ALGEBRA

A) Function and Function Value Inverse Function, 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙)

• Steps in finding inverse function:
Function 1. Interchange x and y.
• The relation between dependent and independent 2. Solve for y in terms of x.
variable
3. Replace y by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
• Can be:
o Explicit
Example
▪ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Find the inverse function for 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1
▪ Dependent variable (y) isolated
• 𝐺: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1
o Implicit
• 𝑅: 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =?
▪ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
▪ Dependent variable (y) is not
isolated o 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1
o 𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 1
𝑥−1
Example o 𝑦= 2
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 10𝑥 + 1, find 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑓(𝑥). 𝒙−𝟏
• 𝑨: 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝟐
• 𝐺: 𝑓(𝑥) = 10 + 1 𝑥

• 𝑅: 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑓(𝑥) =?
B) Solutions and Properties of
• 𝐸, 𝑆: Common One-Variable Equations
o 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 10𝑥+1 + 1
o = 10(10𝑥 ) + 1 Quadratic Equation
o 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑓(𝑥) • 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
o = 10(10𝑥 ) + 1 − (10𝑥 + 1) • Solution Methods:
𝑥) 𝑥
o = 10(10 − 10 o Factoring
𝑥)
o = 9(10 o Completing the Square
• 𝐴: −𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
▪ 𝑥= 2𝑎
o 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝟏) − 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟗(𝟏𝟎𝒙 )
▪ Discriminant, 𝑑
• 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
Function Value
o Quadratic Formula
• Value of function at the given condition/s
o ES Calculator
• Properties of Roots
Example
o Sum
If 𝑓 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5, find 𝑓 when 𝑥 = −1
𝑏
and 𝑦 = 2. ▪ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = −
𝑎
• 𝐺: 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5 o Product
• 𝑅: 𝑓(−1,2) =? ▪
𝑐
𝑥1 ⋅ 𝑥2 = 𝑎
• 𝐸, 𝑆: calculate in calculator
• 𝑨: 𝒇(−𝟏, 𝟐) = 𝟏
 o Cases for Roots: • 𝑆:
▪ Real and Equal, 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 o − =
𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎
• 𝑑=0
o 𝑏 = −𝑐
▪ Real and Distinct, 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2
o 2𝑘 − 1 = −(−3𝑘 + 2)
• 𝑑>0
o 𝑘=1
▪ Complex and Conjugate,
𝑥1,2 = 𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔 • 𝑨: 𝒌 = 𝟏

• 𝑑<0
Cubic Equation
• 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0
Example
Find the values of x from quadratic equation • Solution Methods
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 o Synthetic Division
• G: 𝑎 = 1; 𝑏 = −5; 𝑐 = 6 o Cardan(o)’s Formula
• 𝑅: 𝑥1,2 =? o Calculator
• 𝑆: calculator • Properties of Roots
• 𝑨: 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟑; 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐 o Sum
𝑏
▪ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = − 𝑎
Example o Product
Find the sum and product of the roots without solving the 𝑑
equations. ▪ 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 = − 𝑎

• G: 𝑎 = 1; 𝑏 = −5; 𝑐 = 6 o Sum of Products

𝑐
• 𝑅: 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 =? ; 𝑥1 𝑥2 =? ▪ 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥3 =
𝑎
• 𝐸:
𝑏 Example
o 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − 𝑎
𝑐 Find the roots of the equation.
o 𝑥1 𝑥2 = 𝑎
𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 + 12 = 0
• 𝑆: substituting…
• 𝐺: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞.
• 𝑨: 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟓; 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟔
• 𝑅: 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 =?
• 𝐸, 𝑆: calculator
Example
• 𝐴:
Find the value of 𝑘 from the quadratic equation 7𝑥 2 +
(2𝑘 − 1)𝑥 − 3𝑘 + 2 = 0 so that the sum and product of o 𝒙𝟏 = −𝟒
the roots are equal o 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟑
• 𝐺: o 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟏
o 𝑎=7
o 𝑏 = 2𝑘 − 1 Example
o 𝑐 = −3𝑘 + 2 Find the sum, product, and sum of product of roots
o 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 without solving for the roots.

• 𝑅: 𝑘 =? • G: 𝑎 = 1; 𝑏 = 0; 𝑐 = −13; 𝑑 = 12

• 𝐸: • 𝑅: 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 =? ; 𝑥1 𝑥2 =? ; 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥3 =?
𝑏 • 𝐸:
o 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − 𝑎
𝑏
𝑐 o 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − 𝑎
o 𝑥1 𝑥2 = 𝑎
 𝑑
o 𝑥1 𝑥2 = −
𝑎 Quadratic Cubic
𝑐
o 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥3 = 𝑎
Equation Equation
• 𝑆: substituting… Sum: Sum:
𝑏 𝑏
• 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − • 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −
• 𝐴: 𝑎 𝑎

o 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎 Product: Sum of Product:

𝑐 𝑐
• 𝑥1 𝑥2 = • 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥3 =
o 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 = −𝟏𝟐 𝑎 𝑎

Product:
o 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 = −𝟏𝟑 - 𝑑
• 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 = − 𝑎

Roots of Properties for n-degree Equations

• 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑧 = 0
Given: 𝒂𝒙𝒏 + 𝒃𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒚𝒙 + 𝒛 = 𝟎
• Sum of all roots:
𝑏 Property Formula
o 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 = − 𝑎
Sum of all 𝑏
• Sum of product (choose two) roots 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 = −
𝑎
𝑐 𝑐
o 𝑥1 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑎 Sum of product 𝑥1 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛 =
(choose two) 𝑎
o For quadratic equation:
𝑐 Sum of product 𝑑
▪ 𝑥1 𝑥2 = (choose three) 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛−2 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛 = −
𝑎 𝑎
o For cubic equation: Sum of product 𝑒
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛−3 𝑥𝑛−2 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑐 (choose four) 𝑎
▪ 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥3 =
𝑎
• Sum of product (choose three)
… …
𝑑
o 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛−2 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛 = −
𝑎
o For cubic equation: C) Rene Descartes’ Forecast of Roots of a
𝑑 One-Variable Equation
▪ 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 = −𝑎
• Sum of product (choose four)
Forecast of Roots
𝑒
o 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛−3 𝑥𝑛−2 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛 = • Model: 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑎
o For fourth degree equation: • No. of roots = Degree of 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑒
▪ 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 = • No. of + roots = No. of change in signs in 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎
minus an even no.
• Remembering signs:
• No. of - roots = No. of change in signs in 𝑓(−𝑥)
o 𝑎=+ minus an even no.
o 𝑏=−
o 𝑐=+ Example
o 𝑑=− How many real positive roots are there in the equation.
o 𝑒=+ 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 18 = 0
• G: the eq’n
• 𝑅: 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
o No. of change in signs in 𝑓(𝑥)=3
o 𝑛 = 3 − 0 𝑜𝑟 3 − 2
 • 𝐴: E) The Remainder Theorem
o 𝒏 = 𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝟏
Remainder Theorem
D) Common Solutions to • Theorem for determining constant remainder R
System of Linear Equations when dividing a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) by a first-order
binomial 𝑥 − 𝑟
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑅
2 unknowns • = 𝑞(𝑥) +
𝑥−𝑟 𝑥−𝑟
• Solution Methods: o 𝑅 = 𝑓(𝑟)
o Elimination
o Substitution Factor Theorem
o Calculator • If 𝑅 = 𝑓(𝑟) = 0, then:
o (𝑥 − 𝑟) is a factor of polynomial 𝑓(𝑥)
Example o 𝑟 is a root of function 𝑓(𝑥)
Find the values of x and y from the system of linear
equations:
Example
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4
Find the constant remainder when 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5 is divided
𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −3 by 𝑥 + 2
• 𝐺: 𝑆𝐿𝐸 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+5
• G: 𝑥+2
;𝑟 = −2; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5
• 𝑅: 𝑥 =? ; 𝑦 =?
• 𝑅: 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 =?
• 𝐸, 𝑆: 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
• 𝐸: 𝑅 = 𝑓(𝑟)
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟏; 𝒚 = 𝟐
• 𝑆: calculate 𝑓(−2) in calculator.
• 𝑨: 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓
3 Unknowns
• Solution Methods:
F) The Binomial Theorem
o Elimination
o Cramer’s Rule (Determinants)
Binomial Theorem
o Calculator
• Theorem of expanding binomial (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛
• 𝑟 𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (𝑛𝐶𝑞)𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑞
Example
o 𝑞 = 𝑟−1
Find the values of x, y, and z from the system of linear
equations. o 𝑝+𝑞 = 𝑛 →𝑝 = 𝑛−𝑞
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −2
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8 Other Properties in Binomial Expansion
−𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8 • First term is 𝑎𝑛
• 𝐺: 𝑆𝐿𝐸 • Last term is 𝑏 𝑛
• 𝑅: 𝑥 =? ; 𝑦 =? ; 𝑧 =? • Sum of Exponents, SOE
• 𝐸, 𝑆: calculator o (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 → 𝑆𝑂𝐸 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟏; 𝒚 = 𝟐; 𝒛 = 𝟑 o (𝑎 + 𝑘)𝑛 → 𝑆𝑂𝐸 =
𝑛(𝑛+1)
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑥+𝑦)
o (𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑦 ) → 𝑆𝑂𝐸 = 2
• Sum of Numerical Coefficients, SNC
o (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛
 ▪ Replace variables by 1. o 𝑝 =𝑛−𝑞
▪ Proceed with operations. • 𝑆:
▪ (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)5 o 𝑞=4
5 o 𝑝=8
• 𝑆𝑁𝐶 = (2(1) + 3(1))
• 𝑆𝑁𝐶 = 3125 o 𝑎5 = (12𝐶4)𝑥 8 (4𝑦)4

o (𝑎 + 𝑘)𝑛 o 𝑘 = (12𝐶4)(4)4
▪ Replace variables by 1. o 𝑘 = 126720
▪ Proceed with operations. • 𝑨: 𝒌 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟎
▪ Subtract 𝑘 𝑛
▪ (2𝑥 + 7)3 Examples
1 9
• 𝑆𝑁𝐶 = (2(1) + 7)3 Find the term without x in the expansion of (𝑥 2 − 𝑥) .
• 𝑆𝑁𝐶 = 729 1 9
• 𝐺: (𝑥 2 − ) → (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛
• 𝑆𝑁𝐶 = 729 − 7 3 𝑥

• 𝑆𝑁𝐶 = 386 • 𝑅: 𝑎 = 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑤/𝑜 𝑥 =?

• 𝐸: 𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (𝑛𝐶𝑞)𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑞
Example • 𝑆:
Find the middle term without expansion of the binomial o 𝑎𝑝 𝑏 𝑞 = 𝑥 0
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)10. 1
o 𝑥 2𝑝 ⋅ − = 𝑥0
𝑥𝑞
• 𝐺: (𝑥 + 2𝑦)10 → (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛
o 2𝑝 − 𝑞 = 0
• 𝑅: 𝑎 = 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 =?
o 𝑝+𝑞 = 9
• 𝐸:
o 3𝑝 = 9
o 𝑟 𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (𝑛𝐶𝑞)𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑞
o 𝑝=3
o 𝑞 = 𝑟−1
o 𝑞=6
o 𝑝 =𝑛−𝑞
o 𝑟=7
• 𝑆:
1 6
𝑛+2 o 𝑎 = (9𝐶6)(𝑥 2 )3 (− )
o 𝑟= 2
=6 𝑥
o 𝑎 = 84
o 𝑞=5
• 𝑨: 𝒂 = 𝟖𝟒
o 𝑝=5
o 𝑎 = (10𝐶5)𝑥 5 (2𝑦)5
F.a) Common Number Series or Progression
o 𝑎 = 252(2)5 𝑥 5 𝑦 5
o 𝑎 = 8064𝑥 5 𝑦 5
Series of Perfect Squares
• 𝑨: 𝒂 = 𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟓 𝒚𝟓 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
• 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛 2 = 6

Example
Find the numerical coefficient NC of the 5th term w/o Example
expansion of the binomial (𝑥 + 4𝑦)12 Identical spheres are piled in the form of pyramid w/
• 𝐺: (𝑥 + 4𝑦) 12
→ (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑛 square base until one sphere on top. Find the total no. of
spheres if there are four spheres on each side of square
• 𝑅: 𝑎5 = 5𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦); 𝑘 =? ; 𝑟 = 5 base.
• 𝐸: 𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (𝑛𝐶𝑞)𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑞 • 𝐺: 𝑛 = 4
o 𝑞 = 𝑟−1 • 𝑅: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
 Sum of Perfect Sum of Sums Sum of Products
Squares
𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒏𝟐 (1) + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ⋯ + (1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛) (𝑛)(𝑚) + (𝑛 − 1)(𝑚 − 1) + (𝑛 − 2)(𝑚 − 2) + ⋯ (1)(𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1)

𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟏)(𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(3𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1)

𝑺𝒏 =
𝟔 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛 =
6 6

𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
• 𝐸: 𝑥 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = 6
|𝑛=4 F.b) Arithmetic Sequence
• 𝑆: Evaluating x
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎 Arithmetic Sequence
• Set of numbers with common difference
Sum of Sums • 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑎𝑛
• (1) + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ⋯ + (1 + 2 + • Formulas:
𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
3 + ⋯ + 𝑛) = 6
o 𝑑 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = 𝑎3 − 𝑎2 = ⋯
• Similar to stacking spheres to form a pyramid ▪ 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
with an equilateral triangle as base: o 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
o The top would have 1 sphere.. ▪ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
o The layer below has 1+2=3 sphere. 𝑛
o 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
o The layer below has 1+2+3=6 sphere.
▪ 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
o And so on. 𝑛
▪ 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
𝑎1 +𝑎2 +𝑎3 +⋯+𝑎𝑛
Sum of Products o 𝐴𝑀 =
𝑛
• (𝑛)(𝑚) + (𝑛 − 1)(𝑚 − 1) + (𝑛 − 2)(𝑚 − 2) + ▪ 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑛(𝑛+1)(3𝑚−𝑛+1)
⋯ (1)(𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1) = 𝑥+𝑦
6 o 𝐴𝑀 = 2
for two nos. x and y.
• 𝑛<𝑚
• 𝑚 = 8, 𝑛 = 3 Example
o (3)(8) + (2)(7) + (1)(6) In the pile of logs, each layer contains one more log than
• Similar to Stacking Spheres to form a pyramid the layer above and the top contains just one log. How
with a rectangular base: many layers are there if there are 105 logs in the pile.
o The base may have 3 by 8 spheres. • 𝐺: 𝑆𝑛 = 105; 𝑎1 = 1; 𝑑 = 1
o The layer above will have 2 by 7 spheres. • 𝑅: 𝑛 =?
𝑛
o The layer above will have 1 by 7 spheres. • 𝐸: 𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
o Any layer has one less sphere by length 𝑛
and width than the layer below. • 𝑆: 105 = 2 (2(1) + (𝑛 − 1)(1))
• 𝐴: 𝑛 = 14
• (another sol’n)
• 𝐺: 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 105
• 𝑅: ?
 𝑛
• 𝐸, 𝑆: 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)(1) → • 𝑅: 𝑛 =? ; 𝑆𝑛 =? ;
𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 2 • 𝐸, 𝑆:
• 𝑆: Quadratic or Parabolic Regression in o 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 →
Calculator 𝑦 = 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴

x (no. of terms) y (sum) Linear Regression in Calculator

1 1 x (n) y (nth term)
2 1+2=3 1 85
3 1+2+3=6 2 90
̂
𝒙 105 ̂
𝒙 715
105𝑥̂ → 14 715𝑥̂ → 127 = 𝑛
• 𝐴: 𝑛 = 14 o
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 (2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) →
𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 2
Regression Solution Methods
• Needed data is n+1 rows where n is the degree.
Quadratic Regression in Calculator
• Linear Regression has degree one and needs two
rows of data. x (n) y (nth term)
• Quadratic Regression has degree two and needs 1 85
three rows of data. 2 85+90=175
3 85+90+95=270
Example
127 𝑦̂
For the interval 84 to 719 or [84,719], find:
127𝑦̂ → 50800 = 𝑆𝑛
a. The no. of integers which are divisible by 5.
• 𝐴:
b. The sum of nos. in (a).
o 𝑛 = 127
• 𝐺: [84,719], 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 5
o 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎
• 𝑅: 𝑛 =? ; 𝑆𝑛 =? ;
• 𝐸:
F.c) Geometric Sequence
o 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
o 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
Geometric Sequence
• 𝑆: • It deals with nos. of terms w/ common ratio.
o 85,90,95, … ,715 • 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛
o 𝑎1 = 85, 𝑎𝑛 = 715, 𝑑 = 5 • Formulas for finite geometric seq.:
o 715 = 85 + (𝑛 − 1)5 𝑎 𝑎
o 𝑟 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 = ⋯
o 𝑛 = 127 1 2

