Gscience 2020-21

 CHAPTER - 1 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS
 CHAPTER - 2 HEREDITY IN ORGANISMS

 CHAPTER - 3 BIOTECHNOLOGY
 CHAPTER - 4 POLLUTION AND THEIR EFFECTS ON
ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER #
1 “HUMAN
ORGAN
SYSTEMS”
BRIEF SUM-  Stimulus: Anything that causes activity or change in the activity in an organism is called
MARY stimulus.
 Response: The reaction to the stimulus is known as response.
 Sensitivity: The ability to respond to a stimulus is called sensitivity or irritability.
 CNS: The central nervous system consists of brain and the spinal cord.
 PNS: The peripheral nervous system includes nerves arising from the brain and spinal
cord.
 Forebrain: The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
 Cerebrum is the main Centre of various sensation.
 The pituitary body or gland is a very small gland that secretes a number of hormones.
 Midbrain: The midbrain is just a mass of tract.
 Hindbrain: The hindbrain includes cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata.
 Spinal cord: The spinal cord continues with medulla and runs within the backbone. It
carries out the reflex actions, conduct impulses to and from the brain.
 Cranial Nerves: Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain.
 Spinal Nerves: Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge at intervals along the length
of the spinal cord. They all carry both sensory and motor neurons.
 Neuron: A neuron is the structural and function unit of nervous system. The three types
of neurons are sensory, motor neurons and interneuron.
 Nerve impulse: The electric impulse passing along a nerve fibre when it has been stim-
ulated is called nerve impulse.
 Reflex action: An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control
is called reflex action.
 Voluntary action: An action that is controlled by the will is called voluntary action.
 Involuntary action: An action that is not controlled by the will and takes place automati-
cally is called involuntary action.
 Excretion: The removal of waste products and poisonous materials produced by chemi-
cal reactions is called excretion. The excretory organs are lungs, liver, skin and kidney.
SOLUTIONS Review Questions:
OF EXERCISE 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.
QUESTIONS (i) Which system controls co-ordination?
(A) circulatory system (B) respiratory system
(C) excretory system (D) nervous system
(ii) The reaction of any stimulus is called
(A) receptor (B) impulse (C) response (D) effector
(iii) The nervous system comprises of:
(A) brain, spinal cord, nerves (B) nerves, heart, spleen
(C) brain, liver, spinal cord (D) brain, spinal cord, arteries
(iv) The largest part of the brain is called:
(A) medulla oblongata (B) pons (C) cerebrum (D) cerebellum
(v) Which part of the brain maintains the balance of the body?
(A) pons (B) pituitary gland (C) pineal gland (D) cerebellum
(vi) The nucleus in a neuron is located in
(A) axon (B) dendrite (C) cell body (D) myelin sheath
(vii) Which part of the human brain detects temperature changes in the blood?
(A) cerebrum (B) hypothalamus (C) cerebellum (D) medulla oblongata
(viii) A child is frightened by a loud noise and shouts for help. In which order are the different
types of response involved in this response?
Involved first---------------------------------involved last
A sensory neuron interneuron sensory neuron
B motor neuron sensory neuron interneuron
C sensory neuron motor neuron interneuron
D sensory neuron interneuron motor neuron
(ix) Where urea is made in the human body?

(A) urinary bladder (B) kidneys (C) liver (D) gall bladder
(x) The four structures listed are part of the human excretory system: 1. urinary bladder 2. kid-
ney 3. ureter 4. urethra. In which order does a molecule of urea pass through these structures.
First ----------------------- Last
A 1 2 3 4
B 1 4 3 2
C 2 1 3 4
D 2 3 1 4
(xi) Which one of the following is an example of excretion?
(A) release of hormones from pancreas
(B) release of carbon dioxide from the lungs
(C) removal of faeces from the alimentary canal
(D) release of saliva from the salivary glands.
(xii) Urea is produced in one organ, filtered from the blood by a second organ and stored inside
a third organ before being expelled from the body. Which organs carry out these functions?
Production Filtration storage
A Kidney urinary bladder Liver
B Kidney liver urinary bladder
C liver urinary bladder kidney
D liver kidney urinary bladder
(xiii) A tube present between the kidney and urinary bladder is called
(A) urethra (B) ureter (C) u tube (D) u turn
(xiv) The organ that collects and stores urine is called:
(A) urinary bladder (B) ureter (C) urethra (D) kidney
(xv) The structure that consists of tuft of capillaries is called
(A) proximal convoluted tubule (B) distal convoluted tubule
(C) glomerulus (D) loop of Henle
SHORT QUESTIONS:
2. What do you understand by?
(a) sensitivity: The ability to respond to a stimulus is called sensitivity or irritability.
(b) stimulus: Anything that causes activity or change in the activity in an organism is called
stimulus.
(c) receptor: An organ or cell able to respond to light, heat, or other external stimulus and trans-
mit a signal to a sensory nerve. e.g., ears, eyes, nose tongue and skin detect the stimuli.
(d) response: The reaction to the stimulus is known as response.
(e) dialysis: Dialysis is the process of removing wastes and excess fluid from the body.
3. What is a nerve impulse?
Ans: The electric impulse passing along a nerve fibre when it has been stimulated is called
nerve impulse.
4. What is the difference between central nervous system and peripheral nervous sys-
tem?
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
The central nervous system consists of The peripheral nervous system includes
brain and the spinal cord. nerves arising from the brain and spinal
cord.
5. What are the functions of: cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, cerebel-
lum, pons, medulla oblongata?
Parts of the Brain Functions
Cerebrum Responsible for reasoning, speech, intelligence, memory,
voluntary
actions and sensation.
Thalamus It receives all the impulses from different sensory areas
of the body before passing them to the cerebrum.
Hypothalamus Regulation of body temperature, thermal receptors, ap-
petite blood
pressure, heart rate and feelings, thermal receptors etc.
pituitary gland Secretes a number of hormones.
Cerebellum Controls and co-ordinates muscular action and body bal-
ance.
Pons It functions with the medulla to regulate breathing rate.
Medulla oblongata Controls involuntary actions e.g., heartbeat, respiratory
movement,
peristalsis etc.
6. Name the types of neuron and write their function.
Ans: Types of neurons
There are three types of neurons: sensory, motor neurons and interneuron.
 Sensory neurons: It carry impulses (messages) from the sense organs like the eye,
nose or skin to the central nervous system.
 Motor neurons: It carry impulses (orders) from the central nervous system to the mus-
cles or glands.
 Interneuron: It form synapses (syn-aspe) i.e., make connections with the sensory neu-
ron and motor neurons. In this way, they enable the impulses to be transmitted from
sensory neurons to motor neurons.
7. Distinguish between:
(i) a motor neuron and a sensory neuron:
Motor neuron Sensory neuron.
The motor neurons The sensory neurons carry impulses
carry impulses (orders) from the central (messages) from the sense organs like the
nervous system to the muscles or glands. eye, nose or skin to the central
nervous system.
(ii) a neuron from a nerve fibre.
Neuron Nerve Fibre
Neurons are the building blocks of the An axon or nerve fiber is a long, slender
nervous system. They receive and transmit projection of a nerve cell, or neuron that
signals to different parts of the body. conducts electrical impulses known as ac-
tion potentials away from the nerve cell
body.
(iii) a voluntary action and involuntary action?
Voluntary Action Involuntary Action
Voluntary action is an action that is thought Involuntary actions are also called automatic
of and consciously performed by the person. actions. These are the actions that occur au-
He has full control over it. It does not happen tomatically and without our awareness.
automatically. Example: seeing a book on There are many reflexes or involuntary ac-
the floor. tions going on inside of our bodies. We are
usually unaware of these.
Examples: such as blood pressure, breath-
ing, rate of heartbeat, secretions of gastric
glands, peristalsis etc.
Voluntary action Involuntary action
Takes place with will Takes place without will
Use brain Use spinal cord
Conscious process Unconscious process
(iv) a reflex action and reflex arc?

Reflex action Reflex arc
An immediate response to a specific stimu- A reflex arc is a neural pathway that con-
lus without conscious control is called a re- trols a reflex (‘Reflex’ is a word we use very
flex action. commonly when we talk about some sud-
den action in response to something in the
environment).
8. Name the nitrogenous waste products.
Ans: Urea and uric acid are the nitrogenous waste products.
9. Identify the shape and location of kidney?
Ans: Shape: The kidneys are bean shaped.
Location: The kidneys are present in the abdomen one on either side of the vertebral column.
10. i) Name the parts of the excretory system.
Ans: The excretory system of man comprises of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
ii) Match each part with one of these functions:
Functions Parts
a. Carries blood with a high concentration of Renal artery
urea.
b. Filters urea and other wastes chemicals Glomerulus
out of the blood.
c. Carries urine down to the bladder. Ureters
d. Stores urine. Urinary Bladder
e. Urine is passed out of the body Urethra
Extensive Questions:
11. Describe the different parts of the human brain and write their functions.
Ans: Human Brain:
A human brain can be divided into three parts: forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
Forebrain:
The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
 Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the most prominent region of the human brain. Function:
The cerebrum is the main centre of various sensations e.g., hearing, sight, smell,
memory, intelligence, reasoning etc.
Cerebral hemisphere: A deep groove divides the cerebrum into right and left cerebral
hemisphere.
 Thalamus:
Location: The thalamus is below the cerebrum. Function: It receives all the impulses
from different sensory areas of the body before passing them to the cerebrum.
 Hypothalamus :
Location: On the ventral side of the thalamus, is the hypothalamus.
Function: It regulates body temperature, appetite, water balance, blood pressure etc. It
also controls heartbeat, thirst, and hunger. It secretes hormones.
Midbrain:
Location:
The midbrain is just a mass of tract. It lies immediately under the lower part of the cerebrum be-
tween the two hemispheres.
Function: It acts as a relay station for tracts passing between the cerebrum and the spinal cord
or cerebellum.
Hindbrain: The hindbrain includes cerebellum, pons and medulla.
 Cerebellum: Location: It is situated under the cerebrum. Function: It controls balance
and muscle contraction.
 Pons is a small lobe like structure. Function: It functions with the medulla to regulate
breathing rate.
 Medulla: Location: Medulla oblongata lies below the cerebrum. Its posterior end nar-
rows down gradually into the spinal cord. Function: It controls heartbeat, circulation of
blood and respiration etc.
12. Describe the central nervous system.
Ans: Central Nervous System:
The central nervous system consists of brain and the spinal cord.
Brain: The brain is protected inside the skull.
Spinal cord: The spinal cord is protected in the backbone.
3. Meninges: Both the brain and the spinal cord are wrapped in three layers of connective tissue
known as meninges.
13. Describe the peripheral nervous system.

