbols of hydraulic / pneumatic elements and equipment

SYMBOL DESIGNATION EXPLANATION

Energy supply

One direction of rotation

Air compressor only with constant
displacement volume
 Compressed air from the
compressor is stored and
Air receiver
diverted to the system
when required

One direction and two

direction of rotation with
constant displacement
volume

One direction and two

Hydraulic pump direction of rotation with
variable displacement

Rotary actuators

One direction and two

direction of rotation with
constant displacement
volume
Pneumatic motor
One direction and two
direction of rotation with
variable displacement

One direction and two

direction of rotation with
constant displacement
volume
Hydraulic motor

One direction and two

direction of rotation with
variable displacement

Service units

This device is a
Air filter combination of filter and
water separator
 Dryer For drying the air

For lubrication of connected

devices, small amount of oil is
Lubricator
added to the air flowing
through this device

Regulator To regulate the air pressure

Combined filter, regulator and

FRL unit
lubricator system

Direction control valves (DCVs)

Two closed ports in the closed

2/2 way valve neutral position and flow
during actuated position

In the first position flow takes

place to the cylinder
In the second position flow
3/2 way valve
takes out of the cylinder to the
exhaust (Single acting
cylinder)

For double acting cylinder all

4/2 way valve
the ports are open

Two open positions and one

4/3 way valve
closed neutral position
 Two open positions with two
5/2 way valve
exhaust ports

Direction control valve actuation methods

General manual actuation

Push button actuation

Manual operation of DCV

Lever actuation

Detent lever actuation

Foot pedal actuation

Roller lever actuation

Mechanical actuation of
DCV
Idle return roller actuation

Spring actuation

Direct pneumatic actuation Pneumatic actuation of DCV

Non return valves

Allows flow in one direction

Check valve
and blocks flow in other
 direction
Spring loaded check valve

When any one of the inputs

Shuttle/ OR valve is given the output is
produced

Only when both the inputs

AND valve
are given output is produced

For quick exhaust of air to

Quick exhaust valve cause rapid extension/
retraction of cylinder

Flow control valves

Flow control valve To allow controlled flow

To allow controlled flow in

Flow control valve with one
one direction and free flow
way adjustment
in other

Pressure control valves

Non relieving type

Pressure relieving valve

Relieving type with overload

being vented out
 Maintains the reduced
pressure at specified
Pressure reducing valve
location in hydraulic
system

Allows pump to build

pressure to an adjustable
Unloading valve pressure setting and then
allow it to be discharged to
tank

Controls the movement of

vertical hydraulic cylinder
Counter balance valve
and prevents it descend due
to external load weight

Actuators

Spring loaded cylinder with

Single acting cylinder retraction taking place by
spring force

Both extension and retraction

Double acting cylinder
by pneumatic/hydraulic force