127 ▪ 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

o 𝑆127 = (85 + 715)
2 o 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 (𝑛−1)
o 𝑆127 = 50800
▪ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
• 𝐴: 1−𝑟 𝑛
o 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 ( 1−𝑟 )
o 𝑛 = 127
o 𝑺𝟏𝟐𝟕 = 𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎 ▪ 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

• (another sol’n) o 𝐺𝑀 = √𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 … 𝑎𝑛

• 𝐺: [84,719], 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 5 ▪ 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
 ▪ For two nos. x and y Example
• 𝐺𝑀 = √𝑥𝑦 A rubber ball is dropped from a height of 18 m. If it
rebounds up to 2/3 of the height from where it last fell
• Formulas for infinite geometric seq.: and so on. Find the total distance transverse by the ball
1 𝑎 until it stop.
o 𝑆 = 1−𝑟
• 𝐺: ℎ0 = 18𝑚
• 𝑅: 𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Example
1−𝑟 𝑛
Find the sum of the first 5 terms in a geometric • 𝐸: 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 ( 1−𝑟 )
progression if the third term is 144 and the sixth term is
486. • 𝑆:
o Downward distance starts at 18m
• 𝐺: 𝑎3 = 144; 𝑎6 = 486
• 𝑅: 𝑆5 =? ▪ 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 18 (
1
)
2
1−
• 𝐸: 3

1−𝑟 𝑛
▪ 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 54
o 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 ( 1−𝑟 ) o Upward distance starts at 2/3 of 18m =
o 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 (𝑛−1) 12m when ball hits ground after drop

• 𝑆: ▪ 𝑑𝑢𝑝 = 12 (
1
)
2
1−
o 𝑎3 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2 = 144 3

▪ 𝑑𝑢𝑝 = 36
o 𝑎6 = 𝑎1 𝑟 5 = 486
𝑎6 𝑟5 486
o 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑢𝑝 + 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
o = 𝑟2 = 144
𝑎3 • 𝑨: 𝒅 = 𝟗𝟎𝒎
o 𝑟 3 = 3.375
o 𝑟 = 1.5 Ball Dropped From a Height Problem Shortcut
144
o 𝑎1 = 1.52
= 64 • 𝑑 = ℎ0 +
2𝑟ℎ0 2ℎ
= ℎ0 + 1−𝑟1
1−𝑟
1−1.55
o 𝑆5 = 64 ( 1−1.5 ) • Solving previous problem
2
• 𝑨: 𝑺𝟓 = 𝟖𝟒𝟒 o 𝑑 = 18 +
2( )(18)
3
2
1−
• (another sol’n) 3

o 𝒅 = 𝟗𝟎𝒎
• 𝐺: 𝑎3 = 144; 𝑎6 = 486
• 𝑅: 𝑆5 =?
Example
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
Given is an 8 cm square. If the second square is made by
o 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 (𝑛−1) → connecting the midpoints of the sides of the first square
𝑦 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑥 and the third square is made by connecting the midpoints
of the sides of the second square, and continuous
Exponential Regression in Calculator indefinitely. Find the sum of the perimeter of the squares.
x (n) y (nth term)
1 𝑦̂
3 144
6 486
1𝑦̂ → 64 = 𝑎1
o Input in calculator:
o 5
Σ𝑛=1 (64(1.5)(𝑛−1) )
• 𝑨: 𝑺𝟓 = 𝟖𝟒𝟒
 • 𝐺: 1 1 1 −1
𝐻𝑀 = 𝑛 ( + + ⋯+ )
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
▪ 𝐻𝑀 = 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
2𝑥𝑦
▪ For two nos. x and y, 𝐻 = 𝑥+𝑦

Example
The 3rd term in a harmonic progression is 15 and the 9th
term is 6. Find the eleventh term.
• 𝐺: 𝐴3 = 15; 𝐴9 = 6
• 𝑅: 𝐴11 =?
1
• 𝐸:𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴
𝑛

• 𝑆:
1
o 𝑎3 = 15
1
o 𝑎9 =
6
1
• 𝑅: Σ𝑃 =? o 𝑎3 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑 = 15
1 1
• 𝐸: 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 ( ) o 𝑎9 = 𝑎1 + 8𝑑 =
6
1−𝑟
1
• 𝑆: o 𝑎9 − 𝑎3 = 6𝑑 = 10
o 𝑃1 = 4(8) = 32 1
o 𝑑 = 60
o 𝑃2 = 4(4√2) = 16√2 1 1 1
o 𝑎1 = − 2( ) =
o 𝑃3 = 4(4) =16 15 60 30
1 1
o 𝑟=
16√2 16
= 16 =
√2 o 𝑎11 = 30 + 10 (60)
32 √2 2
1
1 o 𝑎11 = 5
o Subs. In Σ𝑃 = 𝑃1 ( )
1−𝑟
• 𝑨: 𝑨𝟏𝟏 = 𝟓
• 𝑨: 𝚺𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎

G) Motion Problems
F.d) Harmonic Sequence

Constant Velocity
Harmonic Sequence
• Formula: 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡
• Set of numbers or terms whose reciprocals form
an arithmetic sequence o 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , … 𝐴𝑛 • 2 Situations:
• Formula: o Body Moving in Stationary Medium
o Terms: ▪ 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒. 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
▪ 𝑎1 =
1 o Body Moving (with velocity x) in
𝐴1 Moving Medium (with velocity y)
1
▪ 𝑎2 = 𝐴 ▪ Body Going with Medium
2

▪ … • 𝑣 =𝑥+𝑦
𝑛 ▪ Body Going against Medium
o 𝐻𝑀 = 1 1 1
+ +⋯+
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛 • 𝑣 =𝑥−𝑦
 • 2 Bodies Moving in Stationary Medium o 𝑡=3
o 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 • 𝑅: 𝑣 =?
▪ 𝑠= • 𝐸, 𝑆:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠
o 𝑢 = 𝑣 − 72
▪ 𝑢 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
o 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡
o Moving in opposite directions
o 54 = (𝑣 − 20)3
▪ 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 + 𝑣𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤
• 𝑨: 𝒗 = 𝟑𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟖 𝒌𝒑𝒉
o Moving in the same direction
▪ 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 − 𝑣𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤
Example
• Steps for Solution: A boatman can travel 10 km downstream. At the same
o Draw figure. Write labels. time, he can travel 6 km upstream. If the water current is
3 kph, find the speed of the boat in still water.
o Set-up equations by considering
• 𝐺:
▪ Distance Analysis
o Downstream:
▪ Time Analysis
▪ 𝑠𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 10𝑘𝑝ℎ
o Use 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡
o Upstream:
▪ 𝑠𝑢𝑝 = 6𝑘𝑚
Example
A bus leaves Manila at 12 noon for Baguio 250 km away, o 𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑡𝑢𝑝
travelling at an average speed of 55 kph. At the same o 𝑦 = 3 𝑘𝑝ℎ
time, another bus leaves Baguio for Manila traveling at an
average speed of 65 kph. At what time will they meet? • 𝑅: 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =?
• 𝐺: • 𝐸, 𝑆:
o 𝑡 = 0@12𝑁𝑁 o Downstream:
o 𝑠 = 250𝑘𝑚 ▪ 𝑣𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑥 + 3
o 𝑥 = 55𝑘𝑝ℎ o 𝑈𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚:
o 𝑦 = 65𝑘𝑝ℎ ▪ 𝑣𝑢𝑝 = 𝑥 − 3
• 𝑅: 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =? o Doing time analysis…
• 𝐸, 𝑆: o 𝑡𝑢𝑝 = 𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝑠
o 𝑣 =𝑥+𝑦 o = 𝑣𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑣𝑢𝑝 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
o 𝑣 = 120 6 10
o = 𝑥+3
o 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑥−3

𝑠 250 o 𝑥 = 12
o 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 120 = 2.0833 ℎ = 2ℎ5𝑚
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝒑𝒉
• 𝐴: 𝑇 = 2: 05𝑃𝑀

Example
Example
Chuck on his bicycle intends to arrive at a certain time to
A 4m long sports car wants to overtake a trailer truck 50 a town that is 30 km away from his home. After riding 10
m long and traveling at 72 kph in 3 seconds. Find the km, he rested for half an hour, and as a result, he was
speed needed for the sports car. obliged to ride the rest of the trip 2 kph faster. What was
his original speed.
• 𝐺:
• 𝐺:
o 𝑠 = 50 + 4 = 54 𝑚
𝑘𝑚 1000𝑚 1ℎ𝑟 o 𝑠 = 30𝑘𝑚
o 𝑣𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 72 ℎ𝑟 × × 60⋅60𝑠 =
1𝑘𝑚 o 𝑠1 = 10𝑘𝑚
20𝑚/𝑠
o 𝑠2 = 20𝑘𝑚
 o 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 0.5 ℎ Example
o 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 2 Tom and Gerry are bricklayers. Tom can lay bricks for a
wall in 5 days. With Gerry’s help, he can build it in 2
o 𝑣1 = 𝑣 days. How long would it take Gerry to build it alone?
• 𝑅: 𝑣 =? • 𝐺:
• 𝐸: 𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 + 𝑡2 o 𝐴 → 𝑇𝑜𝑚
• 𝑆: o 𝐵 → 𝐺𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑦
o 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 o 𝑡𝐴 = 5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑣
o 𝑡= 𝑠 o 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
o 𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 + 𝑡2 • 𝑅: 𝑡𝐵 =?
𝑠 𝑠1 𝑠2 1 −1
o 𝑣
= 𝑣1
+ 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 + 𝑣2 •
1
𝐸: 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = (𝑡 + 𝑡 )
𝐴 𝐵
30 10 20
o 𝑣
= 𝑣
+ 0.5 + 𝑣+2 • 𝑆: Shift-solve.
𝟏
• 𝑨: 𝒗 = 𝟖 𝒌𝒑𝒉 • 𝑨: 𝒕𝑩 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟑 𝟑 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

H) Work or Accomplishment Problem Example

An inlet pipe pile can fill a tank in 6 hrs. Another inlet
Work or Accomplishment Problem pipe can fill the same tank in 10 hrs. If an outlet pipe can
empty the tank in 8 hrs. How long will it take to fill the
• General Formulas: tank when all pipes are open.
o For a worker: • 𝐺:
▪ 𝐴 = 𝑟𝑡 o 𝑡𝐴 = 6 ℎ𝑟𝑠
▪ 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 o 𝑡𝐵 = 10 ℎ𝑟𝑠
▪ 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 o 𝑡𝐶 = −8 ℎ𝑟𝑠
▪ 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 • 𝑅: 𝑡𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 =?
o For a group of 𝑁 workers: 1 1 1 −1
• 𝐸: 𝑡𝐴𝐵𝐶 = (𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 )
▪ 𝐴 = 𝑟𝑁𝑡 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

• Steps for Solutions: • 𝑆: Substitute.

o Always identify r. • 𝑨: 𝟕. 𝟎𝟔 𝒉𝒓𝒔 = 𝟕 𝒉 𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕𝟔𝒔
o Set-up equations by considering
accomplishment balance. Example
▪ Sum of Accomplishments = A and B working together can do a job in 5 days, B and C
Work to be done together can do the same job in 4 days, and A and C in
• For a piece of work: 2.5 days. In how many days can all of them finish the job
working together?
o Case 1: Workers A, B, … works alone
and later work together. • 𝐺:
1 1 −1 o 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
▪ 𝑡𝐴𝐵… = (𝑡 + 𝑡 + ⋯ )
𝐴 𝐵 o 𝑡𝐵𝐶 = 4 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
o Case 2: Workers A, B, and C work in o 𝑡𝐴𝐶 = 2.5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
combinations AB, AC, and BC, and later
work together. • 𝑅: 𝑡𝐴𝐵𝐶 =?
1 1 1 −1 1 1 1 −1
▪ 𝑡𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 2 (𝑡 +𝑡 +𝑡 ) • 𝐸: 𝑡𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 2 (𝑡 + +𝑡 +𝑡 )
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶

• 𝑆: Substitute.
• 𝑨: 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝒅 𝟖𝒉 𝟐𝟖𝒎 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟐𝒔
Example • 𝑅:
Jam can paint a car in 8 hrs. James can paint the same car o 𝐴′𝑑 = 𝐴′𝑏 = 200 𝑚
in 6 hrs. They start to paint the car together. After 2 hrs.,
Jam leaves for lunch and James finishes painting the car o 𝑁 = 10 𝑚𝑒𝑛
alone. How long does it take James to finish? o 𝑡 =?
• 𝐺: • 𝐸:
o 𝐴 → 𝐽𝑎𝑚 o 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑟𝑡
o 𝐵 → 𝐽𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 • 𝑆:
o 𝑡𝐴 = 8 ℎ𝑟𝑠 o 150 = 8(𝑟𝑑 )7
o 𝑡𝐵 = 6 ℎ𝑟𝑠 75
o 𝑟𝑑 = 28
o 𝑡1 = 2ℎ𝑟𝑠
o 100 = 3𝑟𝑏 (4)
o 𝐴 = 1 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟
25
o 𝑟𝑏 =
• 𝑅: 3
𝐴𝑑 ′ 𝐴 ′
o 𝑡2 =? o 𝑡= 𝑁𝑟𝑑
+ 𝑁𝑟𝑏
𝑏
• 𝐸: 𝐴 = 𝑟𝑡 200 200
o 𝑡= 75 + 25
• 𝑆: 10( )
28
10( )
3

𝐴 o 𝑡 = 9.87 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
o 𝑟=
𝑡
1 1
• 𝑨: 𝒕 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟕 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟗𝒅 𝟐𝟎𝒉 𝟒𝟖𝒎
o 𝑟𝐴 = , 𝑟𝐵 =
8 6
o Work balance: Sum of Accomplishment I) Mixture Problems
= Total Accomplishment
o 𝐴𝐴𝐵,2 ℎ𝑟𝑠 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴
Mixture Problems
o (𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵 )𝑡1 + 𝑟𝑏 𝑡2 = 𝐴
1 1 1
o (8 + 6) 2 + 6 𝑡2 = 1
o Shift-solve.
• 𝑨: 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒉𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝒉 𝟑𝟎𝒎

Examples
Eight men can dig 150 m of trench in 7 days while 3 men
can backfill 100 m of trench in 4 days. How long will it
take for 10 men to dig and backfill 200 m of trench?
• 𝐺:
• Formula:
o 𝑑 → 𝑑𝑖𝑔
o 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥
o 𝑏 → 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙
o Digging: y C x
▪ 𝐴𝑑 = 150 𝑚 Amount of Salt Concentration of Total Amount of
▪ 𝑡𝑑 = 7 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 Salt in Liquid Liquid
(g/mL)
▪ 𝑁𝑑 = 8 𝑚𝑒𝑛 (mL)
o Backfilling: Total amount of Percent Total Amount of
something Composition of Material
▪ 𝐴𝑏 = 100 𝑚
Something in a
▪ 𝑡𝑏 = 4 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 (g, mL) (g, mL)
Material
▪ 𝑁𝑏 = 3 𝑚𝑒𝑛 (%)
 • 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑳
Total Price Cost of Component
Component Mass
(Peso)
(Peso / kg) Example
(kg)
• Steps for Solution: A merchant wishes to reduce the price of her fresh ground
coffee by mixing 2 grades. If she has 50 kg of coffee
o Represent each mixture by a rectangle which sells for 500 Php/kg, how much coffee worth 300
with a C and x. Php/kg must she mix with it so that she can sell the final
o Set-up equations by balancing materials mixture for 425 Php/kg.
or cost.
▪ Sum of individual costs = Total • 𝐺:
cost

Example
Given is 100 grams of 50% gold alloy. How many grams
of pure gold must be added to obtain an alloy which is
75% gold? • 𝑅: 𝑥 =?
• 𝐺: • 𝐸: 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥
• 𝑆:
o 500(50) + 300(𝑥) = 425(𝑥 + 50)
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝒈

Coin Problems
• 𝑅: 𝑥 =? • 1$ = 100¢
• 𝐸: 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 • US Coins Denominations
• 𝑆: o 1 penny = 1 ¢
o (0.5)(100) + 𝑥 = (0.75)(100 + 𝑥) o 1 nickel = 5 ¢
o Shift-solve. o 1 dime = 10 ¢
• 𝐴: o 1 quarter = 25 ¢
o 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈 o 1 half-dollar = 50 ¢
• Steps for Solution:
Example o Create variable representations for no. of
Given is 100 L of brine which is 20% salt. How many pieces.
liters of water must be evaporated to obtain a solution ▪ Ex: Let: x = no. of dimes.
which is 25% salt.
o Set-up equations considering:
• 𝐺:
▪ No. of Pieces Relations
▪ Costs of Value Analysis
• Number of coins should be positive integers.