Ans: Peripheral Nervous System:
The peripheral nervous system includes nerves arising from the brain and spinal cord.
Cranial Nerves: There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain. The cranial nerves
are sensory nerve, motor nerve or a mixed nerve. Each cranial nerve has a specific function.
Spinal Nerves: These emerge at intervals along the length of the spinal cord. There are thirty-
one pairs of spinal nerves in man. These nerves pass between the vertebrae.
 They all carry both sensory and motor neurons and are described as mixed nerves.
They carry impulses to all part of the body and also bring impulses from all parts of the
body to the spinal cord.
Division of Peripheral Nervous System : There are two divisions of the peripheral nervous
system: Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
(a) Somatic nervous system: The somatic nervous system consists of the cranial and spinal
nerve fibres that connect the central nervous system to the skin and skeletal muscles. Function:
It is involved in conscious activities.
(b) Autonomic nervous system: The autonomic nervous system includes those fibres that con-
nect the central organs, such as the heart, stomach, intestine and various glands. Function: It is
concerned with unconscious activities.
14. What is a reflex action? Describe a simple spinal reflex.
Ans: ‘Reflex’ is a word we use very commonly when we talk about some sudden action in re-
sponse to something in the environment.
Reflex action: An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control is called
a reflex action.
Reflex action pathway in an example of hot object:
The receptor is the heat sensor in the skin. The impulse (message) travels to the spinal cord
along the sensory neuron. In the spinal cord the impulse is passed on to the interneuron. The
motor neuron carries the impulse to a muscle in the arm. The muscle is the effector. The muscle
contracts to remove the hand from the hot object. This action is the response.
Reflex Arc: A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex.
15. Draw a labelled diagram of a spinal reflex arc.
16. Describe human excretory system.

Ans: Human Excretory system:
Human Excretory system is the organ system that disposes of nitrogen containing waste prod-
ucts of reaction taking place in the cells. The excretory system is also known as urinary system.
Kidneys
There are two kidneys in the human body.
Colour: The kidneys are dark brown in colour. Shape: The kidneys are bean shaped.
Location: The kidneys are present in the abdomen one on either side of the vertebral column.
Structure of Kidney:
Renal capsule: The kidney is enclosed in a thick transparent membrane called renal capsule.
Hilus: The concave surface of each kidney faces the vertebral column. At the centre of this sur-
face is a depression called hilus. Here the renal artery, the renal vein and nerves are connected
to the kidney.
Ureter: From depression of each kidney a tube called ureter. Ureter emerges and runs down-
wards to open into the urinary bladder in the lower part of the abdomen. The ureters carry urine
from kidney to the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder: It is an elastic muscular bag. It stores urine. When the urinary bladder is full it
allows the urine to flow into the urethra.
Urethra: It is a tube for the passageway of urine out of the body.
Blood vessels: The renal artery branches off from the aorta and brings oxygenated blood to the
kidney. The renal vein takes deoxygenated blood away from the kidneys to vena cava.
17. Describe the longitudinal section of a human kidney.

Ans: A Longitudinal Section of the Kidney:
A longitudinal section of the human kidney shows that it consists of two main regions.
Cortex: The dark-red outer region is called the cortex.
Medulla: The inner thicker region is lighter in colour. It is called medulla.
Renal Pyramids: The medulla consists of 12 to 16 conical structures called renal pyramids.
Renal pelvis: They project into the funnel like space the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis extends
to the ureter or we can say that the renal pelvis is the expanded part of the ureter inside the kid-
ney.
Structure Function
Cortex It contains Bowman’s capsule and glomeruli.
Medulla It contains loop of Henle and the collecting
ducts.
Pyramids These are the cone shaped areas in the me-
dulla and opens into the renal
Pelvis.
Renal pelvis It collects urine.
Ureter It carries urine to the bladder due to gravity
and peristalsis.
Capsule It surrounds and protects the kidney.
18. Describe the structure of a nephron.
Ans: The unit of Kidney: Nephron
The structural and functional unit of the kidney is called nephron. There are over one million
nephrons in each human kidney.
Structure of Nephron: Each nephron consists of three parts: Bowman’s capsule, golmerulus
and the tubular portion.
Bowman’s capsule: Each nephron begins in the cortex as a renal capsule or Bowman’s cap-
sule. It is a double walled structure, which surrounds the glomerulus.
Glomerulus: The renal artery divides up into a large number of arterioles and capillaries in the
Bowman’s capsule. This tuft of blood capillaries is called glomerulus. Blood leaving the glomeru-
lus enters blood capillaries surrounding the tubule. These blood capillaries then unite to from a
branch of the renal vein.
Tubular portion: The Bowman’s capsule leads into a short coiled tubule called proximal (first)
convoluted (coiled) tubule. Loop of Henle: The U shaped portion of the tubule in the medulla is
called loop of Henle. The tubule passes back into the cortex. Here it coils again and is called
distal (last) convoluted (coiled) tubule.
Renal pelvis:The distal tubule then opens into a collecting tubule which opens into the renal
pelvis.
19. How urine is formed?
Ans: Formation of Urine
As blood travels around the body, it picks up wastes such as carbon dioxide and urea. The
wastes are removed from the body in the form of urine. Urine formation is divided into three
steps: (a) Glomerular filtration (b) Tubular reabsorption (c) Tubular secretion.
(a) Glomerular filtration
During glomerular filtration water, salts, glucose, amino acids, nitrogenous wastes move from
glomerulus to Bowman’s capsule. The filtered substance is called the glomerular filtrate.
(b) Tubular reabsorption
During tubular reabsorption the glomerular filtrate passes through the tubular portion of the
nephron. Here necessary water, glucose, amino acid, some salts from the proximal (at the near)
convoluted (coiled) tubule are passed into the peritubular capillaries (the blood capillaries sur-
rounding the loop of nephron/Henle). The substances that are reabsorbed become the tubular
fluid, which enters the loop of Helne.
(c) Tubular secretion
During tubular secretion certain molecules are secreted from the peritubular capillaries into dis-
tal (farthest) convoluted (coiled) tubule. What is left are urea and waste salts dissolved in water.
This is now called urine.
20. What are the causes of malfunctioning of human kidney?
Ans: Malfunctioning of Kidneys and its causes
Malfunction: It means to work or function imperfectly.
Causes: The most common causes of kidney diseases include diabetes, high blood pressure and
hardening of the arteries, which damage the blood vessels in the kidney. Some kidney diseases
are caused by an inflammation of the kidneys.
The kidneys, urinary bladder and urethra may be infected. Glomerulus damage sometimes leads
to blockage of the glomeruli so that no fluid moves into the tubule.
Kidney stones: It may develop in any organ of the urinary system such as collecting ducts and
renal pelvis. Kidney stones usually consist of calcium salts and uric acid.
Factors causing malfunctioning of kidneys: Factors contributing to renal stone formation
may include the ingestion of excessive mineral salts, a decrease in water intake and over activ-
ity of the parathyroid glands.
21. What are the techniques to cure problems of kidneys?
Ans: Techniques to Cure Problems of Kidneys
A patient can be treated with a dialysis or kidney machine. The tubing is bathed in a specially
controlled dialysis fluid. The walls of the tubing are partially permeable. They allow small mole-
cules, like urea and other waste products, to diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. Big
molecules, like proteins and blood cells, remain in the tubing. The process is called dialysis.
The patients with kidney disease can be treated by haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis and kid-
ney transplant.
Haemodialysis
Catheter: In this process first a catheter is inserted into the vein, usually in the arm.
Dialyzer: The blood flows into the tube and then into the machine called dialyzer.
Dialysis Fluid: Inside the machine the blood is pumped over the surface of a dialysis mem-
brane (semipermeable membrane). This separates the patient’s blood from the dialysis fluid
(dialysate). Urea diffuses out of the blood, across the dialysis membrane and into the dialysis
fluid. The dialysis fluid already has sugar and salts in it. So sugars and salts from the blood will
not diffuse across into the fluid. Urea and other wastes pass into the dialysis fluid. The patient’s
‘cleaner’ blood passes back into the other vein of the arm through a second catheter. Fresh dia-
lysate enters the machine from one end. The used dialysate with waste leaves the machine from
the other end.
Peritoneal Dialysis
In this process, a catheter is inserted to the abdomen. The peritoneum which lines the ab-
dominal cavity is the dialyzing membrane. Dialysis fluid is added to the abdominal cavity through
the tube. It is left for several hours before removal. Exchange takes place between the dialysis
fluid and the tissue fluid in the rest of the abdomen. The fluid can be replaced regularly, 3 or 4
times a day.
Kidney Transplant
Kidney transplant are needed when about 90% of the kidney’s function is not taking place. The
tissues of both the donor and the patient are tested for matching. The old kidneys are left in their
places and they do not harm. The new kidney is placed in the lower abdomen. As soon as the
transplanted kidney is connected to the blood vessels, it will begin removing the waste products
from the
blood. A person can live normally with just one kidney.
Science, Technology and Society Connections:
 The two ways to develop the images of human brain are Computed Tomography
(CT) Scanning and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. What are the differences be-
tween these two techniques?
Computed Tomography (CT) Scan- Magnetic Resonance Imaging
ning (MRI)
A procedure that uses a computer linked Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is is a
to an x-ray machine to make a series of medical imaging technique used in radiology
detailed pictures of areas inside the to form pictures of the body. MRI scanners
body. The pictures are taken from differ- use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field
ent angles and are used to create 3-di- gradients, and radio waves to generate im-
mensional views of tissues and organs. ages of the organs in the body.
A dye may be injected into a vein or
swallowed to help the tissues and organs
show up more clearly. A computed to-
mography scan may be used to help di-
agnose disease.
 How to minimize the risk of the formation of kidney stones?
1. Stay hydrated. Drinking more water is the best way to prevent kidney stones. ...
2. Eat more calcium-rich foods. ...
3. Eat less sodium. ...
4. Eat fewer oxalate-rich foods. ...
5. Eat less animal protein. ...
6. Avoid vitamin C supplements. ...
7. Explore herbal remedies.
Extra Questions:
MCQ;
 We can probably breath at a rate of about fourteen times a minute.
 Midbrain, pons and medulla are collectively known as brain stem.
 From the dorsal surface of the thalamus arises the pineal body.
 Just below the hypothalamus is the pituitary body/gland, a very small gland about the
size of a pea.
 Hypothalamus secretes a number of hormones.
Short Questions;
1. Define Co-ordination?
Ans: When all organs of the body work in organized and controlled way it is called co- or-
dination.
2. Define Effectors? Give examples.
Ans: An organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus.e.g., muscles and glands.
3. Define Corpus Callosum?
Corpus callosum:
The hemispheres are connected by a band of tissue called corpus callosum. The left hemi-
sphere controls the body’s right side and the right hemisphere controls the body’s left side.
4. Write the structure of white and grey matter?
Ans: White matter consists of axons of neurons which are covered by myelin sheath.
Grey matter consists of cell bodies of neurons and axons without myelin sheath.
In brain the white matter is outside surrounded by grey matter.
5. Write five functions of spinal cord?
Ans: Functions of Spinal Cord:
The main functions of spinal cord are:
(a) It is the link between brain and different parts of the body.
(b) It serves to transmit impulses from receptor to the brain.
(c) It serves to transmit impulses from brain to effectors.
(d) The spinal cord carries out the reflex actions.
(e) The spinal cord performs some involuntary actions e.g., contraction of urinary bladder.
6. How the Nervous System Works?
Ans: Nervous system works with the help of nerve cells or neurons, which conduct the signals or
impulses between the two components of the nervous system, i.e., central nervous system and
peripheral nervous system.
7. Describe the structure of Neuron?
Ans: Structure of a Neuron
Like other cells the neurons do have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus but they have a
different shape.
A neuron (neurone) consists of cell body, dendrites and axon.
Cell body: The cell body has a nucleus and most of the organelles of the cell.
Dendrites: The small extensions of the cell body are called dendrites. They receive messages
from other cell and conduct them towards the cell body.
Axon: A part of the cell body is stretched out to form axon. The axon can be over a metre long.
The axon of a neuron may be covered by a myelin sheath.
8. What is the function of axon?

