CHAPTER ONE: UNIFORM FLOW IN AN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Tesfaye B.
 Open Channel Flow Versus Pipe Flow
o Open Channel: is a conduit/ waterway in which a liquid flow
with a free surface subjected to atmospheric pressure.
o The flow in an open channel is not caused by external head,
but only by gravitational force components along the slope of
channel.
o Therefore, Open channel flow is also referred to as free surface
flow or gravity flow.
o Examples of open channel are:
✓ Natural Rivers/ Streams;
✓ Sewer canal;
✓ Irrigation canal;
✓ Power canal;
✓ Navigation canal.
 Open Channel Flow Versus Pipe Flow
PARAMETERS OPEN CHANNEL FLOW PIPE FLOW

Cause of flow Gravity provided by bed Flow takes place due to energy
slope (potential energy gradient
gradient)
Surface Varies with depth of flow Varies with type of pipe
roughness materials
Piezometric z + 𝑦, 𝑦 = Flow depth 𝑃
𝑧 + , 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
head 𝑟
Non- Froude number representing Reynolds number representing
dimensional the influence of flow the influence of fluid viscosity
number
Velocity Maximum velocity occurs at The velocity distribution is
Distribution a little distance below the symmetrical about the pipe axis.
water surface. The shape of Maximum velocity occurs at the
the velocity is dependent on pipe center and velocity at the
the channel roughness. pipe walls reduced to zero.
 Types of Channel and Classification of Flow
o Prismatic Channel: A channel in which the cross-sectional shape
and size and also the bottom slope are constant.
➢ Examples: most artificial channels
o Non-prismatic channel: If its size, shape or slope changes along
he length-prismatic.
➢ Examples: All natural channels, streams, rivers, etc.

Classification of Flow
o Steady & unsteady flow.
o Uniform and Non uniform flow
o Laminar flow and turbulent flow
o Sub-critical, critical and supercritical flow.
 Types of Flow in Open Channel

TEMPORAL (TIME) FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL

STEADY FLOW UNSTEADY FLOW

UNIFORM FLOW NON-UNIFORM FLOW

SPATIAL (SPACE) RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

 Steady and unsteady flow

Steady flow Unsteady flow

Following remain constant w.r.t time: Following changes w.r.t time:

✓ Depth of flow Depth of flow

✓ Velocity of flow Velocity of flow

✓ Flow rate Flow rate

Steady flow Steady flow

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=0 ≠0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Uniform and non-uniform flow
Uniform flow Non-uniform flow
Following remain constant w.r.t length of channel: Following changes w.r.t length
channel

✓ Depth of flow Depth of flow

✓ Velocity of flow Velocity of flow

✓ Slope of channel Slope of channel

✓ Cross section Cross section

Uniform flow Non-uniform flow

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=0 ≠0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Classification of flow
➢ Laminar and Turbulent flow: It is defined
based on Reynolds Number as follows:

𝑽𝑹
𝑹𝑵 =
𝒗
▪ For laminar flow: R N ≤ 500
▪ For transitional flow: 500 ≤ 𝑅𝑁 ≤
100
▪ For Turbulent Flow: 𝑅𝑁 ≥ 1000
 Classification of flow
o Subcritical, Critical and Supercritical flow. These are classified with
Froude number.
o Froude Number (𝑭𝒓 ). It is ratio of inertial force to gravitational force of
flowing fluid. Mathematically,
𝐯
𝐅𝐫 =
𝐠𝐃