• 𝑅: 𝑥 =?
• 𝐸: 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥
• 𝑆:
o (0.2)(100) − 0(𝑥) = (0.25)(100 − 𝑥)
o Shift-solve.
Example J) Age problems
Jam opens her coin purse, and she founds dimes, quarters,
and nickels with a total value of $1.90. There are twice as
many dimes as there are quarters and half as many nickels Age Problems
as quarters. How many quarters are there?
Past Present Future
• 𝐺: (𝒙 years (𝒚 years after
before present)
o 𝑇 = 190 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 present)

o 𝑑 = 2𝑞 Word markers Was, Is, are, Will,

1 were, ago now shall,
o 𝑛= 2
𝑞
hence
• 𝑅: 𝑞 =? Age (𝑨) 𝐴−𝑥 𝐴 𝐴+𝑥
• 𝐸, 𝑆: Representation
o 𝑑(10) + 𝑞(25) + 𝑛(5) = 190 • Steps for solution:
1 o Represent present ages with a variable.
o 2𝑞(10) + 𝑞(25) + 2
𝑞(5) = 190
o Shift-solve. ▪ Ex. Let: B = Bimbi’s Present
Age
• 𝑨: 𝒒 = 𝟒 o Identify tenses of linking verbs.
o Tabulate ages as per tenses of linking
Example verbs.
James bought $21.44 of stamps. He bought 10 more 4¢ o Set-up equations while considering the
stamps than 19¢ stamps. The number of 32¢ stamps was 3 linking verbs.
times the number of 19¢ stamps. He also bought two $1
stamps. How many of each kind of stamps did he
purchase? Example
• 𝐺: Irene is twice as old as her daughter. Ten years ago, the
sum of their ages was 46 years. How old is Irene?
o 𝑛 → 19 ¢ stamps
• 𝐺:
o 𝑓 → 4 ¢ stamps
o 𝑡 → 32 ¢ stamps Past (“ago”) Present (“is”)
o Two $1 stamps Irene I-10 I
o 𝑓 = 𝑛 + 10 Daughter D-10 D
o 𝑡 = 3𝑛 o 𝐼 = 2𝐷
• 𝑅: o (𝐼 − 10) + (𝐷 − 10) = 46
o 𝑛, 𝑓, 𝑡 =? • 𝑅: 𝐼 =?
• 𝐸, 𝑆: • 𝐸, 𝑆:
o 19𝑛 + 4𝑓 + 32𝑡 + 200 = 2144 o 𝐼 − 2𝐷 = 0 → 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1)
o 19𝑛 + 4𝑓 + 32𝑡 = 1944 o 𝐼 + 𝐷 = 66 → 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (2)
o 𝑛 − 𝑓 = −10 o (1) + 2 × (2)
o 3𝑛 − 𝑡 = 0 o 𝐼 − 2𝐷 + 2𝐼 + 2𝐷 = 0 + 2(66)
o Input SLE in calculator. o 3𝐼 = 132
• 𝐴: o 𝐼 = 44
o 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟔 • 𝑨: 𝑰 = 𝟒𝟒
o 𝒇 = 𝟐𝟔
o 𝒕 = 𝟒𝟖
Example o 2𝐴 − 2𝑥 = 24 → (2)
In a certain family, the sum of parent’s ages is twice the o (2) + 2 × (1)
sum of children’s ages. Five years ago, the sum of
parent’s ages was 4 times the sum of children’s ages o 2𝐴 − 2𝑥 + 2𝐴 + 2𝑥 = 24 + 48
during that time. In 15 years, the sum of parent’s ages o 4𝐴 = 72
will be equal to the sum of children’s ages. How many
children are there in the family? o 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟖
• 𝐺:
K) Clock Problems
Past (5 yrs Present Future (in
ago) 15 years)
Clock Problem
Sum of P-10 P P+30
parent’s
ages
Sum of n C-5n C C+15n
Children’s
ages
• 𝑅: 𝑛 =?
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
o 𝑃 = 2𝐶
o 𝑃 − 2𝐶 = 0 → (1)
o 𝑃 − 10 = 4(𝐶 − 5𝑛)
o 𝑃 − 4𝐶 + 20𝑛 = 10 → (2) • Ratio of Spaces travelled by hands
o 𝑃 + 30 = 𝐶 + 15𝑛 o 𝑆𝐻: 𝑀𝐻: 𝐻𝐻; 3600: 60: 5
o 𝑃 − 𝐶 − 15𝑛 = −30 → (3) 𝑆𝐻 𝑀𝐻 𝐻𝐻
o 3600
= 12
= 1
o Input SLE in calculator.
• 30° = 5 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
• 𝐴:
• Steps for solution:
o 𝑃 = 90
o Draw approximate figure.
o 𝐶 = 45
o Let x = spaces travelled by fastest hand.
o 𝒏=𝟓
o Label all spaces.
o Set-up equations by equating arcs with
Example the same length.
Mary is 24 years old now. Mary is twice as old as Ann • Steps for my solution (my way)
was when Mary was as old as Ann is now. How old is
Ann now? o Draw approximate figure.
• 𝐺: o Let
▪ h = no. of spaces from 12 mark
Past (was) Present (is) of hour hand
Mary 𝑀 − 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑀 = 24 ▪ m = no. of spaces from 12 mark
of minute hand.
Ann 𝐴– 𝑥 𝐴
▪ s = no. of spaces from 12 mark of
o 𝑀 = 2(𝐴 − 𝑥) second hand.
• 𝑅: 𝐴 =? ▪ h0 = value of h when m = 0
• 𝐸, 𝑆: o Set-up equations:
𝒎
o 24 − 𝑥 = 𝐴 ▪ 𝒉 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝒉𝟎
o 𝐴 + 𝑥 = 24 → (1) ▪ Relationship between h and m.
Example o 𝒕 = 𝟕: 𝟐𝟏: 𝟒𝟗. 𝟎𝟗
Find the time after 7 o’clock when the hands (minute
hand and hour hand) of the clock are perpendicular for
the first time. Example
What time after 2 o’clock when the angle between
• 𝐺: minute-hand and hour-hand is bisected by a line
connecting the center and the 3 o’clock mark?
• 𝐺:

o h is number of spaces of hour mark from

12 mark
o m is number of spaces of minute mark
from 12 mark
• 𝑅: 𝑡 = 7: ? ?
• 𝐸, 𝑆: o h is number of spaces of hour hand from
12 mark
𝑚
o ℎ = 35 + 60 (5) o m is number of spaces of minute hand
𝑚 from 12 mark
o ℎ− 12
= 35 → (1)
• 𝑅: 𝑡 = 2: ? ?
o ℎ − 𝑚 = 15 → (2)
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
o (1) − (2) 𝑚
11 o ℎ = 10 + 60 (5)
o 12
𝑚 = 20
𝑚
o ℎ − 12 = 10 → (1)
o 𝑚 = 21.82 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
• 𝐴: o 𝑚 − 15 = 15 − ℎ

o 𝒕 = 𝟕: 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝟕: 𝟐𝟏: 𝟒𝟗. 𝟎𝟗 o ℎ + 𝑚 = 30 → (2)

o Input SLE in calculator.

MH and HH Angle Problem Shortcut o ℎ = 11.54

o 𝑚 = 18.46 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Given angle between MH and HH in final
position is known and divisible by 5, x is the • 𝑨: 𝒕 = 𝟐: 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟔 𝒐𝒓 𝟐: 𝟏𝟖: 𝟐𝟕. 𝟔𝟗
number of minutes as pointed by the minute
hand.
𝟔𝟎
𝒙 = (𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒉𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝑴𝑯) ( )
𝟏𝟏
• Solving previous problem
60
o 𝑥 = 4 (11)
o 𝑥 = 21.8181 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Bisected Problem Shortcut o 𝑚0 = 31.47
• If angle between minute-hand and hour-hand is • 𝐴:
bisected, x is the minute pointed by the minute
hand. o Arrival Time is 6:17.62.
𝟔𝟎 o Departure time is 3:31.47.
𝒙 = (𝒉𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝑯) ( )
𝟏𝟑
• Solving previous problem Clock Interchange Problem Shortcut

o
60
𝑥 = 4 (13) = 18.46 • When clock is interchanged, the number of
minutes in the time is
o 𝑡 = 2: 18.46 o 𝑥 = (ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐻𝐻 +
60
ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑀𝐻 × 12) (143)
Example
• Solving previous problem:
A man left his home past 3 o clock. After spending
between 2 to 3 hours outside, he returned home and o For departure time:
noticed that the minute hand and hour hand were exactly 60
▪ 𝑥 = [3 + 6 × 12] (143)
interchanged in positions. Find his departure and arrival
time. ▪ 𝑥 = 31.47 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
• 𝐺: ▪ Departure time is 3:31.47.
o For arrival time:
60
▪ 𝑥 = [6 + 3 × 12] ( )
143
▪ 𝑥 = 17.62 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
▪ Arrival time is 6:17.62.

L) Ratio and Proportion Problems

Ratio
o 0 → 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
• Model
o 𝑛𝑜 0 → 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙
o 𝑎: 𝑏; 𝑐: 𝑑
o ℎ→
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 12 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 • 𝑎 and 𝑑 are called extremes.
o 𝑚→ • 𝑏 and 𝑐 are called means.
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 12 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 • If 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 𝑥, x is a mean proportional or
• 𝑅: geometric mean of a and d.
o Arrival Time = ? o 𝑎: 𝑥; 𝑥: 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑎: 𝑥: 𝑑
o Departure Time = ? o 𝑥 = 𝐺𝑀 = √𝐴𝐷
• E,S:
o ℎ = 𝑚0 Proportion
o 𝑚 = ℎ0 • Model:
𝑚0 𝑎 𝑐
o ℎ0 − = 15 o 𝑏
=𝑑
12

o
ℎ
− 12 + 𝑚 = 15 → (1) • 𝑎 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑚 • 𝑏 = 2𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
o ℎ − 12 = 30 → (2)
• 𝑐 = 3𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
o ℎ = 31.47
• 𝑑 = 4𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
o 𝑚 = 17.62
Example M) Variation Problems
Find the mean proportional to numbers 4 and 25.
• 𝐺: 𝑎: 𝑥; 𝑥: 𝑑 → 4: 𝑥; 𝑥: 25 Proportion or Variation
• 𝑅: 𝑥 =? • 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
• 𝐸: 𝑥 = √𝐴𝐷 • If Q is directly proportional to x
• 𝑆: Substitute. o 𝑄𝛼𝑥
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎 o 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑥
• If Q is inversely proportional to y
1
Example o 𝑄𝛼𝑦
The ratio of three number. is 2:5:8. Find the largest 1
number if the sum of the numbers is 60. o 𝑄=𝑘⋅
𝑦
• 𝐺: • If Q is directly proportional to x and y
o 2: 5: 8; 𝑥: 𝑦: 𝑧 o 𝑄 𝛼 𝑥𝑦
o 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 60 o 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑥𝑦
• 𝑅: 𝑧 =? • If Q is inversely proportional to x and y
• 𝐸, 𝑆: o 𝑄 𝛼 𝑥𝑦
1
𝑧
o = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 o 𝑄=𝑘⋅
8 𝑧 𝑥𝑦
o =
2+5+8 60 • If Q is directly proportional to x and inversely
• 𝐴: proportional to y
𝑥
o 𝒛 = 𝟑𝟐 o 𝑄𝛼 𝑦
𝑥
o 𝑄=𝑘
𝑦
Example
Find the 3rd proportional to cube of 2 and positive square
root of 16. Example
• 𝐺: 23 : √16: 𝑐 The resistance of an electrical conductor is directly
proportional to its length and inversely proportional as the
• 𝑅: 𝑐 =? square of its diameter. If the length of 600 m and
diameter of 10 mm has a resistance of 0.1 Ω, find the
• 𝐸, 𝑆 = length of the same conductor material if it is 20 mm in
o 8: 4: 𝑐 diameter and resistance is 0.15 Ω.
8 4 𝐿
o =𝑐 • 𝐺, 𝑅: 𝑅 𝛼 𝑑2
4
• 𝑨: 𝒄 = 𝟐 o 𝑅1 = 0.1Ω
o 𝐿1 = 600 𝑚
o 𝑑1 = 10 𝑚𝑚
o 𝑅2 = 0.15Ω
o 𝐿2 =?
o 𝑑2 = 20 𝑚𝑚
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
𝑘𝐿
o 𝑅 = 𝑑2
𝑅𝑑 2
o 𝑘= 𝐿
𝑅1 𝑑12 𝑅2 𝑑22
o 𝑘= 𝐿1
= 𝐿2
 0.1(10)2 0.15(20)2 o 𝑥 = 100% − (30 − 15 − 5 − 10 − 13 −
o =
600 𝐿 7 − 8)%
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎 o 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐% 𝒅𝒐 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒔𝒎𝒐𝒌𝒆.
• Alternative solution:
N) Venn Diagram Problems o 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) −
(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) + (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
Example o 𝑦 = 55 + 40 + 30 − 20 − 10 − 7 + 5
A class of 40 students took examinations in Math and o 𝑦 = 88% 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠
English. If 30 passed Math, 36 passed English and 2 o 𝑥 = 100% − 88% = 12%
failed in both subjects, how many students passed in both
subjects. o 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐% 𝒅𝒐 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒔𝒎𝒐𝒌𝒆.
• 𝐺:
O) Percent Problems

Percent
𝑥
• %𝑥 = 𝑅 ⋅ 100
o x = part of R
o R = reference quantity
• A is P % more than B.
𝐴−𝐵
o %𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑃% = 𝐵
o 𝐴 = (1 + 𝑃)𝐵
• A is P% less than B.
𝐴−𝐵
• 𝑅: x =? o %𝐴 − 𝐵 = −𝑃% =
𝐵
• 𝐸, 𝑆: o 𝐴 = (1 − 𝑃)𝐵
o 30 + 36 − 𝑥 + 2 = 40 • 𝑃 in the formulas are in decimal form.
• 𝐴:
o 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟖 Example
A golden retriever dog gained 5.1 lbs. in one month and
Example weighs 65.1 lbs. now. What percent of the weight was
gained in one month?
A survey was made on the smokers of 3 cigarette brands
A, B, and C. If 55% smoke A, 40% smoke B, 30% smoke • 𝐺:
C, 20% smoke A and B, 12% smoke B and C, 10% o 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 5.1 𝑙𝑏𝑠
smoke A and C, and 5% smoke A, B, and C. What
percent do not smoke. o 𝑊 = 65.1 𝑙𝑏𝑠
• 𝑆: • 𝑅: %𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 =?
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛
• 𝐸: %𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅
• 𝑆:
o 𝑅 = 𝑊0 = 𝑊 − 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 60 𝑙𝑏𝑠
o Substitute.
• 𝑨: %𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟖. 𝟓%
Example ▪ Pesos = Peso / L x L
A group is made of n engineers and n nurses. If 2 o 𝐵0 = 𝑃0 𝐶0
engineers are replaced by 2 nurses, 51% of the group
members will be nurses. Find the value of n. o 𝑃 = 1.1𝑃0

• 𝐺: o 𝐶 = 0.9𝐶0

o 𝑅 = 2𝑛 o 𝐵 = 0.99𝑃0 𝐶0 = 0.99𝐵0
𝐵−𝐵0
o %𝑁𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠 =
𝑛+2
× 100 = 51% o %𝐵 − 𝐵0 = 𝐵0
× 100
2𝑛
0.99𝐵0 −𝐵0
• 𝑅: 𝑛 =? o %𝐵 − 𝐵0 = 𝐵0
× 100
• 𝐸, 𝑆: shift-solve. o %𝐵 − 𝐵0 = −1%
• 𝑨: 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 • 𝑨: 𝐏𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐮𝐦 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝟏%.