Ans: The axon receives messages from the cell body and conducts it away to other cell end.
9. What is the function of myelin sheath?
Ans: It is an insulating material and does not allow messages to pass into the neighbouring neu-
ron.
10. what do you know about pulses?
Ans: Each pulse lasts about 0.001 second and travels at speeds of up to 100 metres per sec-
ond. All nerve impulses are similar; there is no difference between nerve impulses from the
eyes, ears or hands.
11. Write the chain of events involve in travelling of nerve impulse?
Ans: The chain of events is: stimulus ------ receptor ---- coordinator ----effector ---- response.
12. How the reflex action happens when you ever touched any hot object?
Ans: The reflex action happens very quickly. Sensory neurons in our skin detect the heat. They
send impulses to the spinal cord. In the spinal cord, the impulses pass through the interneuron.
The motor neurons carry impulses to the muscles in our arm. The muscles contract and pull our
hand away from the hot object.
13. Why you scream when you ever touched any hot object?
Ans: The reflex action occurs without any input from the brain.
While the reflex action is taking place, the spinal cord is sending messages to the brain. Once
the brain receives and interprets the messages, we finally feel the pain and scream.
EXAMINATION 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.

TASKS i. The reaction of any stimulus is called
(A) receptor (B) impulse (C) response (D) effector
ii. The nucleus in a neuron is located in
(A) axon (B) dendrite (C) cell body (D) myelin sheath
iii. Where urea is made in the human body?
(A) urinary bladder (B) kidneys (C) liver (D) gall bladder
iv. A tube present between the kidney and urinary bladder is called
(A) urethra (B) ureter (C) u tube (D) u turn
v. The structure that consists of tuft of capillaries is called
(A) proximal convoluted tubule (B) distal convoluted tubule (C) glomerulus (D) loop of Henle
SHORT QUESTIONS:
2. What do you understand by?
a) Excretory system
b) Nervous system
c) CNS
3. Write the functions of following parts;
1. Pituitary gland
2. Medulla oblongata
3. Motor neurons
4. Distinguish between:
a) a neuron from a nerve fibre.
b) a voluntary action and involuntary action?
c) a CNS and PNS.
5. Write five functions of spinal cord?
6. Write the structure of white and grey matter?
7. Name the parts of the excretory system.
8. Draw a labelled diagram of nephron.
EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS:
1. Describe human excretory system.
2. What are the causes of malfunctioning of human kidney?
E- Learning  Nervous System:

Activities: https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-1.1&v=gs-8-hum-org-1
 Central Nervous System:

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-1.1&v=gs-8-hum-org-4
 Midbrain and Hind brain:

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-1.1&v=gs-8-hum-org-4a
 Brain:
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-1.1&v=gs-7-trans-humn-plnts-31
 Spinal cord:
 Peripheral Nervous System:

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-1.1&v=b-coord-cont-24a
 Working Model of Nervous System:

 Actions Controlled by the Nervous System:

 Neuron:
 Types of neurons:
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-1.1&v=b-coord-cont-41
CHAPTER
#2 “Hered-
“
ity in Organ-
isms”
BRIEF SUM-  Cell Division: A cell divides to form two new cells.
MARY  Mitosis: Mitosis takes place in the somatic cells (body cells) of an organism. Mitosis
is the division of a single nucleus into two identical daughter nuclei in which the num-
ber of chromosomes remains same.
 Meiosis: Meiosis occurs in the special cells of sex organs. In a sexually reproducing
organism, meiosis is the division of a single nucleus into four daughter cells in which
the number of chromosomes becomes half.
 Chromosomes: Chromosomes are located in the nucleus. Chemically chromo-
somes consist of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein.
 Deoxyronucleic Acid: A DNA molecule is made up of thousands of units called nu-
cleotide. A single nucleotide is made up of three molecules: phosphate group, deoxy-
ribose (sugar) and nitrogenous base.
 DNA Strand: The deoxyribose and phosphate group form the backbone of the DNA
strand. The bases are attached to the sugar molecules.
 DNA strand is made up of two strands of nucleotides. The two strands run in oppo-
site directions.
 The upright part of the strand is made up of deoxyribose and phosphate and the
“rungs” consist of four bases.
 Heredity: The passing of characteristics from one generation to the next is called he-
redity.
 Genetics:The science of heredity is called genetics.
 Chromosomes:The nucleus contains the chromosomes. The chromosomes carry
the genes that control all the characteristics. Chromosomes occur in pairs.
 Genes: Each chromosome is made up of thousands of genes arranged like beads
on a string.
 Due to heredity there are various human races and varieties of plants and ani-
mals.
 Human ear: A human ear has different shapes. The ear lobe may be free or at-
tached.
 Human eye: A human eye colour may black, brown, hazel (light brown), green and
blue etc.
OF EXER- 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.
CISE QUES- (i) The cell which divides is called
TIONS (A) parent cell (B) daughter cell (C) original cell (D) all of these
(ii) The cells produced by the division of a cell is called
(A) parent cell (B) daughter cells (C) original cell (D) all of these
(iii) Which type of cell division takes place in body cells?
(A) mitosis (B) meiosis (C) asexual reproduction(D) sexual reproduction
(iv) The type of cell division that occurs in the special cells of sex organs is
(A) mitosis (B) meiosis (C) asexual reproduction (D) sexual reproduction
(v) In humans the number of chromosomes is
(A) 43 (B) 44 (C) 45 (D) 46
(vi) There are eight chromosomes in
(A) fruit fly (B) house fly (C) dragon fly (D) may fly
(vii) Chromosomes are located in
(A) nucleolus (B) cell membrane (C) nucleus (D) cytoplasm
(viii) DNA strand is made up of:
(A) two strands of nucleotides that run in opposite direction
(B) one strand of nucleotides that runs spirally
(C) two strands of nucleotides that run in same direction
(D) four strands of nucleotides that run in opposite direction
(ix) The science of heredity is called
(A) biotechnology (B) genetics (C) bioinformatics (D) biochemistry
(x) What happens to the chromosome number during meiosis?
(A) It halves (B) It doubles (C) It remains the same (D) It becomes triple in number
(xi) Sister chromatids are attached to each other at an area called the
(A) centriole (B) centromere (C) spindle (D) kinetochore
(xii) If a cell has 12 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will each of its daughter cell
have after mitosis?
(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 12 (D) 24
(xiii) At the beginning of cell division, a chromosome consists of two
(A) centromere (B) chromatids (C) centriole (D) spindle
(xiv) The phase of mitosis during which chromosomes become visible and the centrioles sep-
arate from one another is
(A) prophase (B) metaphase (C) anaphase (D) telophase
(xv) The process of passing characteristics from parents to offspring is
(A) reproduction (B) biotechnology (C) behaviour (D) heredity
(xvi) The section of DNA that contains sequence of nucleotides for the formation of a protein
is called
(A) chromosome (B) centromere (C) chromatid (D) gene
(xvii) In the cell the DNA is present in
(A) cell membrane (B) cytoplasm (C) chromosome (D) centriole
Short Questions:
2. Define the following: mitosis, meiosis, chromosomes, heredity, gene, and genetics.
 Mitosis: Mitosis takes place in the somatic cells (body cells) of an organism. Mitosis
is the division of a single nucleus into two identical daughter nuclei in which the num-
ber of chromosomes remains same.
 Meiosis: Meiosis occurs in the special cells of sex organs. In a sexually reproducing
organism, meiosis is the division of a single nucleus into four daughter cells in which
the number of chromosomes becomes half.
 Chromosomes: Chromosomes are located in the nucleus. Chemically chromo-
somes consist of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein.
 Heredity: The passing of characteristics from one generation to the next is called he-
redity.
 Genes: It is the unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is
held to determine some characteristic of the offspring. Each chromosome is made up
of thousands of genes arranged like beads on a string.
 Genetics:The science of heredity is called genetics.
3. Where does mitosis occur?
Ans: Mitosis takes place in the somatic cell i.e., body cells of an organism.
4. State where does meiosis take place in human males and in females?
Ans: Meiosis occurs in the special cells of sex organs.
In human males: It takes place in testes produce sperms.
In Human females: It takes place in ovaries produce eggs.
5. Where does meiosis occur in plants?
Ans: Meiosis occurs in the special cells of sex organs.
6. What are the steps of mitosis?
Ans: There are four steps of mitosis:
four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
7. What are the steps of meiosis?
Ans: Meiosis has two clear divisions Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Meiosis I: This is made up of 4 stages Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase
I.
Meiosis II: This is made up of 4 stages Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telo-
phase II.
8. The number of chromosomes in fruit fly is 8. What is the number of chromosomes in
its sperm or egg?
Ans: The number of chromosomes in fruit fly is 8.
Number of chromosomes in sperm= 4
Number of chromosomes in egg= 4
9. Draw and label a nucleotide?
10. Name the four nitrogenous bases of DNA.