Where, v is average velocity of flow, 𝐷 is Hydraulic depth and g is

gravitational acceleration.
o If
✓ Fr < 1, Flow is subcritical flow
✓ Fr = 1, Flow is critical flow
✓ Fr > 1, Flow is supercritical flow
 Open Channel Uniform Flow Formula
o For uniform flow in open channels, following formulae are widely used:
1. Chezy’s Formula: Antoine de Chezy (1718-1798), a French bridge
and hydraulic expert, proposed his formula in 1775.
𝑣 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆𝑜
Where,
✓ 𝑣=Average flow velocity; 𝑅=Hydraulic radius
✓ 𝑆𝑜 =Channel bed slope; 𝐶= Chezy’s constant
2. Manning’s Formula: Robert Manning (An Irish engineer) proposed the
following relation for Chezy’s coefficient C:
1
𝑅6
𝐶=
𝑛
According to which Chezy’s equation can be written as
2 1
𝑅3 𝑆𝑜2
𝑣=
𝑛
 Derivation of Chezy’s Formula
o In uniform flow the cross-sectional through which flow occurs is constant
along the channel and so also is the velocity.
𝑦1 = 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣 ; and
o The channel bed, water surface and energy line are parallel to one
another.
 Derivation of Chezy’s Formula
o According to force balance along the direction of flow; we can write,
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 + 𝛾𝐴𝐿𝑆𝐼𝑁𝜃 = τ𝑜 𝑃𝐿 (1)
Where,
✓ F1= Pressure force at section 1;
✓ F2= Pressure force at section 2
✓ W= Weight of fluid between section 1 and 2;
✓ So= slope of channel
✓ 𝜃= Inclination of channel with horizontal line;
✓ 𝜏𝑜 = shearing stress
✓ P= Wetted perimeter
✓ L= length between sections
✓ V= Avg. Flow velocity
✓ 𝑦𝑜 = depth of flow
 Derivation of Chezy’s Formula
o For uniform Flow: 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 ⟹ 𝐹1 = 𝐹2
𝛾𝐴𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜏𝑜 = = 𝛾𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2)
𝑃𝐿
o For channel with 𝑆𝑜 < 0.1, it can be assumed that
𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑤 ≈ 𝑆 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
o Therefore;
𝜏𝑜 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆𝑜 (3)
o Shear stress can also be expressed as:
𝑣2
𝜏𝑜 = 𝐶𝑓 𝜌 (4)
2
Equating equation (3) and (4), we get;
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝛾𝑅𝑆𝑜 = 𝐶𝑓 𝜌 ⇒ 𝜌𝑔𝑅𝑆𝑜 = 𝐶𝑓 𝜌
2 2
2𝑔
𝑣= 𝑅𝑆𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆𝑜
𝐶𝑓
𝑓
𝐶𝑓 = , 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
4
 Empirical Relation for Chezy’s Formula
o Although Chezy’s equation is quite simple, the selection of a correct
value of C is rather difficult. Some of the important formulae developed
for Chezy’s Constant C are;
1. Bazin Formula: A French hydraulic engineer H. Bazin (1897)
proposed the following empirical formula for C:
157.6
C=
K
181 +
R
The value of K depends upon the type of channel surface
 Empirical Relation for Chezy’s Formula
2. Kutter’s Formula: Two Swiss engineers Ganguillat and Kutter
proposed the following formula for determination of C:
0.00155 1
23 + +n
C= S
0.00155
23 + 𝑛
S
1+
𝑅
3.Manning’s Formula: Robert Manning (An Irish engineer) proposed
the following relation for Chezy’s coefficient C:
1 2 1
R6 𝑅3 𝑆 2
C= ⟹𝑣=
n 𝑛
n= Manning’s Roughness coefficient
The values of n depends upon nature of channel surface
Empirical Relation for Chezy’s Formula
 Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
o Head: Energy per unit water of water
o Energy gradient line (EGL): line joining the total head at
different positions
o Hydraulic grade line (HGL): Line joining the pressure head at
different positions.
𝛼𝑣12 𝛼𝑣22
𝑧1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑧2 + 𝑦2 + + 𝐻𝐿 → 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖 ′ 𝑠 𝐸𝑞𝑛.
2𝑔 2𝑔
 Specific energy and specific energy diagram
o Specific energy: Energy measured with refence to the bed of
the channel.
o Mathematically:
𝑣2 𝑄2
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑦 + =𝑦+ 𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑏, 𝑦)
2𝑔 2𝑔𝐴2
o For a constant discharge in channel (Q), the graph of specific
energy versus depth of flow in the channel is called specific
energy diagram.
o The following features can be observed form specific energy
curve:
1. When 𝐸 > 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 : for constant discharge for any given value of
E, there would be two possible depths, say y1 and y2 . These
two depths are called Alternate depths.
 Specific energy and specific energy diagram
2. When 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 : There be only one depth (𝒚𝒄 ) for a given
specific energy. The depth is called critical depth of flow.
3. Sub critical state of flow(𝒚 > 𝒚𝒄 ): specific energy increases as
depth of flow increases.
4. super-critical state of flow(𝒚 < 𝒚𝒄 ): specific energy decreases
as depth of flow increases.