Example P) Means of 2 Numbers X and Y

If Juan is 10% taller than Pedro, and Pedro is 10% taller
than Maria, then Juan is taller than Maria by how many
percent? Means of Two Numbers
• 𝐺: • Arithmetic Mean
𝑥+𝑦
o %𝐽 − 𝑃 = 10% o 𝐴𝑀 = 2
o %𝑃 − 𝑀 = 10% • Geometric Mean
• 𝑅: %𝐽 − 𝑀 =? o 𝐺𝑀 = √𝑥𝑦
• 𝐸, 𝑆: • Harmonic Mean
o 𝐽 = 1.1𝑃 2𝑥𝑦
o 𝐻𝑀 = 𝑥+𝑦
o 𝑃 = 1.1𝑀
o 𝐽 = 1.1(1.1𝑀) • Quadratic Mean or Root Mean Square
o 𝐽 = 1.21𝑀 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
o 𝑄𝑀 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ 2
𝐽−𝑀
o %𝐽 − 𝑀 = × 100
𝑀 • Relationship between means:
1.21𝑀−𝑀
o %𝐽 − 𝑀 = × 100 𝐺𝑀 2
𝑀 o 𝐻𝑀 = 𝐴𝑀
o %𝐽 − 𝑀 = 21%
• 𝑨: %𝑱 − 𝑴 = 𝟐𝟏% Example
The arithmetic and geometric mean of two numbers are
Example 10 and 8, respectively. Find their HM.
After the price of petroleum oil went up by 10%, a • 𝐺:
consumer reduced his oil consumption by the same
percent. By what percent would his petroleum bill be o 𝐴𝑀 = 10
changed? o 𝐺𝑀 = 8
• 𝐺: • 𝑅:
o %𝑃 − 𝑃0 = 10% o 𝐻𝑀 =?
o %𝐶 − 𝐶0 = −10% 𝐺𝑀 2
• 𝐸: 𝐻𝑀 = 𝐴𝑀
• 𝑅:
• 𝑆: Substitute.
o %𝐵 − 𝐵0 =?
𝐵−𝐵0
• 𝑨: 𝑯𝑴 = 𝟔. 𝟒
• 𝐸: %𝐵 − 𝐵0 = 𝐵0
× 100

• 𝑆:
o 𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶
 trigonometry
A) Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions; Special Functions
Angles and Identities

Six Trigonometric Functions

QII – only
sin and csc
are positive. QI – all
positive

• Versine: 𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉) = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉)

QIII – QIV– only • Vercosine: vercosin(θ) = 1 + cos(θ)
only tan cos and sec • Coversine: 𝐜𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉) = 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉)
and cot are positive. are positive.
• Covercosine: covercos(θ) = 1 + sin(θ)

• Principal Functions (SOH-CAH-TOA) o Sine sad dulo indicates negative.

𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑦 o Cosine sad ulo indicates positive.
o 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ℎ𝑦𝑝 = 𝑟
o Ver sa una indicates cosine.
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑥
o 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ℎ𝑦𝑝 = 𝑟 o Cover sa duo indicates sine.
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑦 𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉)
o 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 = • Haversine: 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉) = 𝟐
𝑥
vercosin(θ)
• Reciprocal Functions (CHO-SHA-CAO) • Havercosine: havercosin(θ) =
2
1 ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑟
o 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝜃 = = = • Hacoversine: hacoversin(θ) =
coversin(θ)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑦
2
1 ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑟 covercos(θ)
o 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗
=𝑥 • Hacovercosine: hacovercos(θ) = 2

o 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 =
1
=
𝑎𝑑𝑗
=
𝑥 • Exsecant: 𝐞𝐱𝐬𝐞𝐜(𝛉) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜(𝛉) − 𝟏
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑦
• Excosecant: excsc(θ) = csc(θ) − 1
• In the unit circle
o 𝑟=1
Angle Units Conversion
o Coordinates: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) are
four quadrants QI, QII, QIII, and QIV, as • 1 rev = 360 degrees
shown.
• 1 rev = 2π rad
• 1 rev = 400 grad
• 1 rev = 6400 mils

Angle Measurement
• 𝜃 > 0 when measured CCW from x-axis
• 𝜃 < 0 when measured CW from y-axis
 • Complement Angle
o 𝜃𝑐 = 90° − 𝜃
o 𝜃 + 𝜃𝑐 = 90°
o Forms a right angle.
• Supplement Angle
o 𝜃𝑠 = 180° − 𝜃
o 𝜃 + 𝜃𝑠 = 180°
o Forms a straight angle.
• Explement Angle
o 𝜃𝑥 = 360° − 𝜃
o 𝜃 + 𝜃𝑥 = 360°
o Forms one revolution.
• Right Angle – 90 degrees
• Straight Angle – 180 degrees
• Acute Angle
o 0° < 𝜃 < 90°
Quadrantal Angles
• Obtuse Angle
o 90° < 𝜃 < 180°
• Coterminal Angles
o Angles that when measured CCW from
the x-axis terminates at the same
direction or line
o 𝜃 = 𝜃 + (𝑛)(360°), 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

Special Angle
• Angle whose cosine and sine can be determined
with Pythagorean theorem

• Angles exactly on the division of quadrants

• 0°/360°, 90°, 180°, 270°
Pythagorean Identities Inverse Trigonometric Functions
• Memorize first-level identities only. Memorize • In trigonometric functions, the input is the angle,
how to derive the next-level ones. the output is ratio of sides of a right triangle.
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 • In an inverse trigonometric function, it is the
2 2 reverse. The input is the ratio, and the output is
o Divide by cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 to get two the angle.
more identities.
• Inverse Trigonometric Functions
o 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃
o arcsin 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥
o cot 2 𝜃 + 1 = csc 2 𝜃
o arccos 𝑥 = cos−1 𝑥
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 − 𝑩) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩 o arctan 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥
o Add both equations to get product to sum o arccsc 𝑥 = csc −1 𝑥
identity of sine-cosine.
o arcsec 𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥
o 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 − 𝑩)
o arccot 𝑥 = cot −1 𝑥
o Set B = A in sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) to get double
angle identity of sine. • Note:
1
o 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝑨) = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 o sin−1 𝑥 ≠ sin 𝑥
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 − 𝑩) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩
Example
o Add both equations to get product to sum
identity of cosine-cosine. Evaluate sec −1 2.
o 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 − 𝑩) a. 180°
o Subtract equations to get product to sum b. 210°
identity of sine-sine. c. 30°
o 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 − 𝑩) − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 + 𝑩) d. 300°
o Set B = A in cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) to get double • sec −1 2 = 𝑥
angle identity for cosine.
• 2 = sec 𝑥
o 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝑨) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝑨 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝑨
1
▪ Set cos 2 𝐴 = 1 − sin2 𝐴 • cos 𝑥 = 2
▪ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝑨) = 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝑨 • Shift-solve.
𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝑨 = (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝑨)) • 𝑥 = 60, 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝟐
▪ Set sin2 𝐴 = 1 − cos 2 𝐴 • There are no coterminal angles of 60° also such
▪ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝑨) = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝑨 − 𝟏
as 420° or -300°.
𝟏 • It must be in another quadrant.
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝑨 = (𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝑨))
𝟐
• sec 𝑥 is positive where x-coordinate is positive,
• QI and QIV.
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝑨 + 𝑩) = • 60° is in QI.
𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝑨 − 𝑩) = • The other angle in QIV have the same x-
𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩 coordinate. Mirroring 60 degrees CCW, we get
o Set B = A in tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) 60 degrees CW or −60°.
o tan(2𝐴) =
2 tan 𝐴
1−tan2 𝐴
• 𝑥 = −60°, 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧(−𝜽) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 • Try to get coterminal angles of -60°. Add or
𝐜𝐨𝐬(−𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 subtract multiples of 360 degrees.
𝐭𝐚𝐧(−𝜽) = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 • 𝑥 = −60° + 360° = 300°
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟗𝟎° − 𝜽) • Answer is d. 𝟑𝟎𝟎°
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎° ± 𝜽)
Example Example
A certain angle has an explement 5 times the supplement, If cos 𝑥 = 2, find cos 3𝑥.
find the angle.
• arccos 2 → 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 in calculator.
• 𝐺: 𝜃𝑥 = 5𝜃𝑠
• 𝑥 must be complex.
• 𝑅: 𝜃 =?
• 𝑥 = 𝑗𝑦
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
• cos 𝑗𝑦 = cosh 𝑦 = 2
o 360° − 𝜃 = 5(180° − 𝜃)
• y = arccosh 2
o 360° − 𝜃 = 900° − 5𝜃
• 𝑥 = 𝑗 arccosh 2
o 4𝜃 = 540
• cos 3𝑥 = cos(3𝑗 arccosh 2)
o 𝜃 = 135°
• = cosh(3 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 2)
• 𝐴: 𝜃 = 135°
• cos 3𝑥 = 26

Example
4 7
Example
If sin 𝐴 = 5 where A is in quadrant II and sin 𝐵 = 25
If sin 3𝐴 = cos 6𝐵, then:
where B is in quadrant I, find sin (𝐴 + 𝐵)
a. A + B = 180°
• 𝑅: sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)
b. A + 2B = 30°
• 𝑆:
c. A – 2B = 30°
4
o 𝐴 = arcsin 5 d. A + B = 30°
o Calculator outputs 53.13° • sin 𝐴 = cos(90° − 𝐴)
o This is in quadrant I. Since sine is a • cos(90° − 3𝐴) = cos(6𝐵)
function of y, y-coordinate must be the
same or the other angle is a mirror of • 90° − 3𝐴 = 6𝐵
53.13° about the y-axis. • 3𝐴 + 6𝐵 = 90°
o 𝐴 = 180° − 53.13° = 126.86°
• 𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 30°
7
o 𝐵= arcsin • Answer is b.
25
o Calculator outputs 16.26°
o This is already in quadrant I. Example
o sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 0.6 If 77° + 0.4𝑥 = tan−1 (cot(0.25𝑥)), solve for 𝑥.
a. 10°
Example b. 30°
2
Simplify the equation (4 cos 𝑦 sin 𝑦)(1 − 2 sin 𝑦) c. 20°
a. sec 2𝑦 d. 40°
b. cos 2𝑦 • S:
c. tan 4𝑦 o Shift-solve. Or…
d. sin 4𝑦 o Calculate 77° + 0.4𝑥 −
tan−1 (cot(0.25𝑥)) at the different values
• = (2 sin 2𝑦)(cos 2𝑦)
of x in the choices.
• = sin 4𝑦, Answer is d.
• 𝐴:
• Alternatively, o c. 20°
o Set y = some number (test number)
o Input it in given and all the output and
see which will match.
 B) Properties of Graph of Trigonometric Functions Tangent and Cotangent

Sinusoidal Curve

• For pure sine and cosine:

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥
o Amplitude, A
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛
▪ 𝐴= 2
▪ 𝐴 = |𝑎|
o Period, T • 𝑦 = 𝑎 tan 𝑏𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑎 cot 𝑏𝑥
1 𝜋
▪ 𝑇= 𝑓
o 𝑇 = |𝑏|
2𝜋
▪ 𝑇 = |𝑏| o Range is all real numbers.
o Domain is all real numbers except where
o Frequency, 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 the function is undefined.
▪ 𝜔 = |𝑏| = 2𝜋𝑓
1
▪ 𝑓=𝑇 Example
• For sum of cosine and sine: Find the amplitude and period of the curve represented by
𝑦 = 𝛼 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝛽 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑦 = 4 cos 2𝑥.
o Amplitude, A • 𝐺:
▪ 𝐴 = √𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 o 𝑎=4
o 𝑏=2
Secant and Cosecant Curve • 𝑅:
o 𝐴 =?
o 𝑇 =?
• 𝐸:
o 𝐴 = |𝑎|
2𝜋
o 𝑇 = |𝑏|

• 𝑆:
o Substitute.
• 𝑦 = 𝑎 sec 𝑏𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑎 csc 𝑏𝑥 • 𝐴:
2𝜋
o 𝑇= o 𝑨=𝟒
|𝑏|
o 𝑻=𝝅
• Range is (−∞, 𝑎] ∪ [𝑎, +∞)

Example
Find the period of 𝑦 = tan 3𝑥.
• 𝐺:
o 𝑎=1
 o 𝑏=3 • Imagine that the radius line is rotating. At what
quadrant is the x-coordinate (cos x) and y-
• 𝑅: coordinate (sin x) both increasing.
o 𝑇 =? o I.e.
• 𝐸: ▪ x-coordinate is going right.
𝜋
o 𝑇= |𝑏| ▪ y-coordinate is going up.
• 𝑆: • This is the case in QIV.
o Substitute. • A: QIV
• 𝐴:
𝝅 C) Problems dealing with Right Triangles
o 𝑻=
𝟑

Right Triangle
Example
A particle moves in simple harmonic motion in
accordance with the equation 𝑠 = 3 sin 2𝜋𝑡 + 4 cos 2𝜋𝑡,
where 𝑠 and 𝑡 are expressed in ft and seconds,
respectively. What is the amplitude of its motion?
• 𝐺:
o 𝛼=3
o 𝛽=4
o 𝐵 = 2𝜋
• 𝑅:
o 𝐴 =?
• 𝐸:
o 𝐴 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2
• 𝑆:
o Substitute. • Pythagorean Theorem
• 𝐴: o 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
o 𝑨 = 𝟓 𝒇𝒕 • Sum of Angles
o 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 180°
Example o Since 𝐶 = 90°
At what quadrant are both sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 increasing? ▪ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 90°
• Solutions of Problems with Right Triangles:
o By Pythagorean Theorem
o By trigonometric functions
Example Example
Find the angle in mils subtended by a line 10 yards long A tree broken over by the wind forms a right triangle with
at a distance of 5000 yards. the ground. If the broken part makes an angle of 50° with
the ground and the top of the tree is now 20 ft from its
• 𝐺: base, how tall was the tree?
• 𝐺:

• 𝑅: 𝑥 =?
• 𝑆:
10
o tan 𝑥 = 5000
6400 𝑚𝑖𝑙
o 𝑥 = 0.11° ⋅ 360°
• 𝑨: 𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐬

To Subtend
• 𝑅: ℎ = 𝑐 + 𝑏 =?
• To take up the side opposite an angle or arc
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
• Ex: 𝑏
o tan 50° = 20
20
o cos 50° = 𝑐
o ℎ =𝑐+𝑏
20
o ℎ = cos 50° + 20 tan 50°
• 𝑨: 𝒉 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟗𝟓 𝒇𝒕

Example
o The angle 22° is subtended by the tree.
An air balloon flying vertically upward at constant speed
o The tree subtends the angle 22°. is situated 150 m horizontally from an observer. After one
o The tree subtends 22° from the eye. minute, it is found that the angle of elevation from the
observer is 28°59’. What will be the angle of elevation
after 3 minutes from its initial position?
• 𝐺:

o Side AC subtends angle B.

o Side AC subtends 39° from point B.
 • 𝑅: 𝜃 =? • 𝐺:
• 𝐸, 𝑆:
1 𝑠
o tan 28°59′ = 150
o 𝑠1 = 83.09 𝑓𝑡
𝑠
o 𝑣 = 𝑡1 = 83.09 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1

o 𝑠2 = 𝑣𝑡2 = 249.27 𝑓𝑡
249.27
o tan 𝜃 = 150
• 𝑨: 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟗𝟔° 𝐨𝐫 𝟓𝟖°𝟓𝟕′ 𝟒𝟑. 𝟒𝟓"

Example
A helicopter is 500m above the sea when the pilot
observes two boats, one at the east and the other at the
south of him. Find the distance between boats if the angle • 𝑅: 𝑑 =?
of depressions is 30° and 45°, respectively. • 𝐸: 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2
• 𝐺: • 𝑆: 𝑑 = √(6400 + 3 + 0.015)2 − (6400)2
• 𝑨: 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟕 𝐤𝐦

D) Problems Dealing w/ Oblique or Scalene Triangles

Oblique and Scalene Triangles

• 𝑅: 𝑑 =?
• 𝑆:
o Special Triangles.
o 45-45 triangles have ratio of sides
1: 1: √2
o 𝑑2 = 500 𝑚
o 30-60 triangles have ratio of sides
• They are essentially the same.
2: 1: √3
• Oblique Triangle
o 𝑑1 = 500√3
o A triangle with different angles
o 𝑑 = √𝑑12 + 𝑑22
• Scalene Triangle
• 𝑨: 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝒌𝒎
o A triangle with different sides
• Sine Law:
Example
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
A transmitter with a height of 15 m is located on top of a = = = 𝟐𝑹
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑪
mountain which is 3 km high. What is the furthest
distance on the surface of the earth that can be seen from o If the triangle is inscribed in a circle of
the top of the mountain? Take the radius of the earth to be radius R.
6400 km. • Cosine Law:
 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝒃𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 Example
𝒃𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 Points A and B, 1000 m apart are plotted on a straight
highway running east and west. From A, the bearing of
𝒄𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑪 the tower C is 32°W of N and from B, the bearing of C is
• Sum of angles is 180° 26° N of E. Approximate the shortest distance of the
tower C to the highway.
o 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 180°
• 𝐺:
• Opposite of smallest angle is smallest side and
vice versa.
• Opposite of biggest angle is biggest side and vice
versa.

Example
A tower cast a shadow of 15 m long when the angle of
elevation of the sun is 61°. If the tower has leaned 15°
from the vertical towards the sun, what is the length of
the tower?
• 𝐺:

• 𝑅: 𝑑 =?
• 𝐸: Sine Law
• 𝑆:
o 𝐴 = 90 − 32 = 58°
o 𝐶 = 180° − 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 96°
𝑎 1000
o sin 58°
= sin 96°
• 𝑅: 𝐿 =?
o 𝑎 = 852.72 𝑚
• 𝐸: 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑑
o sin 26° = 𝑎
• 𝑆:
• 𝑨: 𝒅 = 𝟑𝟕𝟑. 𝟖𝟏 𝐦
o The angle near sun is 180-61-90-15 =
14°.
15 𝐿 Shortcut Solutions
o sin 14°
= sin 61°
Case I:
• 𝐴:
𝑑 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
o 𝑳 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟐𝟑 𝐦 ℎ=
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)

Case II:
𝑑 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
ℎ=
sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)

• Solving previous problem with shortcut:

1000 sin 26 sin 58
o ℎ= sin(26+58)
= 373.81 𝑚
Example o The angle opposite the longest side is the
largest angle.
Two stones 1 mile apart are of the same level as the foot
of the hill. The angles of depression of the two stones • 𝐸: Cosine Law
viewed from the top of the hill are 5° and 15°,
respectively. Find the height of the hill in meters. • 𝑆: 92 = 72 + 82 − 2(7)(8) cos 𝜃
• 𝐺: • 𝑨: 𝜽 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟒𝟎°

Example
An airplane travels in the direction N30°W at a speed of
500 mph in calm air. The plane encounters a wind with a
velocity of 70 mph in the direction N45°E. Find the
resultant speed and direction of the airplane relative to the
ground.
• 𝐺:
o 𝑣𝑎 = 500 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑁30°𝑊
o 𝑣𝑤 = 70 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑁45°𝐸
• 𝑅:
• 𝑅: ℎ =? 𝑚
𝑑 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 o 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑣𝑎 + 𝑣𝑤
• 𝐸: ℎ =
sin(𝐴+𝐵) • 𝑆:
• 𝑆: Substitute. o Convert to phasor.
o ℎ = 0.130 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 o 𝑣𝑎 = 500∠(90 + 30)° = 500∠120°
o Converting using calculator. o 𝑣𝑤 = 70∠(90 − 45)° = 70∠45°
• 𝑨: 𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎𝟗. 𝟎𝟔 𝐤𝐦 o Adding…
o 525.51∠112.56°
Example • 𝑨: 𝒗𝑹 = 𝟓𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟏 𝐦𝐩𝐡 𝐍𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟔°𝐖
Three circles of radii 3, 4, and 5 inches, respectively are
tangent to each other externally. Find the largest angle of
the triangle formed by joining the centers.
• 𝐺:

• 𝑅: 𝜃 =?
 PLANE MENSURATION
I) Triangles Equilateral Triangle

Basic Formula for Area of Triangle

𝟏
• 𝑨 = 𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎°
√𝟑 𝟐
𝟏 • 𝑨= 𝒂
• 𝑨= 𝒃𝒉 𝟒
𝟐
√3
o Since sin 60° = 4

Triangle Area Given 2 Sides and Angle Between Them

Understanding Some Terms

𝟏
• 𝑨 = 𝟐 𝒂𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
• Still ½ base times height
o The base is b
o And the height is 𝑎 sin 𝜃

Triangle Area Given 3 Sides (Hero(n)’s Formula)

• Inscribed circle – pinasok na circle

• The circle is inscribed in a triangle.
• 𝑨 = √𝒔(𝒔 − 𝒂)(𝒔 − 𝒃)(𝒔 − 𝒄)
o Pinasok yung bilog sa triangle.
1
o 𝑠 = 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) • Escribed circle – kinalong na circle
o Since 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 is the perimeter and 𝑠 is • The circle is escribed by a triangle.
half the perimeter, 𝑠 is called the semi-
perimeter. o Yinakap ng triangle ang bilog.
• Circumscribed circle – ipinalibot na circle
 • The triangle is circumscribed by a circle. Area of Escribed Triangle
o Ang triangle ay pinalibutan ng circle.

• 𝑨 = 𝑹(𝒔 − 𝒂)
o 𝑠 is semi-perimeter

• Surmouted – ipinatong
3 Altitudes of a Triangle
• Surmounted semi-circle
o Ipinatong na semi-circle
• The rectangle is surmounted by a semi-circle.
o Ang rectangle ay pinatungan ng semi-
circle.

Area of Inscribed Triangle

• Altitude or Height
o Line from vertex to opposite side and is
perpendicular to opposite side
• Orthocenter
𝒂𝒃𝒄
• 𝑨= o The point of intersections of the altitudes
𝟒𝑹
in a triangle
• Formulas for altitude
Area of Circumscribed Triangle 𝟐𝑨
o 𝒉𝒂 = 𝒂
𝟐𝑨
o 𝒉𝒃 = 𝒃
𝟐𝑨
o 𝒉𝒄 = 𝒄
• Sum of Altitudes
1 1 1
• 𝑨 = 𝒓𝒔 o ℎ𝑎 + ℎ𝑏 + ℎ𝑐 = 2𝐴 ( + + )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
o 𝑠 is semi-perimeter ▪ Area A can be substituted with
the Heron’s formula.
3 Median Lines of a Triangle o When a circle is inscribed in the triangle,
the shortest distance from the incenter to
a side is the radius of the inscribed circle.

Example
Triangle ABC is a right triangle with right angle at C. If
BC = 4 and the altitude to the hypothenuse is 1, find the
area of the triangle ABC.

• Median Line
o A line connecting a vertex to the mid-
point of opposite side.
• Centroid, c’
o The point of intersection of median lines
• Formulas for length of median lines
𝟏
o 𝒎𝒂 = 𝟐 √𝟐(𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 ) − 𝒂𝟐
𝟏
o 𝒎𝒃 = 𝟐 √𝟐(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 ) − 𝒃𝟐 • 𝑆:
𝟏
o 𝒎𝒄 = 𝟐 √𝟐(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 ) − 𝒄𝟐 o 𝑐1 = √42 − 12 = √15
o 𝑐1 : 1; 1: 𝑐2
𝑐1 1
3 Angle Bisectors of a Triangle o 1
=𝑐
2
1 1
o 𝑐2 = =
𝑐1 √15
o 𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2
1
o 𝐴 = 2 𝑐ℎ𝑐
1 1
o 𝐴 = (√15 + ) (1)
2 √15
o 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟕 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬

• Angle Bisector
o A line that divides a vertex angle in half.
• Incenter
o The center of the inscribed circle
• Formulas for length of angle bisectors:
𝟐
o 𝒕𝑨 = 𝒃+𝒄 √𝒃𝒄𝒔(𝒔 − 𝒂)
𝟐
o 𝒕𝑩 = 𝒂+𝒄 √𝒂𝒄𝒔(𝒔 − 𝒃)
𝟐
o 𝒕𝒄 = √𝒂𝒃𝒔(𝒔 − 𝒄)
𝒃+𝒄
• Note:
Example II) Circle and Parts of a Circle
Given is a triangle with sides 8 cm, 10 cm, and 12 cm.
Find the radius of the circle that (a) circumscribed the
triangle, and (b) is inscribed in the triangle. Area of Sector and Circular Arc Length

• 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
o 𝑠 = arclength
• 𝐺:
o 𝜃 = angle in radians
o 𝑎=8
1 1
o 𝑏 = 10 • 𝐴 = 2 𝑟𝑠 = 2 𝑟 2 𝜃
o 𝑐 = 12 𝜃
o Or: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⋅
2𝜋
• 𝑅:
o 𝑟 =? Chord
o 𝑅 =?
• 𝐸:
o 𝐴 = 𝑟𝑠
𝑎𝑏𝑐
o 𝐴=
4𝑅

o 𝐴 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)

1
o 𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
2
• 𝑆:
o 𝑠 = 15
o 𝐴 = 39.69 → (𝐴)
(𝐴)
o 𝑟= = 2.65 𝜃
15 • 𝐿 = 2𝑟 sin (2 )
8⋅10⋅12
o 𝑅 = 4(𝐴) o Derived by dividing the triangle, dividing
𝜃 𝐿/2
o 𝑅 = 24.19 angle theta. sin =
2 𝑟
• 𝐴: • 𝐴𝑆𝑆 =
1 2
𝑟 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
2
o 𝒂. 𝑹 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟓 𝒄𝒎
o Sector Area – Triangle Area
o 𝒃. 𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓 𝒄𝒎 1
• 𝐴𝐵𝑆 = 2 𝑟 2 (𝛽 = sin 𝛽)
• 𝜃 and 𝛽 are both in radians.
Example Example
A railroad is to be laid-off in a circular path. What should Given are two concentric circles. If the chord of the big
be the radius if the track is to change direction by 30° at a circle is 10 cm and always tangent to the small circle, find
distance of 157.08 m? the area between the two circles (annular ring)
• 𝐺: • 𝐺:

• 𝑅: 𝑟 =?
• 𝐸: 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
• 𝑆:
𝜋
o 30° in radians is • 𝑅: 𝐴 =?
6
o Substitute. • 𝑆:
• 𝑨: 𝒓 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎 𝐦 o 𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 = 52
o 𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )
Example o 𝐴 = 𝜋(52 )
The area of the small segment of a circle with radius 6m o 𝐴 = 25𝜋
is 28 m2. Find the length of its cord. • 𝑨: 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟓𝝅 𝐜𝐦𝟐
• 𝐺:
o 𝑟 =6𝑚 Example
o 𝐴𝑆𝑆 = 28𝑚2 Suppose a man 1.7 m tall could walk around the Earth
• 𝑅: 𝐿 =? along a great circle, whose radius r = 6371.64 km.
Determine the difference in the distances traveled by his
• 𝐸: head and feet.
1
o 𝐴𝑆𝑆 = 2 𝑟 2 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃) • 𝐺:
𝜃
o 𝐿 = 2𝑟 sin 2
• 𝑆:
1
o 28 = 2 (6)2 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
o 𝜃 = 2.3 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2.3
o 𝐿 = 2(6) sin ( )
2
• 𝐴:
o 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 𝐦
o ℎ = 1.7 𝑚
o 𝑟 = 6371640 𝑚
• 𝑅: 𝑑ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝑑𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 =?
• 𝑆:
o Distance is the diameter of the circle.
 o 𝑑ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝑑𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 = 2𝜋(𝑟 + ℎ) − 2𝜋𝑟
o 𝑑ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝑑𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 = 2𝜋ℎ Secant Law
o 𝑑ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝑑𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 = 10.68 𝑚
• 𝑨: 𝒅𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 − 𝒅𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟖 𝐦

Example
Find the area in cm2 of the circle circumscribing an
isosceles right triangle having an area of 162 cm2.
• 𝐺:
o 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 162 𝑐𝑚2
o Triangle is isosceles right triangle.
• 𝑅:
o 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 =?
• 𝑆:
1
o 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2 𝑎2 = 162
o 𝑎 = 18
o 𝑏 = 𝑎 = 18
o 𝑐 = 18√2
𝑎𝑏𝑐
o 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
4𝑅
o 𝑅 = 12.73
o 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑅 2 Example
• 𝐴: 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 508.94 𝑐𝑚 2 National road is tangent at point T on the periphery of a
circular lake and intersect a barrio road at point A. The
• Alternatively, from c: barrio road terminates at the edge of the lake at point B. A
o The hypothenuse c is the diameter of the bridge is to be constructed on the extension of the barrio
circle. road to cross the lake. Find the length of the bridge if AT
= 1.5 km and AB = 1.25 km.
𝑐 18√2
o 𝑅=2= 2
= 9√2 • 𝐺:
𝟐 𝟐
o 𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝝅𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎𝟖. 𝟗𝟒 𝒄𝒎