Ans: There are four different nitrogenous bases in
DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T).
11. What is a gene?
Ans: It is a unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to deter-
mine some characteristic of the offspring. Each chromosome is made up of thousands of
genes arranged like beads on a string.
12. What is heredity? Explain.
Ans: Heredity: The passing of characteristics from one generation to the next is called he-
redity.
Genetics: The science of heredity is called genetics.
In Sperms: Characteristics from the father are in the nucleus of the sperm.
In Eggs: Characteristics from the mother are in the nucleus of the egg.
Fertilization: At fertilization the nucleus of the sperm joins with the nucleus of the egg. A new
individual grows from the fertilized
egg, having characteristics of both the father and the mother.
Basis of Heredity:
A nucleus is present in all cells.
Chromosomes: The nucleus contains thread-like structure called the chromosomes.
Genes: The chromosomes carry the genes that control all your characteristics.
Number of chromosomes: Chromosomes occur in pairs. There are different number of
chromosomes for different species of animals and plants. Humans have 23 pairs, cats have
19 pairs, fruit flies have 4 pairs, and onions have 9 pairs etc.
13. What is the importance of
(a) Heredity: Heredity occurs in all living organisms. When a cell makes an exact copy of
itself, known as mitosis, two duplicate cells are created. All traits are passed on by this
simple duplication. Meiosis is a different process using chromosomes from two parents
and combing into a new organism. The new organism will have characteristics from both
parents. This combination allows a large variation between individuals and provides op-
portunity for more successful traits to be passed on. Changes in traits can allow o rgan-
isms to adapt to specific environments for better rates of survival.
(b) Mitosis: When living things grow they make new cells. Mitosis makes these new cells,
whether it is in the growth of a baby, the
healing of a wound, the germination of a seedling, or replacing red blood cells. Mitosis also
occurs in asexual reproduction. The cells in the parent plant or animal divide to make new
cells which form new individual.
(c) Meiosis: Meiosis is followed by the union of sperm and egg. This provides a mixing of
characteristics from each parent in each of their offspring. This mixing produces new combi-
nations of characteristics. Due to meiosis the number of chromosomes remains same from
one generation to the next generation.
14. Describe the process of mitosis in an animal cell.
Ans: Mitosis:
Definition: Mitosis takes place in the somatic cells (body cells) of an organism. Mitosis is the
division of a single nucleus into two identical daughter nuclei in which the number of chromo-
somes remains same.
Events of mitosis: Biologists have divided the events of mitosis into four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase:
The chromosomes shorten, flatten and become visible under light microscope. Each chromo-
some divides into a pair of identical chromatids joined to one another by the centromere. The
centrioles are two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm near the nuclear membrane. The
centrioles take up the position on opposite sides of the nucleus. A spindle fibre begins to
form. The nuclear membrane breaks down.
Metaphase:
The chromosomes line up on the middle of the cell. Each chromosome is connected to a dif-
ferent spindle fibre coming from opposite poles at its centromere.
Anaphase:
The chromatids separate into individual chromosome due to separation of centromere which
is separated due to the pull created by the spindle fibres coming from opposite poles and
move to the opposite end of the cell.
Telophase:
The chromosomes gather at opposite end of the cell. A nuclear membrane forms around
each group of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis:
The division of the cell is called cytokinesis. The cytoplasm pinches in half. Each daughter
cell has an identical set of chromosomes.
15. Describe the process of meiosis in an animal cell.

Ans: Meiosis:
Meiosis occurs in the special cells of sex organs. In a sexually reproducing organism, meiosis
is the division of a single nucleus into four daughter cells in which the number of chromo-
somes becomes half.
Divisions of Meiosis:
Meiosis has two clear divisions; Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Meiosis I:
This is made up of 4 stages Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase.
Prophase I
The chromosomes shorten, thicken and become visible under the light microscope. During
prophase 1 each chromosome divides into a pair of identical chromatids joined by the centro-
mere. Identical chromosomes called homologous chromosomes pair up forming homolo-
gous pairs. The nuclear membrane disappears and homologous pairs of chromosomes line
up on the middle of the
cell. The spindle fibres will start to form.
Metaphase I
Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up on the middle of the cell. The chromosomes are
attached to the spindle fibres by their centromeres.
Anaphase I:
The spindle fibres shorten and the chromosomes separate going to opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase I:
The chromosomes gather at opposite end of the cell. Nuclear envelope forms around each
set of chromosomes and the chromosomes start to uncoil. Spindle fibres start to breakdown.
The cytoplasm pinches in half. Each daughter cell has a half set of chromosomes the parent
cell.
Meiosis II:
The stages of Meiosis II are actually very similar to Mitosis.
Prophase II
Two cells were formed at the end of Meiosis I. During prophase II the nuclear envelope
breaks down, spindle fibres form and the chromosomes shorten and thicken.
Metaphase II
The chromosomes align themselves along the equator. They are attached to the spindle fi-
bres by their centromeres.
Anaphase II
Spindle fibres shorten separating the chromatids. This pulls the chromatids to opposite poles
of the cell.
Telophase II
The nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.
Chromosomes uncoil. Also as a result of cytokinesis, the cells will split to form 4 daughter
cells.
16. What are the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
It takes place in body cells. It takes place in special cells of sex organs.
Two daughter cells are formed. Four daughter cells are formed.
The daughter cells are identical to each The daughter cells are not identical to each
other and to the parent cells. other and to the parent cells.
The number of chromosomes remains The number of chromosomes becomes half.
constant.
The functions include cellular The functions include producing organisms
reproduction and general growth and having different characteristics through
repair of the body. sexual reproduction.
17. Describe the structure of DNA.
Ans: Structure of DNA:
DNA Backbone: The sugar deoxyribose and phosphate group join up and form the back-
bone of the DNA strand. The bases are attached to the sugar deoxyribose molecules.
Nucleotide Strands: DNA strand is made of two strands of nucleotides. It looks like a ladder.
The upright part of the ladder is made up of deoxyribose and phosphate group. The “rungs” in
the ladder consist of four bases. And then the whole molecule is twisted into a double helix –
a bit like a spiral staircase.
Nitrogenous bases: There are four different nitrogenous bases in
DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). The nitrogenous bases are al-
ways in pairs. Adenine always pairs with thymine and guanine always pairs with cytosine.
Hydrogen Bonds: There are two hydrogen bonds between A and T and three hydrogen
bonds between C and G. The nucleotides can be joined together in any order, meaning that
any sequence of bases is possible.
Double Helix: Although the hydrogen bonds holding the two chains of nucleotides together
are weak, they are many in numbers. So altogether they keep the ‘double helix’ in shape.
Sugar-phosphate Backbones: DNA’s sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite direc-
tions. Each strand has a 3’ (“three prime”) end and a 5’ (“five prime”) end. The primed num-
ber refers to the carbon atoms of the nucleotide sugars. At one end of each DNA strand, the
sugar’s 3’
carbon atom is attached to an –OH group; at the other end, the sugar’s 5’ carbon has a phos-
phate group.
a.Twisting of a Ladder b. Polynucleotide
c. Double Helix model of DNA

d. Base Pairing in DNA
 According to heredity genes are responsible for making characteristics of an
organism, but environment also plays role in the final appearance of character-
istics. Explain with an example.
Ans: According to heredity genes are responsible for making characteristics of an organism,
but environment also plays role in the final appearance of characteristics. For example, if we
take a pair of twins, and twin 'A' is given more to eat than twin 'B', twin 'A' is likely to end up
heavier. Weight and height are common examples of characteristics that are influenced by
both genetic and environmental factors.
 How the discovery of DNA has brought revolution in biological and medical
science.
Ans: The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonu-
cleic acid (DNA), by James Watson and Francis Crick marked a milestone in the history of
science and gave rise to modern molecular biology, which is largely concerned with under-
standing how genes control the chemical processes within cells. It helped to produce new
and powerful scientific techniques, specifically recombinant DNA research, genetic engineer-
ing, genetic fingerprinting, modern forensics and gene therapy.
Extra Questions:
MCQs:
 The molecular structure of DNA was worked out by James Watson and Francis
Crick, working in Cambridge in 1953.
1. Define Chromosomes?
Ans: Chroma mean colour and soma means body. Chromosome means coloured body. It is
so named because chromosomes have the ability to be stained with dyes.
2. Define Centromere?
Ans: Each pair of chromatids is attached at an area called the centromere. Centromere is
usually located near the middle of the chromatids.
3. Chromosomes are not visible in most cells except during cell division. Why?
Ans: This is because the DNA and protein molecules that make up the chromosomes are
spread throughout the nucleus. At the beginning of cell division, however, the chromosomes
condense into compact visible structures that can be seen through a light microscope.
4. Define Nucleotide?
Ans: DNA is a long molecule is made up of units. Each unit is called a nucleotide. A single
nucleotide is made up of three molecules.
(1) a 5- carbon sugar called deoxyribose
(2) a phosphate group
(3) a nitrogenous (nitrogen containing) base.
Many nucleotides join to form a polynucleotide.
5. Describe the structure of Human Ear?

Ans: The external ear (auricle) is made up essentially of basic four parts: the helix, lobe, con-
cha, and tragus-anti-tragus. A normal human
ear has an oval shape that is concave with irregular topography on the inside. The helix is the
outer cartilaginous rim of the external ear.
6. Write the names of the different variations which are noticeable in external hu-
man ear?
Ans: 1. free lobes verses attached lobes
2. Deep verses Shallow Concavity
3. Wide verses Narrow Intertragical notch width
EXAMINA- MCQS:
TION TASKS 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.
i. The cells produced by the division of a cell is called
(A) parent cell (B) daughter cells (C) original cell (D) all of these
ii. In humans the number of chromosomes is
(A) 43 (B) 44 (C) 45 (D) 46
iii. DNA strand is made up of:
(A) two strands of nucleotides that run in opposite direction
(B) one strand of nucleotides that runs spirally
(C) two strands of nucleotides that run in same direction
(D) four strands of nucleotides that run in opposite direction
iv. What happens to the chromosome number during meiosis?
(A) It halves (B) It doubles (C) It remains the same (D) It becomes triple in number
v. At the beginning of cell division, a chromosome consists of two
(A) centromere (B) chromatids (C) centriole (D) spindle
Short Questions:
2. Define the following:
a) mitosis,
b) heredity,
c) gene.
3. State where does meiosis take place in human males and in females?
4. What are the steps of meiosis?
5. The number of chromosomes in fruit fly is 8. What is the number of chromosomes in
its sperm or egg?
6. Draw and label a nucleotide?
7. Differentiate between chromosome and a gene?
1. Describe the process of mitosis in an animal cell.
2. What are the difference between mitosis and meiosis?
3. Describe the structure of Human Ear?
E- Learning  Cell Cycle:

Activities https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-2.1&v=b-cell-
cycle-1
 Mitosis, Karyokinesis, Cytokinesis,Prophase:
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-2.1&v=b-cell-
cycle-9
 Phases of Meiosis:
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-2.1&v=b-cell-
cycle-16
 Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-2.1&v=gs-8-
cel-div-4
 Heredity
cel-div-5
 Concept of Gene
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-2.3&v=b-
chrom-dna-36a
 Watson- Crick Model of DNA
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-2.3&v=b-
chrom-dna-14
 Transmission of Characters
cel-div-8
CHAPTER #
3
BIOTECHN-
OLOGY
BRIEF  Biotechnology: It is the way that we use living organisms in particular microbes, to pro-
SUM- duce useful substance.
MARY  DNA replication: The process of making identical copies of DNA double helix using ex-
isting DNA as a template for the synthesis of new DNA strands is called DNA replication.
 Helicase: There is a special enzyme called Helicase that unwinds the parent DNA mole-
cule.
 Enzyme complex: Base pairing and joining are carried out by an enzyme complex
called DNA polymerase and ligase.
 During replication each parent DNA strand of the parent molecule serves as a template
for a new strand in daughter molecule.
 Order of gene: The genes are located linearly on the chromosomes. The linear order of
gene location on a homologous pair of chromosomes is specific and identical.
 Gene: Gene is any group of three nucleotides that forms a characteristic.
 Bacteria: Bacteria are unicellular micro-organisms that have cell wall not made of cellu-
lose. They have no nuclear membrane. Bacteria have ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell mem-
brane, pili and plasmids.
 Biotechnology products: Some of the biotechnology products used in daily life are
bread, yogurt, cheese, vinegar, soy sauce, leather, bio degradable plastic, bioethanol
(biofuel).
 Genetic modifications: It includes microorganism resistance, improved mutrition and
quality of food.
 Biotechnology lifesaving products: It includes the hormone insulin, and vaccines.
 Applications of biotechnology: The general applications of biotechnology in various
fields include: agriculture, food production, preservation, environment and health.
SOLU- Review Questions:
TIONS 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.
OF i. The replication of DNA takes place in the:
EXER- A. Nucleoplasm
CISE B. Cytolplasm
QUES- C. Cell membrane
TIONS D. Nuclear membrane
ii. During replication which sequence of nucleotides would bond with the DNA sequence
TATGA?
A. ATACT
B. AAAGA
C. TATGA
D. TATGA
iii. Which of the following nucleotide (s) bond (s) with adenine?
a. Thymine only
b. Thymine and guanine
c. Cytosine
d. Cytosine and guanine
iv. Watson and Crick created a model of DNA. What is the name of this model?
a. Operon
b. Single helix
c. Double helix
d. Frame shift model
v. It is mostly used in biotechnology
A. Animal cells
B. Plant cells
C. Microorganisms
D. Fungi
vi. Biotechnology lifesaving products are:
A. Hormones
B. Insulin and vaccines
C. Vaccines
D. Growth hormones
vii. DNA replication is a process in which
A. Copies of DNA are made
B. DNA is repaired
C. DNA makes proteins
D. DNA breaks down
viii. Which of the following component is used for carrying the gene of interest into a bacte-
rium?
A. Plasmid
B. Protein
C. Chromosome
D. Chromatid
ix. In future, “ Golden rice” could help to treat
a. Sight problems
b. Diarrhea
c. Deafness
d. Diabetes
x. Genetically modified tomatoes are useful because they
A. Have more vitamins
B. Are resistant to microorganisms
C. Grow fast
D. Easy to cultivate
xi. Which one is used to treat diabetes?
a. Growth hormone
b. Vaccines
c. Interferon
d. Insulin
xii. Interferon is used for
A. Cleaning oil spills
B. Treating sewage water
C. Treating bacterial infection
D. Treating viral infection
Short Questions:
 Biotechnology: Biotechnology is the use of biological processes, organisms, or sys-
tems to manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life.
Or
Biotechnology: It is the way that we use living organisms in particular microbes, to pro-
duce useful substance
 DNA replication: The process of making identical copies of DNA double helix using ex-
isting DNA as a template for the synthesis of new DNA strands is called DNA replication.
 Bacteria: Bacteria are unicellular micro-organisms that have cell wall not made of cellu-
lose. They have no nuclear membrane. Bacteria have ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell mem-
brane, pili and plasmids.
 Bacteriology: The study of bacteria is called Bacteriology.
 Plasmid: Bacterial cell often have additional loops of DNA in the cytolplasm called plas-
mids.
 Insulin: Biotechnology is the use of recombinant DNA technology to modify the bacteria
E.Coli (Escherichia Coli) to produce human insulin. Yeasts also used to produce insulin.
 Vaccine: Vaccines are used to make people immune to an infectious organism so they
do not become ill when exposed to it.
4. If 30% of a DNA molecule is Adenine, what percent is Cytosine?
Ans: The percentage of Cytosine is 20%.
5. What is the difference between?
(a). Chromatin and chromosome
Chromatin Chromosome
 The chromosome of living organism  The nucleus contains thread-like
is made up of DNA and protein form- structure called the chromosomes.
ing thread like fibres called chroma-
tin.
(b) Biotechnology and bacteriology
Biotechnology Bacteriology
 It is the way that we use living organ-  The study of bacteria is called Bacte-
isms in particular microbes, to pro- riology.
duce useful substance
6. Name few biotechnological products.
Ans: Insulin, Vaccine, bread, yogurt, cheese, vinegar, soy sauce, leather, bio degradable plastic,
bioethanol (biofuel).
7. What is meant by the term “genetically modified”?
Ans: The genetically modified organisms are the organisms, the DNA of which has been modi-
fied by using genetic engineering techniques, which are then used for the benefit of mankind.
8. Name a nucleic acid other than DNA.
Ans: A nucleic acid other than DNA is RNA (ribonucleic acid).
9. Name a nucleotide other than adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T).
Ans: Uracil (U) is a nucleotide other than adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T).
10. Explain replication of DNA.
Ans: DNA replication:
Definition: The process of making identical copies of DNA double helix using existing DNA as a
template for the synthesis of new DNA strands is called DNA replication.
This process ensures that each daughter cell will have a complete set of DNA molecules.
Steps of DNA Replication:
i. Initiation- Unwinding of parent DNA: The old stands that make up the parent DNA
molecule unwind. The hydrogen bond between the nucleotides separate one by one.
The hydrogen bond loosening can be linked to the opening of zipper. The interlocking
teeth represent H-bond and each tooth is a base. There is a special enzyme that un-
winds the DNA molecule. As this occurs within the nucleus bases (tooth of the zipper)
become exposed to the contents of the nucleus.
ii. Elongation- Addition of new bases: As the bases are exposed, new bases are added
following the ‘rule of base pairing’. In other words if the base on the strand is adenine
(A), thymine (T) is added to the newly forming strand. Likewise, guanine (G) is always
paired with cytosine. With each new base phosphate and deoxyribose molecule takes
their normal position.
iii. Example of Elongation: The new nucleotides join to form a new strand. For example a
strand that has bases ACGAT produces a strand with the complementary bases
TGCTA.
iv. Daughter DNA strands: The result is two DNA molecules identical to each other and to
the original molecule. Each DNA molecule resulting from replication has one original
strand and one new strand. Base pairing and joining are carried out by special enzymes.
11. Describe structure of a bacterium?

Ans: Bacteria:
Bacteria are cells that are big enough to be seen under the light microscope. Bacteris are found
everywhere. They are found in air, in water, in the soil. They are also found outside and inside
the body of plants and animals.
Bacteriology: the study of bacteria is called bacteriology.
Structure of Bacteria:
 Cell Wall: The bacterial cell has a cell wall but not made of cellulose as in the plant
cells.
 Nucleus: there is no proper nucleus, just a loop of DNA and without any nuclear mem-
brane.
 Other Organelles: Many of the structures found inside other cells such as mitochondria,
golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, etc are absent in the bacterial cell.
 Plasmids: Bacterial cells often have additional loops of DNA in the cytoplasm called
plasmids.
 Flagellum: Some bacteria have flagellum and some are without flagellum. The flagella
may be one, two or many.
 Pili: Some bacteria have yellow protein filaments called pilli. They take part in the at-
tachment on the surface and also in reproduction.
12. How a gene is introduced into a bacterium?