Critical state of flow: state of

flow at which specific energy
is minimum for a given
discharge.
 Relations between 𝒚𝒄 and specific energy
Non-𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐥
o Froude’s number may be
numerically calculate as For minimum specific energy
𝑑𝐸𝑠 𝑑 𝑄2
𝑣 𝑣 2 =0→ 𝑦 + =0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑔𝐴2
𝐹𝑟 − ⟹ 𝐹𝑟2 =
𝑔𝐷 𝑔𝐷
𝑄2 𝑑𝐴
1− =0
𝑄2 𝑄2 𝑇 𝑔𝐴3 𝑑𝑦
⟹ 𝐹𝑟2 = = =1
𝑔𝐴2 𝐷 𝑔𝐴3 𝑑𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, =𝑇
𝑑𝑦

o From specific energy equation 𝑄2 𝑇

= 1 at critical state of low
𝑔𝐴3
𝑄2
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑦 + 𝐷
2𝑔𝐴2 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2
 Relations between 𝒚𝒄 and specific energy
𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐥 𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐥
𝑄2 𝑇
=1
𝑔𝐴3 Ac = byc
Q Ac = myc2
= q = discharge intensity
b
𝑞 2 𝑄2 𝐴3𝑐 𝑚3 𝑦𝑐6 𝑚2 𝑦𝑐5
A = = =
D= =y ⇒ 3 =1 𝑔 𝑇𝑐 2𝑚𝑦𝑐 2
T 𝑔𝑦𝑐
1
3 𝑞2 2𝑄2 5
⇒ 𝑦𝑐 = 𝐷 𝑦𝑐 =
𝑔 𝐸𝐶 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑔𝑚2
2
3 𝑄 2 𝑚 2𝑦5
⇒ 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 𝑐
2 𝐸𝐶 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 𝑦𝑐 +
2𝑔𝐴2𝑐 4𝑚2 𝑦𝑐4
This shows that critical depth is 4
used for measuring discharge. 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐
4
 Relations between 𝒚𝒄 and specific energy
𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐞𝐳𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐥
𝑄2 𝑇 → The non-dimensional
=1 y
𝑔𝐴3 representation of the equation
facilitates the solution by
b
using tables or graphs.
Ac = (b + myc )yc
𝑄2 𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦𝑐 3 𝑦𝑐3
𝑄2 𝐴3𝑐 𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦𝑐 3 𝑦𝑐3 =
𝑔 (𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦𝑐
= =
𝑔 𝑇𝑐 (𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦𝑐
𝑚𝑦𝑐 3 3
𝑄2 𝑏3 1+ 𝑦𝑐
→ We can see from this = 𝑏
equation that an explicit 𝑔 2𝑚𝑦𝑐
𝑏(1 + )
𝑏
solution for the critical depth
is not possible. 𝒎𝒚𝒄 𝝃𝟑𝒄 𝒃𝟑
→ Let 𝝃𝒄 = ⟹ 𝒚𝟑𝒄 =
𝒃 𝒎𝟑
𝜉=it is Greek letter Xi
 Relations between 𝒚𝒄 and specific energy
𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐞𝐳𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐥
1
𝑄2 𝑏 3 1 + 𝜉𝑐 3 𝜉𝑐3 𝑏 3 𝑄 2 𝑚3 2
= 𝜓=
𝑔 𝑏 1 + 2𝜉𝑐 𝑚3 𝑔𝑏 5
𝑄 2 𝑚3 1 + 𝜉𝑐 3 𝜉𝑐3 → Table 2A-2 which gives
=
𝑔𝑏 5 1 + 2𝜉𝑐 values of 𝜓 for different
→ Taking square root of both values of 𝜉𝑐 is provided at
sides of the equations: the end of this chapter. This
table is very useful in quick
3 3 3
𝑄𝑚2 1 + 𝜉𝑐 2 𝜉𝑐2 solution of problems related
1 5 = 1 =𝜓 to critical depth in trapezoidal
𝑔2 𝑏 2 1 + 2𝜉𝑐 2 channels.
𝑬𝒄 𝟏 (𝟑+𝟓𝝃𝒄 )
𝜓=it is Greek letter psi =
𝒚𝒄 𝟐 (𝟏+𝟐𝝃𝒄 )
 Relations between 𝒚𝒄 and specific energy
𝐂𝐢𝐫𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐥 ∶ 𝐂𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞
𝐷2
𝐴= (2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)
r
8
D
Ɵ
y Ɵ T = D sinθ
3
→ Let D be the diameter of a 𝐷2
(2𝜃𝑐 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑐 )
circular channel and 2𝜃 be 𝑄2 8
=
the angle in radians𝑔 D sinθ
subtended by the water → A non-dimensional
surface at the center. representation is obtained
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 using Table 2A.1