Right triangle Inscribed in a Circle

• If a right triangle is inscribed in a circle,
o Then the hypothenuse of the right
triangle lies on the diameter of the circle. o AT = 1.5 km
o AB = 1.25 km
III) Secant Line and Tangent Line to a Circle
• 𝑆:
o 𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝑇 2
Secant Line
o 𝐴𝐶 = 1.8
• A line that intersects a curve at two points.
o 𝐿𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 𝐴𝐶 − 𝐴𝐵 = 0.55 𝑘𝑚
• 𝑨: 𝑳𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆 = 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒎
Tangent Line
• A line that intersects a curve at only one point
 • Area in terms of r
IV) The Regular Polygons 𝜃
o 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑟 2 tan ( )
2
o 𝑟 is called apothem, the radius of an
The Regular Polygons inscribed circle.
• These are polygons with common (or equal) • Area in terms of L (length of sides of a polygon)
length of sides. x in figure
• Common polygons o
𝑛
𝐴 = 4 𝐿2 cot (2 )
𝜃

Name No of Sides (n) o

𝜃
𝐿 = 2𝑅 sin (2 )
Pentagon 5
Hexagon 6 Exterior and Interior Angles
Heptagon 7
Octagon 8
Nonagon 9
Decagon 10
Dodecagon 12
Quindecagon or 15
Pentadecagon
Icosagon 20
Hectogon 100
• I = Interior Angle
Chiliagon 1000 • E = Exterior Angle
Myriagon 10000 • Formulas
o 𝐸=𝜃
Area Formulas o Σ𝐸 = Σ𝜃 = 360°
o Σ𝐼 = (𝑛 − 2)(180°)
(𝑛−2)(180°)
o 𝐼= 𝑛

Perimeter
• 𝑃 = 𝑛𝐿

No. of Diagonals
𝑛(𝑛−3)
• 𝐷 = 𝑛𝐶2 − 𝑛 = 2
o There are n vertices in an n-polygon.
o A line can be drawn between two vertices
to draw a line. The total number of lines
that can be drawn is nC2, combination
from n vertices choosing two at a time.
• Central Angle
o However, included in these is pair of
360° adjacent vertices forming the sides of the
o 𝜃=
𝑛 polygon. The sides of the polygon is not
• Area in terms of R: a diagonal. The number of sides is n.
𝑛 Thus, n is subtracted.
o 𝐴 = 2 𝑅 2 sin 𝜃
o Hence, the formula.
Example
How many sides have a polygon if the sum of its interior V) Regular N-pointed Star
angles equals twice the sum of its exterior angles?
• Σ𝐼 = 2Σ𝐸 Regular n-Pointed Star
• (𝑛 − 2)(180°) = 2(360°)
• 𝒏 = 𝟔 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔

Example
Given are pentagon and a hexagon with the same area of
12 sq. cm. Find the difference in their perimeters in cm.
• Pentagon:
360°
o 𝜃= 5
= 72°
𝑛 𝜃
o 𝐴 = 𝐿2 cot ( )
4 2
o 𝐿𝑃 = 2.6410 𝑐𝑚
• Hexagon:
360° • Area in terms of R
o 𝜃= 6
= 60° 𝜃
o 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑅 2 tan ( ) cos 𝜃
𝑛 𝜃 2
o 𝐴 = 4 𝐿2 cot (2 )
• Area in terms of L
o 𝐿𝐻 = 2.1491 𝑐𝑚 𝑛 𝜃
o 𝐴 = 4 𝐿2 (cot (2 ) + tan 𝜃)
• Subtracting Perimeters:
• Specific n formulas:
o |𝑃𝐻 − 𝑃𝐿 | = |6 × 2.1491 − 5 × 2.6410|
o For pentagram n = 5
o |𝑷𝑯 − 𝑷𝑳 | = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝒄𝒎
▪ 𝐴 = 1.123 𝑅2
o For octagram n = 8
Example
The area of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle is to ▪ 𝐴 = 2.343 𝑅2
area of a regular circumscribed polygon having the same
number of sides is 3:4. How many sides are there in each
polygon. Example
𝐴𝐼 3 Find the area covered by the pentagram inscribed in a
• = circle with radius 20 cm.
𝐴𝐶 4

•
𝑛
𝐴𝐼 = 2 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 • A = 1.123 R2
𝑛 𝜃 𝜃 • A = 449.2 cm2
• 𝐴𝐶 = 2 (2𝑟 tan (2 )) 𝑟 = 𝑛𝑟 2 tan (2 )
𝑛 2
𝑟 sin 𝜃 3
• 2
𝜃 = Example
𝑛𝑟 2 tan( ) 4
2
Determine the area of a regular 6-pointed star if the inner
• Cancel n and r2. Solve for theta with shift-solve. regular hexagon has a side of 10 cm.
• 𝜃 = 60° •
𝑛 𝜃
𝐴 = 4 𝐿2 (cot 2 + tan 𝜃)
360°
• 𝜃= 360
𝑛 • 𝜃= 6
= 60°
• 𝑛=6
• 𝐿 = 10
• Shortcut
• 𝑛=6
180
o 𝑛= 𝐴 • Substitute.
arccos √ 𝐼
𝐴𝐶
• 𝑨 = 𝟓𝟏𝟗. 𝟔𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐
 VI) Square and Rectangle o 2𝑠1 = 6
o 𝑠1 = 3
Square • 𝐴:
o 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟑 𝒄𝒎

Example
How many acres are contained in a parcel 121 ft wide and
240 yards deep? (1 acre = 43,560 ft2)
• 1 yard = 3 feet
• 240 yards =720 feet
1 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒
• 𝐴 = 720 × 121 = 87120𝑓𝑡 2 × 43650 𝑓𝑡 2

• 𝐴 = 𝑠2 • 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝐚𝐜𝐫𝐞

• 𝑃 = 4𝑠
VII) Parallelogram and Rhombus
• 𝑑 = 𝑠√2

Parallelogram
Rectangle

• 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
• 𝑃 = 2𝑏 + 2ℎ
• Parallelograms have opposite sides that are
• 𝑑 = √𝑏 2 + ℎ2 parallel.
• Opposite angles are equal.
Example • 𝑨 = 𝒃𝒉
The side of a square is 5 cm less than the side of another 𝟏
square. If the difference in their areas is 55 sq. cm., find • 𝑨 = 𝟐 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
the side in cm. of the smaller square. o It doesn’t matter whether the other angle
• 𝐺: between d1 and d2 is given.
o 𝑠1 = 𝑠2 − 5 o sin 𝑥 = sin(𝜋 − 𝑥)
o 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 = 55
• 𝑅:
o 𝑠1 =?
• 𝐸: 𝐴 = 𝑠 2
• 𝑆:
o 𝑠22 − 𝑠12 = 55
o (𝑠2 − 𝑠1 )(𝑠2 + 𝑠1 ) = 55
o 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 5
o 𝑠1 + 𝑠2 = 11
Rhombus VIII) Trapezoid and Trapezium

Trapezoid

• A parallelogram with equal sides

• Their diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
• The diagonals bisect each other. • Quadrilateral with a pair of sides parallel.
• 𝑨 = 𝒃𝒉 • 𝐴=(
𝑏1 +𝑏2
)ℎ
2
𝟏
• 𝑨 = 𝟐 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑏12 −𝑏22
• 𝐴=
2(cot 𝛼+cot 𝛽)

Example
Trapezium
Given is a parallelogram with angle A = 5x + 2 and angle
C = 6x – 4. Find angle A.
• A and C are opposite angles.
• Angle A and C are equal.
• 5𝑥 + 2 = 6𝑥 − 4
• 𝑥=6
• 𝐴 = 5(6) + 2
• 𝑨 = 𝟑𝟐°

Example
The area of the rhombus is 264 sq. cm. If one of the
diagonals is 24 cm. long, find the length of the other • Quadrilateral with no pair of parallel sides.
diagonal. • Area is area of big triangle minus area of small
triangle.

Example
A trapezoid 6 cm in altitude have bases of 12 cm and 18
cm, respectively. If it is divided into two parts by a line
parallel to the bases such that the ratio of the areas of the
1
• 𝐴 = 2 𝑑1 𝑑2 two parts formed is 2:3, compute the length of the
dividing line in cm.
1
• 264 = 𝑑1 (24)
2
• 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒎

• Let L = length of dividing line

𝐴 2 𝐿 12
• 2
√𝐴 = 3 = 18 = 𝐿
1

• 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟎 𝐜𝐦
 • Whole solution: o 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 = 𝑑1 𝑑2
o Draw a line from top right point ▪ Ptolemy’s Theorem
downwards parallel to left side.
o 𝐴 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑)
o This makes a parallelogram at the left
and two similar triangles on the right. √(𝑎𝑏+𝑐𝑑)(𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐)(𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑑)
o 𝑅= 4𝐴
o Proceed with this knowledge.
o Too lengthy though. Not worth it. Char.
Example
A quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle in such that one of
IX) Quadrilateral the sides is the diameter of the circle. If the three other
sides are 1 cm, 2cm, and 3cm respectively, find the area
enclosed by quadrilateral.
Quadrilateral

1
• 𝐴 = 𝑑1 𝑑2 sin 𝜃
2

• 𝐴 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑) − 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 cos 2 𝜙

1
o 𝑠 = 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑) is the semi-
perimeter
𝐴+𝐶 𝐵+𝐷
o 𝜙= 2
= 2
o Called Brahmagupta’s Formula
• 𝑎=1

Cyclic Quadrilateral • 𝑏=2

• 𝑐=3
• 𝑑 = 2𝑅
• 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 = 𝑑1 𝑑2
• 3 + 2𝑑 = 𝑑1 𝑑2
• Triangles inscribed in a semicircle are right
triangles.
• 𝑑1 = √𝑑2 − 32
• 𝑑2 = √𝑑2 − 12
• 3 + 2𝑑 = √𝑑2 − 9√𝑑2 − 1
• 𝑑 = 4.11 → (𝐷)
1
• 𝑠 = 2 (1 + 2 + 3 + (𝐷))
• Quadrilateral inscribed in a circle or
circumscribed by a circle • 𝑠 = 5.06 → (𝐴)
• Formula or Properties • 𝐴 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑)
o 𝐴+𝐶 =𝐵+𝐷 • 𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟎 𝐜𝐦𝟐
 SOLID MENSURATION
Solid Mensuration Special Case 1: Cube or Hexahedron
• Deals with surface area and volume computation s = side length
f = face diagonal length
I) Prism d = diagonal length

Prism
• A solid with constant-cross-sectional area and
with parallel end areas
• Named after its base, e.g., square prisms • 𝑽 = 𝒔𝟑
• 𝑺𝑻 = 𝟔𝒔𝟐
Prism Volume and Surface Area
• 𝑠 2 + 𝑓 2 = 𝑑2
• 𝑓 = 𝑠√2
• 𝑑 = 𝑠√3

Special Case 2: Rectangular Parallelepiped

• 𝑽 = 𝑳𝑾𝑯
• 𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ = 𝐴𝐵 ℎ • 𝑺𝑻 = 𝟐(𝑳𝑾 + 𝑳𝑯 + 𝑾𝑯)
o Volume = base area x height • 𝒅 = √𝑳𝟐 + 𝑾𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐
• 𝑆𝐿 = 𝑃𝐵 ℎ
o Lateral Surface Area = Special Case 3: Right Circular Cylinder
base perimeter x height
o Lateral Surface Area is the surface area 𝜋
of the sides excluding the top and bottom • 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 = 4 𝑑2 ℎ
base.
• 𝑺𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 = 𝜋𝑑ℎ
• 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑃𝐵 ℎ + 2𝐴𝐵
• 𝑺𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 + 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐
o Total Surface Area = 𝜋
lateral surface area + 2 times base area • 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑑2
4
• 𝑃𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑑
Example II) Pyramid and Cone
A trough having an equilateral triangle end sections has
side equal to 0.3 m and 6 m long. Find the volume of
water in the trough in the water in the trough if its depth Pyramid
is ½ the depth of the trough.

• L = Slant Height
• Point G = Centroid
1
• Similar triangles… • 𝑉 = 3 𝐴𝐵 ℎ
ℎ 𝑠
• 𝐻
=𝑆 •
1
𝑆𝐿 = 2 𝑃𝐵 𝐿
ℎ
• 𝑠 = 𝑆𝐻
1
𝐻
Right Circular Cone
• 𝑠 = 0.3 2𝐻
• 𝑠 = 0.15
1
• 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = (0.15)2 (6) sin 60°
2
• 𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟓 𝐦𝟑

Example
Two vertical cylindrical tanks with diameters of 8 m and
12 m respectively are joined by a pipe at their bases. If
1
the tanks are filled with water to a depth of 15 m and 4 m • 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
respectively, find the final depth of the water in the tanks
when the valve in the pipe is opened. • 𝑆𝐿 = 𝜋𝑟𝐿
• 𝐿 = √𝑟 2 + ℎ2

Example
A conical vessel has a height of 24 cm and a base
diameter of 12 cm. Find (a) the amount of material used,
and (b) the volume of water in the vessel if it is 18 cm
deep above its vertex.
• 𝐻 = 24 𝑐𝑚
• 𝐷 = 12 𝑐𝑚 → 𝑅 = 6 𝑐𝑚
• Volume Before = Volume After
• ℎ = 18 𝑐𝑚
• (𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ)before = (𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ)after
• (a)
• 𝜋(4)2 (15) + 𝜋(6)2 (4) = 𝜋(4)2 ℎ + 𝜋(6)2 ℎ
o 𝑆𝐿 = 𝜋𝑅√𝑅 2 + 𝐻 2
• 𝒉 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟖 𝐦
o 𝑆𝐿 = 𝜋(6)√62 + 242
o 𝑺𝑳 = 𝟒𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝟐
• (b)
o Similar triangles…
 𝑟 ℎ III) Frustum of A Pyramid and
o =
𝑅 𝐻 Frustum of a Cone
𝑟 18
o =
6 24
o 𝑟 = 4.5 Frustum of a Pyramid
1
o 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
1
o 𝑉 = 3 𝜋(4.5)2 (18)
o 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟖𝟏. 𝟕𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟑

Example
Find the volume and total surface area of a tetrahedron
with edge 10 cm long.