Ans: How a gene is introduced into a bacterium:
Step 1: Isolation of DNA (Gene): Two types of DNA are isolated.the bacterial plasmid and the
human cell DNA containing the gene of interest.
Step 2: Slicing with Restriction enzyme: Both the plasmid and the human DNA are treated
with same restriction enzyme. The enzyme cuts the plasmid DNA as well human DNA at one
specific restriction site. In making the cuts, the restriction enzyme creates sticky end on both the
human DNA fragment and the plasmid.
Step 3: Insertion The human DNA is mixed with cut plasmid. The sticky ends of the plasmid
base pair with the complementary sticky ends of the human DNA fragment.
Step 4: Transformation: The enzyme DNA ligase joins the two DNA molecules. The result is
the DNA plasmid containing insulin gene.
Step 5: Plasmid into Bacterium: This DNA plasmid containing insulin gene is added to a bac-
terium. The bacterium will absorb the plasmid DNA from solution.
Step 6: Cloning: Bacteria divide rapidly. Every time the bacterium divides, the plasmid is repli-
cated containing insulin gene. The insulin gene instructs the bacteria to make insulin.
13. What are the general applications of biotechnology in agriculture?
Ans: Applications of biotechnology in Agriculture:
Some general applications of biotechnology in agriculture are as:
a) Temperature resistant Plants: Genes are inserted into the plants so that they can tol-
erate environmental problems. E.g., extreme temperature and shortage of water. Leg-
umes (plants that bear their fruits in pods, which are casings with two halves, e.g.) and
cereals (grains used as food, such as wheat, barley, etc) are modified to make proteins
needed by humans.
b) Herbicides: Many plants can tolerate herbicides which are sprayed to kill weeds.
c) Domestic animals: Genes of animals such as cows and goats have been altered to get
more milk and proteins,
d) Genetically modified crops: Biotechnology improves crop insect resistance, enhances
crop, herbicide tolerance, etc.
14. What are the general applications of biotechnology in environment related issues?
Ans: Applications of biotechnology in Environment:
Genetically modified plants have also been used for bioremediation of contaminated soils. Mer-
cury, selenium and organic pollutants e.g., TNT and RDX have been removed from soils by
transgenic plants containing genes for bacterial enzymes. Naturally occurring bacteria that eat oil
can be genetically engineered for cleaning up beaches after oil spills. Industry has found that
bacteria can be used as bio-filters to prevent airborne chemical pollutants from being vented (an
airhole) into the air. Scientists have develops a weed Arabidopsis thaliana that contains genes
from bacteria that can clean up TNT and RDX- explosive contaminants from the soil.
15. What are the general applications of biotechnology in health related issues?
Ans: Applications of biotechnology in health:
Biotechnology is used in health sector. It is used to create products including therapies and
drugs, vaccines and new diagnostic and testing equipments.
1. Therapeutics: New biological drugs include skin grown for burn victims, gene and stem
cell therapies. Bacteria and fungi have been modified for the production of antibiotics.
Antiviral protein called interferon is produced by inserting the human gene into bacteria.
Such proteins are used for the treatment of many viral infections e.g., hepatitis. Modified
bacteria are used to produce growth hormone, which is used for treating persons suffer-
ing from low growth rate.
2. Diagnostics: Test kits for HIV, or diabetes provide new, lower cost, options to test for
devastating diseases quickly and effectively.
3. Medical Devices: These include biosensors, stents, prostheses, etc.
4. Vaccines: New vaccines for childhood and adult diseases e.g., hepatitis vaccine have
been developed.
16. How is genetic modification important?
Ans: Genetically modified foods, often classified as GMOs, have changed the way that people
view their food. Although genetic modifications have occurred throughout history with selective
breeding and growing methods, scientific advances have allowed this practice to advance to the
genetic level. In the modern GMO, plants can be resistant to specific pesticides and herbicides
while becoming adaptive to changing environmental conditions.
Extra Questions:
MCQs:
The word biotechnology was coined only in 1970.
S/Qs:
1. What is the scope of biotechnology in Pakistan?
Ans: The National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE) is the country’s
major biotech research establishment, concentrating on research in plants, environment, and
medical biotechnology. A centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Biology has been estab-
lished at Punjab University in 1988. Biotechnology is being taught at general as well as in agri-
cultural and medical universities.
2. Define epitope?
Ans: The part of the antigen that the antibody binds to is called the epitope. The antibody binds
only to its particular epitope.
3. Differentiate between monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal antibodies?
Monoclonal antibodies Polyclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are the same because Polyclonal antibodies are the antibodies
they are made by identical immune cells that which are made from several different im-
are all clones of a unique parent cell. mune cells.
4. What are the different types of biotechnology on the basis of its use?
Ans: Biotechnology has been divided into three types on the basis of uses:
i. Red Biotechnology: It is used for medical process such as production of antibiotics.
ii. White Biotechnology or Industrial Biotechnology: It is the manipulation of organisms
to produce useful chemicals such as enzymes.
iii. Blue Biotechnology: It is concerned with the application of molecular biological meth-
ods to marine and fresh water organisms, for the purposes of such as an increasing
seafood supply.
5. Define cloning?
Ans: To make multiple copies of gene or organism is called cloning.
6. What are transgenic organisms?
Ans: The free-living organisms in the environment that have had a foreign gene inserted into
them are called transgenic organisms.
7. Define histones?
Ans: DNA is associated with basic protein molecules called histones.
8. How the gene works?
Ans: A gene works by forming protein. A protein consists of amino acids. A DNA molecule how-
ever cannot directly control the sequence of amino acids. Because DNA is found in the nucleus
and making of protein occurs in the cytoplasm. According to the base sequence of DNA, another
type of nucleic acid is made called messenger Ribonucleic acid (mRNA). According to base se-
quence of mRNA specific sequence of amino acid is formed in the protein.
9. Define template?
Ans: template is the coded instruction for the formation of a further molecule carried by a mole-
cule of DNA.
10. How genetic modification helps in microorganism resistance?
Ans: Microorganism Resistance:
Plants can suffer from infections caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and other patho-
gens.
Fungus Resistance GM plants: Fungi are responsible for a range of serious plant diseases
such as bright, grey mould. Crops of all kinds often suffer heavy losses. Genetic engineering en-
ables new ways of managing fungal infections through fungus resistance GM plants.
Virus resistance GM Plants: Biotechnology can be used to make virus resistant crops. The
most common way of doing this is that scientists insert special genes in the seed of plants.
When seed germinate, the inserted genes are copied in all the cells of the plant. These plants
make proteins that are harmless to the plants but poisonous to the viruses and other microor-
ganisms.
11. How genetic modification helps in the improvement of nutrition?
Ans: Improved Nutrition: The GM oilseed crops on the market today offer improved oil profiles
for processing or healthier edible oils. GM plants that have been developed are maize and wheat
etc., is enhanced with protein and other nutrients while golden rice developed by the Interna-
tional Rice Research Institute (IRRI), is a possible cure for Vitamin A deficiency. Such rice can
help to treat patient of sight problem.
12. How genetic modification helps in the improvement of quality of food?
Ans: Quality of Food: Through genetic modification quality of food has been improved in plants
such as soya bean (soybean), maize, canola, squash, papaya, alfalfa, sugar beet, potato, rice,
sugarcane, sweet peppers, and tomatoes.
a) GM bananas are larger in size and grow more rapidly.
b) GM soya beans seeds germinate faster and oil produced from the seeds has more nutri-
ents.
c) GM sugar beet crops are herbicide-resistant.
d) A variety of sweet corns have been developed. They contain insect killing gene.
e) GM tomatoes do not rot as quickly as normal tomatoes.
f) GM canola is less bitter than normal canola.
g) GM cotton grows faster and has resistance against environmental problems.
13. Write a detailed note on lifesaving biotechnology products?
Ans: Lifesaving biotechnology products:
Genetic engineering has applications in medicine providing life saving drugs. One of the ad-
vantages of biotechnology is that, it is due to biotechnology that mass production of proteins is
possible, that are very difficult to obtain. In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to
mass produce insulin, human growth hormones, human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, vac-
cines and many other drugs.
Insulin: Amongst the earliest uses of biotechnology, is the use of recombinant DNA technology
to modify the bacteria E.coli (Escherichia coli) to produce human insulin. Prior to the develop-
ment of biotechnology, insulin was extracted from the gland pancreas of cattle, pigs, and other
farm animals. Now yeasts are also used to produce insulin.
Vaccines: Vaccines are used to make people immune to an infectious organism so they do not
become ill when exposed to it. Vaccination generally involves injecting weak, live, killed or inacti-
vated forms of viruses into the person being immunized. Vaccines produced through biotechnol-
ogy do not cause illness. A vaccine for hepatitis B is now available. Vaccines are available
through biotechnology for the inoculation of farm animals. There are vaccines for such illnesses
like a hoof- and mouth disease and dysentery.
EXAM- 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.
INA- i. Which of the following nucleotide (s) bond (s) with adenine?
TION a. Thymine only
TASK b. Thymine and guanine
S c. Cytosine
d. Cytosine and guanine
ii. Watson and Crick created a model of DNA. What is the name of this model?
a. Operon
b. Single helix
c. Double helix
d. Frame shift model
iii. Biotechnology lifesaving products are:
a. Hormones
b. Insulin and vaccines
c. Vaccines
d. Growth hormones
iv. In future, “ Golden rice” could help to treat
a. Sight problems
b. Diarrhea
c. Deafness
d. Diabetes
v. Which one is used to treat diabetes?
a. Growth hormone
b. Vaccines
c. Interferon
d. Insulin
Short Questions:
 Biotechnology
 DNA replication
 Plasmid
3. What is the difference between;
(a). Chromatin and chromosome
(b) Biotechnology and bacteriology
(c). Monoclonal and polyclonal Antibodies.
4. What is meant by the term “genetically modified”?
5. Define histones, template and epitope.
1. Explain replication of DNA with the help of diagram.
2. What are the general applications of biotechnology in environment related issues?
3. What is the scope of biotechnology in Pakistan?
4. What are the different types of biotechnology on the basis of its use?
E-
Learn-  Introduction to Biotechnology
ing Ac-
tivities https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-3.1&v=gs-8-biotech-1
 Replication of DNA
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-3.1&v=b-chrom-dna-16
 Genetic Engineering
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-3.1&v=gs-8-biotech-16
 Recombinant DNA Technology
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-3.2&v=b-biotech-4
 Introduction of Genes into Bacterium
 Genetic Modifications
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-3.3&v=gs-8-bio-
tech-6
 Production of Insulin from Genetically Modified Bacterium
tech-7
 Production of Vaccines from Genetically Modified Bacterium
tech-8
 Role of Biotechnology in Agriculture, Food Production and Preservation
tech-10
 Role of Biotechnology in Health and Environment