Q Z yc
1 2 1 = 2.5 = f
𝐴 = 𝑟 2𝜃 + . 2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 − 𝜃 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 − 𝜃)
2 2 𝑔𝐷5 D D
 Transitions: Hump [1]
o The concepts of 𝐸𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑐 are useful in the analysis of
transitions problems: hump and contractions in width.
o Hump (Z): locally raised channel bed
o Considering rectangular channel
o Neglecting loss and apply
✓ Continuity equations
✓ Energy equations
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 ⟹ 𝑏𝑦1 𝑣1 = 𝑏𝑦2 𝑣2 ⟹ 𝑦1 𝑣1 = 𝑦2 𝑣2
𝑣12 𝑣22
𝑦1 + = 𝑦2 + +𝑍
2𝑔 2𝑔
o A hump of any height “Z” would cause the lowering of the
water surface over the hump in case of subcritical flow in channel.
o It is also clear that a gradual increase in the height of hump
“Z” would cause a gradual reduction in 𝑦2 value.
 Transitions: Hump [1]
o That height of hump which is just causing the flow depth over
hump equal to 𝑦𝑐 is know as critical height of hump 𝒁𝒄 .
o Further increase in 𝑍 > 𝑍𝑐 would cause the flow depth
𝑦2 remaining equal 𝑦𝑐 thus causing the water surface over the
hump to rise.
o This would further cause an increase in the depth of water
upstream of the hump i.e 𝑦1 > 𝑦𝑜 .
o This phenomenon of rise in water surface upstream with 𝑍 >
𝑍𝑐 is called damming action and the resulting increase in depth
upstream of the hump i.e 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑜 is known as Afflux.
 Transitions: Flow through contractions [2]
o When the width of the channel is reduced while the bed
remains flat, the discharge per unit width increases.
o If losses are negligible, the specific energy remains constant
o for subcritical flow depth will decrease while for supercritical flow
depth will increase in as the channel narrows.
o Applying hydraulic equations:
✓ Continuity equations
✓ Energy equations
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 ⟹ 𝑏1 𝑦1 𝑣1 = 𝑏2 𝑦2 𝑣2
𝑣12 𝑣22
𝑦1 + = 𝑦2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
 Transitions: Contractions [4]
o That width of contractions which is just causing the flow depth
over throat of contraction equal to 𝑦𝑐 is know as critical
(minimum) width of contraction (𝒃𝒄 = 𝒃𝟐𝒎 )
o Further decreases in 𝑏 < 𝑏𝑐 would cause the flow depth
𝑦2 remaining equal 𝑦𝑐 thus causing the water surface over the
contraction to rise.
o This would further cause an increase in the depth of water
upstream of the contraction i.e. 𝑦1 > 𝑦𝑜 .
o This phenomenon of rise in water surface upstream with 𝑏 <
𝑏𝑐 is called damming action.
 Examples {1]
1. A trapezoidal channel with a bed width of 5m and side slope of
1.5H:1V is laid on a slope of 0.0004. Find the normal depth
corresponding to discharge of 10 𝑚3 /𝑠 in this channel. Use Table
3A.1 and take n=0.015.
2. A sewer pipe of 2m diameter is laid on a slope of 0.0004.
Assume Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.014. Using Table 2A.1
a) What is the discharge in the pipe if the depth of flow is
0.8m?
b) Find the depth of flow when the discharge is 2 𝑚3 /𝑠
 Examples [2]
3. A wide rectangular channel is to be laid on a slope of 0.0005.
The sides will be of smooth concrete (𝑛 = 0.013). What width of
channel is necessary to carry a discharge of 9𝑚3 /𝑠 with a normal
depth of 1.6m?