1
• 𝑉 = (𝐴𝐵1 + √𝐴𝐵1 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐴𝐵2 )ℎ
3
𝑃𝐵1 +𝑃𝐵2
• 𝑆𝐿 = 2
×𝐿
• 𝑠 = 10 𝑐𝑚
• A tetrahedron have four faces that is an Frustum of a Cone
equilateral triangle.
• Volume
𝟐
o 𝒉=√ 𝒔
𝟑
1
o 𝑉 = 3 𝐴𝑏 ℎ
1 1
o 𝑉 = 3 (2 𝑠 2 sin 60°) ℎ

1 1 2
o 𝑉 = 3 (2 (10)2 sin 60°) √3 (10)
𝟏
• 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅(𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝒓 + 𝒓𝟐 )𝒉
o 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟑
• Area • 𝑺𝑳 = 𝝅(𝑹 + 𝒓)𝑳
o 𝑆𝑇 = 4𝐴𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 • 𝑳 = √(𝑹 − 𝒓)𝟐 + 𝒉𝟐
1
o 𝐴𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 2 𝑠 2 sin 60°
o 𝑆𝑇 = 2𝑠 2 sin 60°
o 𝑺𝑻 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝟐
Example Example
A frustum of a regular pyramid has a lower base of 12 cm Find the volume and lateral surface area of the frustum of
x 12 cm and an upper base of 8 cm x 8 cm. It has a lateral a cone with base radii of 3 cm and 6 cm if it is 10 cm tall.
edge of 18 cm. Find its (a) lateral surface area, (b)
volume. • 𝑟 = 3 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑅 = 6 𝑐𝑚
• ℎ = 10 𝑐𝑚
• Volume
1
o 𝑉 = 3 𝜋(𝑟 2 + 𝑟𝑅 + 𝑅 2 )ℎ
1
o 𝑉 = 3 𝜋(32 + 3 ⋅ 6 + 62 )(10)
o 𝑽 = 𝟔𝟓𝟗. 𝟕𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
• Area
o 𝐿 = √(𝑅 − 𝑟)2 + ℎ2

• 𝑆 = 12 𝑐𝑚 o 𝐿 = √(6 − 3)2 + 102 → (𝒙)

• 𝑠 = 8 𝑐𝑚 o 𝑆𝐿 = 𝜋(𝑅 + 𝑟)𝐿
• 𝑎 = 18 𝑐𝑚 o 𝑆𝐿 = 𝜋(6 + 3)(𝒙)
o 𝑺𝑳 = 𝟐𝟗𝟓. 𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒎𝟐
12−8 2
• 𝐿= √182 − ( 2 ) = 17.89 → (𝒙)

• (a) Lateral Surface Area IV) The Prismoidal Formula

𝑃𝐵1 +𝑃𝐵2
o 𝑆𝐿 = 2
×𝐿
4𝑆+4𝑠 Prismatoid
o 𝑆𝐿 = 2
×𝐿
4×12+4×8
o 𝑆𝐿 = 2
× (𝒙)
o 𝑺𝑳 = 𝟕𝟏𝟓. 𝟓𝟒 𝒄𝒎
• (b) Volume
𝑆−𝑠 2
o ℎ = √𝐿2 − ( )
2

12−8 2
o ℎ = √( 𝒙)2 − ( 2
) = 17.78 → (𝒚)
1
o 𝑉 = 3 (𝐴𝐵1 + √𝐴𝐵1 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐴𝐵2 )ℎ
1
o 𝑉 = 3 (𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑆 + 𝑆 2 )ℎ
1 • Polyhedron having bases containing all its
o 𝑉 = (82 + 8 × 12 + 122 )(𝒚) vertices in two parallel planes.
3

o 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟑 • The lateral faces are triangles or trapezoids or

parallelograms with one side lying on one of its
two bases.
𝑳
• 𝑽 = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝟒𝑨𝒎 + 𝑨𝟐 )
𝟔
Prismoidal Formula 2𝑟 1
• 𝑉= 6
(0 + 4 (2 𝑟ℎ) + 0)
• If the bases are consecutively denoted as 1, 2, 3, 2 2
consecutively. • 𝑉= 3
𝑟 ℎ
• The volume is: • 𝑉=
2
(0.375)(1.5)
3
𝑫
o 𝑽= 𝟑
(𝑨𝟏 + 𝟒𝚺𝑨𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 + 𝟐𝚺𝑨𝒐𝒅𝒅 + 𝑨𝒏 ) • 𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟔 𝐦 𝟑

▪ 𝑛 number of parallel areas

▪ 𝐴𝑛 is last base area. Volume of water takes a shape of a wedge of a cylinder.
▪ 𝐴1 is fast base area.
▪ Σ𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 is the sum of even Example
ordered areas.
Two cylinders with radii 20 cm each are made to cross
▪ Σ𝐴𝑜𝑑𝑑 is the sum of odd ordered each other. Find the volume of the solid common between
areas. the cylinders.
▪ 𝐷 is common distance between
areas
𝐿
• 𝐷=
𝑛−1

Example
A cylindrical tank 1.5 m tall and 0.75 m in diameter is
full of water. If the tank is slowly tilted until the water
surface coincide with the diameter of the base, find the
volume of water left in the tank.

• 𝑟 = 20 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑉 =?
• 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 0
0.75 𝑚 • 𝐴𝑚 = (2𝑟)2
• 𝑟= = 0.375 𝑚
2 • 𝐴𝑚 = 4𝑟 2
• ℎ = 1.5 𝑚
• 𝐿 = 2𝑟
• 𝑉 =? 𝐿
• 𝑉 = 6 (𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2 )
• 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 0
2𝑟
1 • 𝑉= (0 + 4(4𝑟 2 ) + 0)
• 𝐴𝑚 = 2 𝑟 2 ℎ 6
16 3
• 𝐿 = 2𝑟 • 𝑉= 3
𝑟 ;𝑟 = 20 𝑐𝑚

•
𝐿
𝑉 = 6 (𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2 ) • 𝑽 = 𝟒𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝐜𝐦𝟑
Example V) Spheres and Parts of a Sphere
Find the volume of the conoid with a height of 4 cm and a
base radius of 3 cm.
Sphere

Conoid is a solid with a circular base and every section

perpendicular to the fixed diameter is an isosceles
triangle with constant height h.

• A solid generated by revolving a circle about its

diameter.
𝟒 𝜋
• 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑 = 6 𝑑3
• 𝑟 = 3 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑺𝑻 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 = 𝜋𝑑2
• ℎ = 4 𝑐𝑚
• Middle part is an ellipse.
Example
• By similar triangles, the smaller radius is half of
r. What would happen to the volume of a sphere if the
radius were tripled?
• 𝐿=ℎ
• 𝑟 = 3𝑟𝑜
ℎ
• 𝑉= (𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2 ) 4
6 • 𝑉𝑜 = 3 𝜋𝑟𝑜3
ℎ 𝑟
• 𝑉 = 6 (𝜋𝑟 2 + 4 (𝜋𝑟 (2)) + 0) • 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
4
3
ℎ 4
• 𝑉 = (𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟 2 ) • 𝑉= 𝜋(3𝑟𝑜 )3
6 3
1
• 𝑉= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ •
4
𝑉 = 27 (3 𝜋𝑟𝑜3 )
2
1
• 𝑉= 𝜋(3)2 (4) • 𝑉 = 27𝑉𝑜
2
• 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟖𝝅 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝟐 • Volume will increase 27-folds (or will be
multiplied 27).

Example
What is the ratio of the surface area of a sphere to its
volume?
𝑆𝑇
• 𝑉
=?
𝑆𝑇 4𝜋𝑟 2
• = 4
𝑉 𝜋𝑟 3
3
𝑺𝑻 𝟑
• 𝑽
=𝒓
 2 1
Hemisphere • 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 − 3 𝜋𝑟 2 (3𝑟 − ℎ)
2 1
• 𝑉 = 3 𝜋(21)3 − 3 𝜋(21)2 (3 ⋅ 21 − 9)
• 𝑽 = 𝟒𝟕𝟏𝟔𝝅 𝒄𝒎𝟑 = 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟑

Lune and Spherical Wedge

• Half of a sphere
𝟏 2
• 𝑽 = 𝟐 𝑽𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 • Lune, 𝐴𝐿
𝟏 o
• 𝑺𝑳 = 𝑺 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 Base Area of Spherical Wedge
𝟐 𝑻,𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝜽 𝜃
• 𝑺𝑻 = 𝑺𝑳 + 𝑨𝑩 = 3𝜋𝑟 2 • 𝑳 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° (𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) = 90° 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜽 𝟒 1 𝜃
• 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° (𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑 ) = 3 𝐴𝐿 𝑟 = 270° 𝜋𝑟 3
Spherical Segment and Zone

Example
Find the area of lune and volume of spherical wedge with
a wedge angle of 80° taken from a sphere with radius
equal to 60 cm.
• 𝑟 = 60 𝑐𝑚
• 𝜃 = 80°
• 𝐴𝐿 =?
𝜃
• Zone, Z o 𝐴𝐿 = 360° (4𝜋𝑟 2 )
o Lateral area of the spherical segment 80°
o 𝐴𝐿 = 360° (4𝜋(60)2 )
• One base (aka Spherical Cap, Left)
o 𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝝅 𝐜𝐦𝟐
o 𝒁 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉
𝟏
• 𝑉 =?
o 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒉𝟐 (𝟑𝒓 − 𝒉) 𝜃 4
o 𝑉 = 360° (3 𝜋𝑟 3 )
• Two bases (aka Spherical Frustum, Right)
80° 4
𝟏 o 𝑉 = 360° (3 𝜋(60)3 )
o 𝑽= 𝟔
𝝅𝒉(𝟑𝒂𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟑𝒃 + 𝒉 )𝟐

o 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟏. 𝟗𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝝅 𝐜𝐦𝟑

Example
The water in a hemispherical bowl 42 cm across the top,
is 9 cm deep. How much more water is needed to fill the
bowl to the brim?
42 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑟= 2
= 21 𝑐𝑚
• ℎ = 9 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑉 = 𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 − 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Spherical Polygon and Spherical Pyramid Spherical Sector or Spherical Cone

• 𝒁 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉
𝟏 𝟐
• 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝒁𝒓 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉

Example
• Spherical Polygon
Find the volume of spherical sector or spherical cone with
o Polygon on a surface of a sphere made by a zone of height 20 cm and taken from a sphere with
great circles radius 60 cm.
o Great circles – circles with the same • ℎ = 20 𝑐𝑚
center as the sphere
𝝅 • 𝑟 = 60 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑨𝑺𝑷 = 𝑬𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝑬°𝒓𝟐
• 𝑉 =?
o 𝐸𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Σ𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑 − (𝑛 − 2)𝜋 1
o 𝑉 = 3 𝑍𝑟
o 𝐸° = Σ𝜃° − (𝑛 − 2)180°
1
•
1
𝑉𝑆𝑃 = 3 𝐴𝑆𝑃 𝑟 o 𝑉 = 3 2𝜋𝑟ℎ ⋅ 𝑟
2
•
𝟏 𝟏 𝝅
𝑽𝑺𝑷 = 𝟑 𝑬𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝟑 = 𝟑 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝑬°𝒓𝟑 o 𝑉 = 3 𝜋(60)2 (20)
o 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟑 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝝅 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Example
Find the area of spherical triangle with angles 50°, 80°, VI) The Ellipsoid / Spheroid
and 105° taken from a sphere with radius 60 cm. Find
also the volume of the spherical pyramid formed.
The Ellipsoid / Spheroid
• Σ𝜃° = 50° + 80° + 105° = 235°
• 𝑛=3
• 𝑟 = 60 𝑐𝑚
• 𝐴𝑆𝑃 =?
𝜋
o 𝐴𝑆𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟 2 = 180° 𝐸°𝑟 2
o 𝐸 = Σ𝜃° − (𝑛 − 2)180°
o 𝐸 = 235° − 180° = 55°
𝜋
o 𝐴𝑆𝑃 = 180° 55°(60)2
o 𝑨𝑺𝑷 = 𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅 𝒄𝒎𝟐 •
𝟒
𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒂𝒃𝒄
• 𝑉𝑆𝑃 =?
1 1 𝜋
o 𝑉𝑆𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟 3 = 𝐸°𝑟 3
3 3 180°
1 𝜋
o 𝑉𝑆𝑃 = 3 180°
55°(60)3
o 𝑽𝑺𝑷 = 𝟔𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝝅 𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝟑
Special Cases Example
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving an
ellipse with semi-major axis of 4 cm and semi-minor axis
of 3 cm about (a) the minor axis, (b) the major axis.
• (a)
o One-minor axis, two major axis radius
4
o 𝑉 = 3 𝜋(4)2 (3)
o 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟔𝟒 𝝅 𝐜𝐦𝟐
• (b)
o One major axis, two minor axis radius
4
o 𝑉 = 3 𝜋(3)2 (4)
o 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟒𝟖 𝝅 𝐜𝐦𝟐

Example
Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped
inscribed in an ellipsoid with 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 3, and 𝑐 = 2.
8
• 𝑉= 𝑎𝑏𝑐
• Oblate (Left) – a solid generated when an eclipse 3√3
is revolved at its minor axis • Substitute.
o Resembles a mentos candy • 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟓 𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
o One minor axis, two major axis radius
• Prolate (Right) – a solid generated when an VII) The Paraboloid
eclipse is revolved about its major axis
o Resembles a rugby ball
The Paraboloid
o One major axis, two minor axis radius
𝟒
• 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒂𝟐 𝒄

Inscribed Rectangular Parallelepiped in Ellipsoid

• The largest rectangular parallelepiped inscribed
in the ellipsoid have…
Dimensions
𝟐𝒂
𝑳=
√𝟑
𝟐𝒃 • The solid generated when a parabolic segment is
𝑾= revolved about its axis
√𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐𝒄 𝑽= 𝝅𝒓 𝒉
𝑯= 𝟐
√𝟑
Volume
𝟖𝒂𝒃𝒄
𝑽 = 𝑳𝑾𝑯 =
𝟑√𝟑
Example Area to Volume
Find the volume of the paraboloid with a radius of 3 cm
and a height of 4 cm.
• 𝑟 = 3 𝑐𝑚
• ℎ = 4 𝑐𝑚
• 𝑉 =?
𝐴 3 𝑉
•
1
𝑉 = 2 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ • 1
√𝐴 = √𝑉
1
2 2

• Substitute.
• 𝑽 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝝅 𝐜𝐦𝟐 Example
Given are the sides of similar polygons which are 12 and
21 cm, respectively. Find the area of the largest polygon
VIII) The Principle of Similar Figures if the area of the small polygon is 64 sq. cm.
• 𝐿1 = 12 𝑐𝑚
Line to Line
• 𝐿2 = 21 𝑐𝑚
• 𝐴1 = 64 𝑐𝑚2
• 𝐴2 =?
𝐿1 𝐴1
• =√
𝐿2 𝐴2

• Substitute and shift-solve.

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 • 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔 𝐜𝐦𝟐
• = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

Example
Length to Area
A conical tank with its vertex on top is filled by water up
to 2/3 of its height. Find the ratio of the volume of water
to volume of tank.

𝐿1 𝐴1
• =√
𝐿2 𝐴2

Length to Volume
• T denotes tank.
• W denotes water.
• E denotes empty space without water.
𝑉𝑊
• 𝑉𝑇
=?