CHAPTER # 4
POLLUTION AND
THEIR EFFECTS
ON
ENVIRONMENT
BRIEF SUM-  Pollution: The release of any harmful substance into the environment that effects the
MARY living things is called pollution.
 Pollutants: The substance that cause pollution are called pollutants.
 Pollutants in the air: The pollutants into the air nclude sulphur dioxide, carbon mon-
oxide, oxides of nitrogen and chloroflurocarbons.
 Source of sulphur dioxide: The main source of sulphur dioxide is the burning of fossil
fuel. It causes bronchitis (inflammation of the lining of the bronchus) and lung dis-
ease.
 Source of Carbon monoxide: It is emitted by vehicle engine due to incomplete com-
bustion of fuel. Carbon monoxide prevents haemoglobin combining with oxygen.
 Nitrogen oxides are combination of oxygen and nitrogen. In the air pollution, nitrogen
oxides refers specifically to NO and NO2.
 Ozone layer: The ozone layer is a concentration of ozone molecules in the strato-
sphere.
 CFCs: CFCs breakdown the ozone layer allowing more ultraviolet light penetrate into
the earth. Long exposure to ultraviolet light can cause skin cancer.
 Acid Rain: When sulphurdioxide and oxides of nitrogen gases react with water vapour
and oxygen in the air, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) are formed. The
rain which is mixed with these acids is called acid rain.
 Effects of acid rain on living organism are that it damages plants and animal life. Acid
rain causes health problems in people such as asthma and permanent lung damage.
 Effects of acid rain on non-living objects are that it increases level of acidity of lakes
and rivers. It has damaging effect on many objects, including buildings, statues, mon-
uments and cars.
 Endangered species or Extinct : People have effected wildlife population by damaging
and destroying their habitats. Some species of plants and animals have become en-
dangered species or extinct.
 Deforestation : The cutting down of trees of forest is called deforestation. It causes
soil erosion, floods, desertification, reduction in rainfall.
 Non-renewable energy resources: The non-renewable energy resources include fossil
fuels that is coal, oil and natural gases found in the earth in fixed quantity. The non-
renewable energy resources are being consumed so will not be available in future.
 Solid waste management is the generation, separation, collection, transfer, transpor-
tation and disposal of waste.
 Recycling: To form new things from used items is called recycling and is a method for
conserving natural resources and saving energy. It reduces waste disposal and pollu-
tion. Recycling of ssewage saves water.
 Conservation of natural resources is the wise use of the earth’s resources by human-
ity. It protects animal n plant life, disruption of natural cycles, global warming. It en-
sures conservation of marine life, tropical rain forest.
OF EXERCISE 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.
QUESTIONS i. Which of the following effects the oxygen binding capacity of blood?
A. Oxides of nitrogen
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Carbon monoxide
D. Sulphur dioxide
ii. The burning of fossil fuel contributes to all of the following except one:
A. Global warming
B. Acid rain
C. Carbon dioxide
D. Ozone depletion
iii. Which of the following does not contribute to the green house effect?
A. CFCs
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Methane
D. Nitrogen
iv. Which of the following is the primary cause of acid rain?
A. Burning tropical forest
B. Burning high sulphur coal
C. CFCs
D. nuclear power stations
v. which one of the following is the cause of ozone depletion?
A. A ozone hole over America
B. At ground level ozone is a pollutant
C. CFCs
D. Absorption of infrared radiation by ozone
vi. The greenhouse effect could cause
A. Weather condition to remain constant
B. Increase in atmospheric temperature
C. Acid rain
D. Ozone depletion
vii. Ozone depletion over the north pole is called
A. Black hole
B. Normal hole
C. Ozone hole
D. None of these
viii. Which of these may contribute to global warming?
A. Ozone depletion
B. Deforestation
C. Greenhouse effect
D. All of these
ix. Air pollution include
A. Carbon monoxide
B. Nitrogen
C. Oxygen
D. Noise
x. What is the cause of species extinction today?
A. Over hunting
B. Habitat loss
C. Pollution
D. Insecticides
xi. Solid waste management is the
A. Disposal of waste
B. Burning of waste
C. Recycling of waste
D. Decaying of waste
Short Questions:
2. Define;
 Pollution: The release of any harmful substance into the environment that effects the
living things is called pollution.
 Pollutants: The substance that cause pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants in the
air: The pollutants into the air include sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitro-
gen and chloroflurocarbons.
 Global warming: The increase in the average temperature of the biosphere is called
global warming.
 Ozone depletion: It is the reduction in the concentration of ozone in the ozone layer.
 Acid rain: When sulphurdioxide and oxides of nitrogen gases react with water vapour
and oxygen in the air, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) are formed. The rain
which is mixed with these acids is called acid rain.
 Wild life: Wild plants and animals are called wildlife.
 Deforestation: : The cutting down of trees of forest is called deforestation. It causes soil
erosion, floods, desertification, reduction in rainfall.
 Soil erosion: When the trees are removed, the soil is exposed directly to the force of
rain and is removed. It is called soil erosion.
 Solid waste management: It is the generation, separation, collection, transfer, trans-
portation and disposal of waste.
 Recycling: To form new things from used items is called recycling and is a method for
conserving natural resources and saving energy. It reduces waste disposal and pollu-
tion. Recycling of ssewage saves water.
3. What are the causes of air pollution?
Ans: Causes of air pollution:
 Incomplete burning of fuels such as coal,oil, petrol and wood.
 Human activities.
 Natural occurrences e.g., Biological decay, Forest Fires and Volcanic Actions.
4. Why do power stations and factories have tall chimneys?
Ans: Tall chimneys emit Sulphur dioxide and other pollutant gases such as oxides of nitrogen
etc.
5. How does carbon monoxide act on the body?
Ans: 1. Carbon monoxide prevents hemoglobin combining with oxygen.
2. A person may be killed if the level of carbon monoxide reaches 0.1% of the air.
6. List problems in human organs systems caused by air pollutants?
Ans: 1. It can cause irritation of the eyes, nose and throat.
2. Headaches and nausea can also occur.
3. Pollution can cause asthma attacks as well.
4. Diseases such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and heart diseases appear in people exposed
to air pollution.
7. How can you reduce air pollution in your local environment?
Ans: We can reduce air pollution in our local environment by;
i. Stop cutting trees and by planting more trees.
ii. Proper maintenance of vehicles so that they may not give out smoke
iii. Factories should be far from the residential areas.
iv. Less use of equipment giing out CFCs.
8. What are the oxides of nitrogen?
Ans: Nitrogen oxide (NO) and Nitrogen Per Oxide (NO2) are the oxides of nitrogen.
9. What is greenhouse effect?
Ans: A greenhouse is a house made of glass. It has glass walls and a glass roof. People grow
tomatoes and flowers and other plants in them. A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during
winter. Sunlight shines in and warms the plants and air inside.
10. What causes the Earth’s greenhouse effect?
Ans: The carbon dioxide and water vapours act like the glass in a greenhouse. The natural situa-
tion in which heat is retained by the layer of greenhouse gases is called the greenhouse effect of
earth.
11. Name three greenhouse gases?
Ans: Carbon dioxide, Methane and Nitrous Oxide are the greenhouse gases.
12. What converts ozone into oxygen?
Ans: In the Stratosphere, the Chlorine atoms are liberated from the parent compounds by the ac-
tion of solar ultraviolet light. A Chlorine (Cl) atom reacts with an ozone molecule, taking an oxy-
gen atom with it (forming ClO) and and leaving a normal oxygen molecule. The chlorine monox-
ide (ClO) can react with a second molecule of ozone (O3) to give another chlorine atom and two
molecules of oxygen. The overall reaction is: Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
13. Why is the ozone layer becoming thinner?
Ans: The ozone layer is becoming thinner because of the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydro fluorocarbons (HCFCs), and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS), which were used
widely as refrigerants, insulating foams and solvents.
14. What is the importance of the ozone layer?
Ans: It is very difficult to survive on earth without ozone layer, as it filters the sun’s ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. UV rays can cause skin cancer, if there is no ozone layer.
15. How is acid rain formed?
Ans: When Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen gases react with water vapour and oxygen in
the air, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) are formed. The rain which is mixed with
these acids is called acid rain.
16. Why do lakes suffer more than rivers from the effects of acid rain?
Ans: Lakes are stationary while rivers keep on moving. That’s why water of lakes suffers more
than rivers and gets polluted earlier and causes the damage of the aquatic life therein.
17. What are the sources, properties and harmful effects of Sulphur dioxide?
Ans: Sulphur dioxide:
 Sources: The main source of Sulphur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuel. E.g., coal, oil
and natural gas. Natural sources of Sulphur dioxide include release from volcanoes, bio-
logical decay and forest fires.
 Properties: It is colorless gas. It has a very irritating smell.
 Effects: Inhaling Sulphur dioxide causes coughing, chest pain and shortness of breath.
It is poisonous. It will kill human being if its level reaches up to 0.5%. It is one of the
causes of bronchitis and lung diseases.
18. What conditions lead to the formation of carbon monoxide? What harm
does it do?
Ans: Carbon monoxide:
 Conditions of Formation: Most of the carbon monoxide comes from the exhaust gases
of motor vehicles. This is due to incomplete combustion of fuel. The chimneys of indus-
tries also emit this gas.
 Harmful Effects: carbon monoxide ties up haemoglobin and prevents it combining with
oxygen. A person may be killed if the level of carbon monoxide reaches 0.1% of the air.
19. What are the sources, properties and harmful effects of oxides of nitro-
gen?
Ans: Oxides of nitrogen: Nitrogenous oxides are combination of oxygen and nitrogen, in air
pollution e.g., nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
 Source: Nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere from motor vehicles. It is pro-
duces during thunderstorm. Agricultural fertilizers and the use of nitrogen fixing plants
also contribute to atmospheric nitrogen monoxide NO. Natural sources of nitrogen ox-
ides include volcanoes, oceans, biological decay and lightning strikes.
 Properties: NO2 is a dark brown, fuming liquid or gas with a pungent, acrid (biting)
odour. NO is a colorless gas with a sharp sweet odour, brown at high concentrations in
air. NO2 is highly soluble in water, to form nitric acid (a strong acid). NO is slightly solu-
ble in water, to form nitrous acid ( a weak acid).
 Effects: No reacts with other compounds to form nitric acid vapour. Inhalation of such
particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases such as bronchitis. NO reacts with
volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. Ozone when in-
haled damages lung tissues. Oxides of nitrogen combine with fog to form smog. The
smog causes asthma, cough and wheezing.
20. What are the sources, properties and harmful effects of chlorofluorocar-
bons?
Ans: Chlorofluorocarbons:
 Sources: They are used as aerosol propellants, as cooling agents in refrigerators,
freezers and air conditioners, and in foam packaging. When such devices work they re-
lease CFCs in air.
 Properties: It contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They are non-toxic, non-reactive
chemicals. They spread through the atmosphere without reacting with other substances
and drift into the upper atmosphere. It is colorless, odourless and lighter than air in
weight.
 Effects: When CFCs are released into the atmosphere from aerosols, etc., they break-
down the ozone layer forming ozone hole.
21. What are the harmful effects of air pollutants?
Ans: Harmful effects of air pollutants: The problems in human organ systems caused by air
pollutants include short term and long term health effects.
 Short term health effects: Air pollution can cause irritation of the eyes, nose and
throat. Headaches and nausea can also occur. Pollution can cause astma attacks as
well.
 Long term health effects: Many diseases could be caused by air pollution without their
becoming apparent for a long time. Diseases such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and heart
disease, appear in people exposed to air pollution. Long-term exposure to air pollution
has been associated with diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), including
stroke, kidney and liver damage, increase a person’s risk of heart attack and stroke.
 Air pollutants are associated with birth and developmental defects which include low
birth rate, low birth weight, growth retardation, and death of new born etc.
22. What are the ways to reduce air pollution in the environment?
Ans: The ways to reduce air pollution in the environment:
There are different ways to reduce air pollution in the environment which are as follows:
i. People should use public transport like bus or train instead of using cars.
ii. People should use energy i.e., light, water boiler, kettle etc., wisely to save fossil fuel
and electricity.
iii. Plantation of trees is important as plants absorb carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.
iv. Follow 3’R strategy; recycle, reuse and reduce.
v. Use filters and to scrub hard on chimneys to remove Sulphur dioxide.
vi. Fit catalytic converters to the exhaust system of vehicles. The converters remove most
of the nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.
vii. Use non-fossil fuels in factories. Examples of these fuels include: nuclear energy wind or
water generated energy and solar power.
23. What are the effects of human activities on environment?
Ans: Effects of human activities on environment:
Many species of plants and animals have become endangered or extinct mainly due to human
activities. These include environmental pollution and modification of habitats. All environmental
problems are connected to overpopulation. The increase in population requires more land for
farms, homes, industry, roads, transports, hospitals, schools and food. There are some major
effects of human activities on environment i.e., greenhouse effect and global warming, ozone de-
pletion, acid rain, wildlife, deforestation, lack of energy resources.
24. What are the effects of global warming on Earth?
Ans: Effects of global warming on Earth:
The effects of global warming on life on earth are:
i. If the level of the sea rose, low lying areas of land would disappear under the sea. The
coastal area would be flooded which will have adverse effect on plant and animal life.
ii. Glaciers of the world are melting at a faster rate, which causes flood in the river.
iii. Ice is melting in the polar regions. It is dangerous for the animals living there.
iv. The rainfall pattern may be affected by global warming.
v. The biodiversity i.e., the number of organisms living in an area are also affected.
vi. Climate change will affect agriculture and food production around the world.
vii. The amount of oxygen dissolved in the oceans may decline, with adverse consequences
for ocean life.
25. People have affected wildlife population. Justify.
Ans: Wild plants and animals are called wildlife. People have affected wildlife population.
i. Habitat: We take up more space on Earth for our homes and cities. We pollute habitats.
These human activities change or destroy the habitats that plants and animals need to
survive.
ii. Hunting: Hunting has increased the rate of extinction of wildlife species by killing the or-
ganisms.
iii. Pollution: Human activities have polluted air, land and water which affected the wildlife.
iv. Loss of Biodiversity: By introducing new species in any area has contributed to a sig-
nificant loss of biodiversity.
v. Overpopulation: Because human populations are growing so fast animals and plants
are disappearing 1000 times faster than they have in the past 65 million years.
26. In what ways does the recycling of materials help to save energy and con-
serve the environment?
Ans: Recycling of materials: Recycling is one of the most important methods for conserving
our natural resources. To form new thing from used items is called recycling. Recycling reduces
waste disposal and pollution.
i. Solid Waste: Almost 20-30% of solid waste contains materials which could be recycled.
ii. Everyday use: Many of the things we use every day, like paper bags, soda cans, and
milk cartons, are made out of materials that can be recycled.
iii. Paper: Paper can be re-pulped and reprocessed into recycled paper, cardboard and
other paper products.
iv. Glass: Broken glass can be crushed, re-melted and made into containers.
v. Plastic and fiber: Some forms of plastic can be re-melted and fabricated into carpet fi-
ber or cloth.
vi. Food and yard waste: Food wastes and yard wastes can be composted to produce fer-
tilizers and soil conditioners.
vii. Sewage water: Recycling of sewage saves water.
27. What are the ways to conserve energy resources?
Ans: Ways to conserve energy resources: There are different ways to conserve energy re-
sources:
i. To protect the plants and animal species and to prevent their extinction.
ii. To prevent disruption of water and carbon cycles and global warming.
iii. To conserve the marine life as marine fishes are a major source of human food.
iv. To conserve the tropical rainforest, as many rainforest plants are source of raw materi-
als for industries, medicinal drugs and food.
v. Solar power is becoming very popular these days. Solar energy is renewable source of
energy and is available to everyone free of cost.
vi. Hydroelectric power is one of the commonly used methods of producing electricity. It is
the cheapest way of getting electricity.
vii. Electricity production by thermal energy needs fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal).
viii. Wind energy is also a renewable source of energy. It does not produce pollution.
ix. Solar energy is used through solar panels that produce electricity.
 Identify environmental problems in your community.
Ans: Environmental issues in Pakistan include air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, cli-
mate change, pesticide misuse, soil erosion, natural disasters and desertification. These are se-
rious environmental problems that Pakistan is facing, and they are getting worse as the country's
economy expands and the population grows. Little is being done to tackle these issues, because
the goals of economic growth and tackling terrorism within the country supersede the goals of
environmental preservation. Although NGOs and government departments have taken initiatives
to stop environmental degradation, Pakistan's environmental issues still remain.
Extra Questions:
 27,000 acres deforestation being carried out annually in Pakistan.
 What are the properties of Carbon monoxide?
Ans: It is colourless, tasteless and odourless gas, so it gives no warning of its presence.
 How can we record the thickness of the ozone layer?
Ans: Micro-computers and sensors are taken up in aircraft to keep watch on the ozone layer.
The sensor detects the thickness of the ozone layer and the micro-computer records the meas-
urement.
 What are the greenhouse gases?
Ans: Greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour and ozone.
 What is greenhouse effect?
Ans: The natural situation in which heat is retained by the layer of greenhouse gases (carbon di-
oxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour and ozone) is called the greenhouse effect.
 How earth is like a greenhouse?
Ans: During the day, the sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth’s surface warms up in the
sunlight. At night, Earth’s surface cools, releasing the heat back into the air. But some of the
heat is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That’s what keeps our Earth warm.
 What would happened if greenhouse gases are absent in the atmosphere?
Ans: If the greenhouse gases were not present in the atmosphere, Earth would be 30 0C cooler
than it is today.
 When the hole in the ozone layer was discovered?
Ans: In June 1980, it was discovered that there was a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica
during certain month. In 1988, a team of scientists working in the Arctic Ocean discovered that
the ozone layer over Northern Europe was thinner than it had been.
 What are the chemicals that damage the ozone layer other than CFCs?
Ans: Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (used as a pesticide).
Halons (used in fire extinguishers), and methyl chloroform (used as a solvent in industrial pro-
cesses). As methyl bromide and halons are broken apart, they release bromine atoms, which are
60 times more destructive to ozone molecules than chlorine atoms.
 Climate change is responsible for different diseases. Justify?
Ans: Climate change was estimated to have been responsible for 3% of diarrhoea, 3%of ma-
laria and 3.8% of dengue fever, deaths worldwide in 2004. A paper by researchers from the Uni-
versity of the Oxford university and the university of Florida published in the science magazine
“Nature” in may 2010 concluded that a warmer climate has led to more widespread disease and
death due to malaria.
 What is bioconversion?
Ans: Bioconversion: The digestion of organic waste by bacteria is called bioconversion. In this
process methane is produces, it can be used as fuel. Biogas plants have been developed in
many countries including Pakistan to supply gas for domestic purpose in villages.
 What do you know about electromagnetic spectrum?
Ans: Electromagnetic spectrum: Energy from sunlight is called electromagnetic spectrum. En-
ergy in the form of light waves travel from the sun to earth.
Wavelength: The distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of next wave is called wave-
length.
We can only see the visible light. Infrared is invisible radiant energy with longer wavelengths
than those of visible light. Two huge factors affect the global radiation balance, short wave radi-
ation coming in from the sun and long wave comes from the earth. The earth actually gives off
radiation like the sun. The wavelength of the earth’s energy is much longer
EXAMINATION MCQs:
TASKS 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.
i. Which of the following does not contribute to the greenhouse effect?
A. CFCs
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Methane
D. Nitrogen
ii. Which one of the following is the cause of ozone depletion?
A. An ozone hole over America
B. At ground level ozone is a pollutant
C. CFCs
D. Absorption of infrared radiation by ozone
iii. Ozone depletion over the north pole is called
A. Black hole
B. Normal hole
C. Ozone hole
D. None of these
iv. Air pollution include
A. Carbon monoxide
B. Nitrogen
C. Oxygen
D. Noise
v. Solid waste management is the
A. Disposal of waste
B. Burning of waste
C. Recycling of waste
D. Decaying of waste
Short Questions:
1. Define; Pollution, Global warming, Acid rain, Wild life, ozone depletion.
2. Why do power stations and factories have tall chimneys?
3. List problems in human organs systems caused by air pollutants?
4. What are the oxides of nitrogen?
5. What causes the Earth’s greenhouse effect?
6. What converts ozone into oxygen?
7. Define global warming?
8. What do you know about soil erosion and desertification?
1. Write a short note on electromagnetic spectrum?
2. What are the sources, properties and harmful effects of chlorofluorocarbons?
3. What are the ways to reduce air pollution in the environment?
4. What are the effects of global warming on Earth?
E- Learning Ac-  Pollution

tivities
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-4.1&v=gs-6-envi-
ronment-28
 Sources of Air Pollutants
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-4.1&v=c-9-10-atm-
12
 Pollutants of Sulphur Compound
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-4.1&v=c-9-10-
atm-10
 Carbon Monoxide as Pollutant
atm-38
 Green House Effect
atm-13
 Depletion of Ozone
atm-20
 Global Warming
atm-14
 Acid Rain
atm-17
 Deforestation
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-4.2&v=gs-8-poll-
envi-11
 Lack of Natural Resources
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-4.2&v=gs-8-poll-
envi-13
 Ways of savings Our Surroundings
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-general%20science-8th-4.4&v=gs-6-envi-
ronment-29
 Solid Waste Management

 Ways of savings Ours Surroundings

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 CHAPTER - 1 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS

 CHAPTER - 2 HEREDITY IN ORGANISMS

B motor neuron sensory neuron interneuron

C sensory neuron motor neuron interneuron

D sensory neuron interneuron motor neuron

(ix) Where urea is made in the human body?

B Kidney liver urinary bladder

C liver urinary bladder kidney

D liver kidney urinary bladder

Takes place with will Takes place without will

Use brain Use spinal cord

Conscious process Unconscious process

(iv) a reflex action and reflex arc?

13. Describe the peripheral nervous system.

16. Describe human excretory system.

17. Describe the longitudinal section of a human kidney.

8. What is the function of axon?

EXAMINATION 1. Encircle the correct answer from the following choices.

E- Learning  Nervous System:

 Central Nervous System:

 Midbrain and Hind brain:

 Peripheral Nervous System:

 Working Model of Nervous System:

 Actions Controlled by the Nervous System:

10. Name the four nitrogenous bases of DNA.

15. Describe the process of meiosis in an animal cell.

16. What are the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

a.Twisting of a Ladder b. Polynucleotide

c. Double Helix model of DNA

5. Describe the structure of Human Ear?

E- Learning  Cell Cycle:

11. Describe structure of a bacterium?

12. How a gene is introduced into a bacterium?

 Recombinant DNA Technology

 Introduction of Genes into Bacterium

 Production of Insulin from Genetically Modified Bacterium

 Production of Vaccines from Genetically Modified Bacterium

 Role of Biotechnology in Agriculture, Food Production and Preservation

 Role of Biotechnology in Health and Environment

E- Learning Ac-  Pollution

 Sources of Air Pollutants

 Pollutants of Sulphur Compound

 Carbon Monoxide as Pollutant

 Green House Effect

 Lack of Natural Resources

 Ways of savings Our Surroundings

 Solid Waste Management

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