• 𝑉𝑊 = 𝑉𝑇

•
𝐿1 3
= √𝑉1
𝑉 • 𝑉𝑊 = 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝐸
𝐿2 2
3 𝑉 ℎ
• √𝑉 𝐸 = 𝐻
𝑊

𝑉𝐸 ℎ 3
• 𝑉𝑊
= (𝐻)
 1 3
𝑉𝐸 𝐻
• =( ) 3
𝑉𝑊 𝐻

𝑉𝐸 1
• 𝑉𝑊
= 27
𝑉𝑤 𝑉𝑇 −𝑉𝐸
• 𝑉𝑇
= 𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝑊 𝑉𝐸
• =1−
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝑊 1
• 𝑉𝑇
= 1 − 27
𝑉𝑊 26
• 𝑉𝑇
= 27

• 𝑽𝑾 : 𝑽𝑻 ; 𝟐𝟔: 𝟐𝟕

Example
The capacities of two hemispherical tanks are in the ratio
64:125. If 4.8 kg of paint is required to pain the outer
surface of the smaller tank, then how many kg of paint
would be needed to paint the outer surface of the large
tank.
𝑉1 64
• 𝑉2
= 125

• 𝑚1 = 4.8 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑚 𝛼 𝑆 (directly proportional)
𝑚 𝑆 3 𝑉
• 1 1
√𝑚 = √𝑆 = √𝑉
1
2 2 2

4.8 3 64
• √𝑚 = √125
2

• 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝐤𝐠
 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Plane Analytic Geometry • (Alternative method)
• Deals with: • Use complex mode in calculator.
o Distance Between two points Knowing • Solve for (3 + 2𝑖) + (−2 − 6𝑖)
the coordinates, and
• Get the magnitude or radius r.
o The equation and properties of a curve or
locus of points • 𝒅 = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟑 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬

I) Distance Between 2 Points II) The Division of Line Segment

Distance Formula Division of Line Segment

• Triangle with line AP is similar to Triangle with

line AB
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑚 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃
o 𝑥2 −𝑥1
=𝑦 = 𝑚+𝑛 = ̅̅̅̅ =𝑟
2 −𝑦1 𝐴𝐵
• 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 − (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 𝑛
• 1−𝑟 =
• Abscissa 𝑚+𝑛
𝒎𝒙𝟐 +𝒏𝒙𝟏
o Another term for x-coordinate • 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒓(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ) =
𝒎+𝒏
o 𝒎𝒚𝟐 +𝒏𝒙𝟏
Distance of a point from y-axis • 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒓(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) =
𝒎+𝒏
• Ordinate
o Another term for y-coordinate Special Case: Middle Point M (xm, ym)
o Distance of a point from x-axis 1
• 𝑟=2
1
Example • 𝑥𝑚 = 2 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )
1
Find the distance from point (3,2) to point (-2,-6). • 𝑦𝑚 = 2 (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
• (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (3,2)
• (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2, −6)
• 𝑑 =?
• 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
• 𝑑 = √(−2 − 3)2 + (−6 − 2)2
• 𝒅 = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟑 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Example III) Area of Polygon by
Coordinates of Vertices Method
Given is a line segment from (3, 2) to (-2, -6). Find the
coordinates of the first tri-section point from (3, 2) and
the mid-point of the line segment.
Vertices Method

• (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (3,2) 𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟓 𝒙𝟏
• 𝑨 = 𝟐 |𝒚 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑 𝒚𝟒 𝒚𝟓 𝒚𝟏 |
𝟏
• (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2, −6)
• Vertices must be traced in CCW direction from
• 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = first tri-section point from (3,2) = ? vertex V1 (x1,y1).
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃 𝑇
1 1
o 𝑟 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃 𝑃
=3
1 2
Example
o 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑇(𝑥1 + 𝑟(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ), 𝑦1 +
𝑟(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )) Find the area of pentagon with vertices at (1, 0), (-1, 0),
(2, 2), (-2, 2), and (0, 4).
1
o 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑇 (3 + 3 (−2 − 3), 2 +
1
(−6 − 2))
3
𝟒 𝟐
o 𝑻(𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝟑 , − 𝟑)
• 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) = mid-point = ?
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃 𝑀
1 1
o 𝑟 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃 𝑃
=2 • Let us treat (0, 4) as vertex 1 and go counter-
1 2
clockwise for vertex 2, 3, 4, and 5.
o 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑀(𝑥1 + 𝑟(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ), 𝑦1 +
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥1
𝑟(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )) • 𝐴 = 2 |𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 |
1 2 3 4 5 1
1
o 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑀 (3 + 2 (−2 − 3), 2 + •
1
𝐴 = 2|
0 −2 −1 1 2 0
|
1 4 2 0 0 2 4
(−6 − 2)) 1
2 • 𝐴 = {+[0 ⋅ 2 + (−2) ⋅ 0 + (−1) ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ 2 +
2
𝟏
o 𝑴(𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝟐 , −𝟐) 2 ⋅ 4] − [4 ⋅ (−2) + 2 ⋅ (−1) + 0 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅
0]}
1
• 𝐴 = 2 [(0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 8) − (−8 − 2 + 0 +
0 + 0)]
1
• 𝐴 = 2 (10 + 10)

• 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Example Properties and Equation of Line
Find the area of the triangle with vertices at – 4 – i, 1 + 2i,
and 4 – 3i.
Straight Line

Forms for the Equation of a Line

General Form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 𝐴>0
Slope-Intercept 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑚 is slope
Form 𝑏 is y-
intercept
Point-Slope 𝑦 − 𝑦1
Form = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is a
point in the
Two-points 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
= line
Form 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑎 is x-
or intercept
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Intercept Form 𝑥 𝑦
• Complex numbers in the complex plane can be + =1
treated as points in the cartesian plane. 𝑎 𝑏
Normal Form 𝑝 is
• Let (1,2) be vertex 1. Vertex 2, and 3, is traced
perpendicular
from vertex 1 counter-clockwise.
distance from
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥1 origin to line.
• 𝐴 = 2 |𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 |
1 2 3 1
𝜔 is angle to
1 1 −4 4 1 𝑥 cos 𝜔 + 𝑦 sin 𝜔 − 𝑝 = 0 perpendicular
• 𝐴= | |
2 2 −1 −3 2 distance
1
• 𝐴 = 2 [+(−1 + 12 + 8) − (−8 − 4 − 3)] • From General Form to Normal Form
1 𝐴𝑥+𝐵𝑦+𝐶
• 𝐴 = 2 [19 − (−15)] o =0
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2

• 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟕 𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 o Sign of radical is:

• Alternative method: ▪ Opposite the sign of C
• Get the determinant of the ff using calculator. ▪ If C = 0, same as sign of B
𝑥1 𝑦1
1 1 2 1
1 1
• 𝐴 = 2 |𝑥2 𝑦2
1| = |−4 −1
2
1| Example
𝑥3 𝑦3
1 4 −3 1 Find the equation of the line that bisects the 1st and 3rd
• 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟕 𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 quadrants.
• To bisect 1st and 3rd quadrants, a line must be
drawn intersecting the origin.
o 𝑥1 = 0
o 𝑦1 = 0
• To bisect the 1st quadrant, from the origin, there
must be equal rise and equal run.
rise
o 𝑚= run
=1
• Alternatively
o 𝑚 = tan 45° = 1
• 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
• 𝒚=𝒙
Example Properties of Lines (2): Intersecting Lines
Find the relation between °F and °C temperature scales 𝐿1 : 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 = 0
and at what reading when they are equal.
𝐿2 : 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 = 0
For Water x, 𝑻𝑪 y, 𝑻𝑭
Description of Formulas
Freezing Pt. 0 32 Intersection

Boiling Pt. 100 212 𝑳𝟏 ||𝑳𝟐 𝑚1 = 𝑚2

𝐴1 𝐵1
=
• (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (0,32) 𝐴2 𝐵2
𝑳𝟏 ⊥ 𝑳𝟐 1 1
• (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (100,212) 𝑚1 = − 𝑜𝑟 𝑚2 = −
𝑦2 −𝑦1 212−32 𝑚2 𝑚1
• 𝑚= = = 1.8
𝑥2 −𝑥1 100−0 𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 = 0
• 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) 𝑳𝟏 coincides 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
• 𝑦 − 32 = 1.8(𝑥 − 0) with 𝑳𝟐 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
= =
• 𝑦 = 1.8𝑥 + 32 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2
• 𝑻𝑭 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝑻𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐 • Parallel lines have same slopes.
• 𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐶 • Perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative
• 𝑇𝐶 = 1.8𝑇𝐶 + 32 reciprocal of one another.

• 𝑻𝑪 = −𝟒𝟎°𝑪
Properties of Lines (3): Distance from a Point
• 𝑻𝑭 = −𝟒𝟎°𝑭
• Distance point 𝑃𝑜 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 ) to line 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 =
0
Properties of Lines (1): Slope, m 𝑨𝒙𝒐 +𝑩𝒚𝒐 +𝑪
• 𝒅=
±√𝑨𝟐 +𝑩𝟐
o Called directed distance – with sign
o + when line L divides or separates origin
and 𝑃𝑜
o – when line L does not separate origin
and 𝑃𝑜 .
▪ In other words, the origin and
point 𝑃𝑜 are on the same side of
L.
𝑨𝒙𝒐 +𝑩𝒚𝒐 +𝑪
• |𝒅| = | |
√𝑨𝟐 +𝑩𝟐
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑦2 −𝑦1
• 𝑚= = = tan 𝜃 o Magnitude Only
𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑥2 −𝑥1

• Run is negative in leftward direction.

Properties of Lines (4): Distance Bet. Parallel Lines
• Rise is negative in downward direction.
• Distance between parallel lines
Slope, m Line Description
o 𝐿1 : 𝐴𝑥 + B𝑦 + 𝐶1 = 0
𝒎>𝟎 Increasing, inclined to the o 𝐿2 : A𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶2 = 0
right
𝑪𝟐 −𝑪𝟏
𝒎<𝟎 Decreasing, inclined to • 𝒅=| |
√𝑨𝟐 +𝑩𝟐
the left
𝒎=𝟎 Horizontal
𝒎=∞ Vertical
Example Example
Determine B such that 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 7 = 0 is perpendicular Find the distance from the origin to the line 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 −
to 2𝑥 − 𝐵𝑦 + 2 = 0. 20 = 0.
• 𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 = 0 • (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 ) = (0,0)
• 3(2) + 2(−𝐵) = 0 • 𝐴 = 4; 𝐵 = 5; 𝐶 = −20
• 𝐵=3 • 𝑑=|
𝐴𝑥𝑜 +𝐵𝑦𝑜 +𝐶
|
√𝐴2 +𝐵2
• (Alternative Method)
• Substitute.
• Transforming line 1 to point-slope form…
• 𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐
3 7
• 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 2
3
• 𝑚1 = − Properties of Lines (5): Angle Bet. Two Lines
2
• Transforming line 2 to point-slope form…
2 2
• 𝑦 = 𝐵𝑥+𝐵
2
• 𝑚2 = 𝐵
• Perpendicular means slopes are negative
reciprocal of each other.
1
• 𝑚1 = − 𝑚
2
3 𝐵
• − = − 𝒎 −𝒎𝟏
2 2
• 𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓 = 𝟏+𝒎
• 𝑩=𝟑 𝟏 𝒎𝟐

o Angle is acute when right side is positive.

Example o Angle is obtuse when right side is

negative.
Points (6, -2) and (a, 6) are on the line with slope 4/3. 𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏
Find the value of a. • 𝝓 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 | |
𝟏+𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
• Using formula for slope o Formula for acute angle 𝜙
𝑦2 −𝑦1 6−(−2) 4
• 𝑚= 𝑥2 −𝑥1
= 𝑎−6
= 3 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 +𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟐
• 𝝓 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 | |
• 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟐 √𝑨𝟐𝟏 +𝑩𝟐𝟏 √𝑨𝟐𝟐 +𝑩𝟐𝟐

• (Alternative Method)
• Using point-slope form… Properties of Lines (6): Eq’n of Angle Bisector
4
• 𝑦 − (−2) = (𝑥 − 6)
3
4
• 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 8 − 2
4
• 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 − 10
• From (a, 6), a is the value of x when y = 6.
4
• 6 = (𝑎) − 10
3
• 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟐
𝑨𝟏 𝒙+𝑩𝟏 𝒚+𝑪𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝒙+𝑩𝟐 𝒚+𝑪𝟐
• 𝑳𝑨𝑩 : =−
±√𝑨𝟐𝟏 +𝑩𝟐𝟏 ±√𝑨𝟐𝟐 +𝑩𝟐𝟐

o Sign of radical is:

▪ Opposite the sign of C
▪ If C = 0, same as sign of B
Example V) The Parabola
Find the distance between the lines 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 12 = 0
and 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 8 = 0. Parabola
• 𝐴=4
• 𝐵 = −3
• 𝐶1 = −12
• 𝐶2 = 8
𝐶2 −𝐶1
• 𝑑=| |
√𝐴2 +𝐵2
8−(−12)
• 𝑑=| |
√4 2 +(−3)2

• 𝒅 = 𝟒 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬

The distance between the two lines is the

perpendicular distance that is the same anywhere since
the lines are parallel. Only distance between parallel
lines can be determined. There is no distance between
intersecting lines.

Example
The angle from L1, whose slope is -1/3 to the line L2 is
135°. Find the slope of L2.
1
• 𝑚1 = −
3
• 𝑚2 =?
• 𝜙 = 135°
𝑚2 −𝑚1
• tan 𝜙 =
1+𝑚1 𝑚2
1
𝑚2 −(− )
• tan 135° = 1
3
1+(− )𝑚2
3

• Shift-solve.
• 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟐

• 2nd degree equation

• Member of 2nd degree conic sections
• Locus of point with equal distances from a fixed
point (focus, F) and a fixed line (directrix, D)
• 𝑑1 = 𝑑2
o Focus to any point (distance) = Any point
to directrix (distance)
• 𝑝 is the distance from directrix to vertex or vertex
to focus.
• The line with length 4p is called the latus rectum.
 • Squared Property of Parabola, SPP
Vertical Horizontal
Gen. 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷 = 0 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 = 0
Form
Standard (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑝(𝑦 − 𝑘) (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑝(𝑥 − ℎ)
Form
Standard 𝑥 2 = 4𝑝𝑦 𝑦 2 = 4𝑝𝑥
Form for
V (0,0)
𝒑>𝟎 Open upwards Open rightwards
𝒑<𝟎 Open downwards Open leftwards
Length of 𝐿𝑅 = 4𝑝 𝐿𝑅 = 4𝑝
Latus 𝒚𝟏 𝒙 𝟐
𝐶 𝐶 o = (𝒙𝟏)
Rectum 𝐿𝑅 = | | 𝐿𝑅 = | | 𝒚𝟐 𝟐
𝐴 𝐴
o 𝑦 and 𝑥 is measured from vertex.
Vertex 𝑉 (ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑉 (ℎ, 𝑘)
o 𝑥 can be the whole length of dashed line
Focus 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑝) 𝐹(ℎ + 𝑝, 𝑘) • Parabolic Segment
Directrix 𝐷: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 𝑝 𝐷: 𝑥 = ℎ − 𝑝
Axis 𝑥=ℎ 𝑦=𝑘
Vertical Axis Horizontal Axis

V (h,k) 𝐵 𝐵
Formula ℎ=− 𝑘=−
2𝐴 2𝐴
𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐷 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐷
𝑘= ℎ=
4𝐴𝐶 4𝐴𝐶
(negative bato) (negative bato)
2
𝐵 𝐵 o 𝐴 = 3 𝑏ℎ
ℎ=− 𝑘=−
𝐴2 𝐴2
(bad four over AC) (bad four over AC) Example
2 2
𝐵 − 𝐴𝐷4 𝐵 − 𝐴𝐷4 Given is a parabola 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 0. Find:
𝑘= ℎ=
4𝐴𝐶 4𝐴𝐶 (a) The opening
(b) The location of vertex
Properties of a Parabola (c) The location of focus
𝒅𝟏
• Eccentricity, 𝒆 = 𝒅𝟐
=𝟏 (d) The equation of directrix

o Distance of the point from the focus, d1

divided by distance of the point from the • Transform general form of equation to standard
directrix, d2 form.
o 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 is shown in figure on previous • 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 0
page.
4 2
o Since 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 , 𝑒 = 1. • 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 4𝑦 (add (2) both sides)

• Vertex to Focus Distance • 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 4𝑦 + 4

o 𝑝 • (𝑥 − 2)2 = 4(1)(𝑦 + 1)
• Length of Latus Rectum • ℎ = 2; 𝑘 = −1; 𝑝 = 1
o 4𝑝 • 𝑝 > 0, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑
 • (a) Open upwards
• (b) V (2, -1)
• 𝐹 (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑝)
• (c) F (2, 0)
• 𝐷: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 𝑝
• (d) 𝒚 = −𝟐
• (Alternative Method)
• Use formula for h and k using general form
coefficients found in table.

Example
An arc in the form of parabolic curve is 40 m across the • By SPP…
bottom. A flat horizontal beam 26 m long is placed 12 m
22−7 150 2
above the base. Find the height of the arc. • = (150−15−15)
𝑑−7
• 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔 𝐦

Example
What is the area bounded by the curve 𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 = 0 and
its latus rectum?

• By SPP (Squared Property of Parabola) …

ℎ−12 26÷2 2
• =( )
ℎ 40÷2
• Shift-solve.
• 𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 𝐦 • 𝑥 2 = 4(2)(𝑦 − 0)
• 𝑉 (ℎ, 𝑘) = (0,0)
Example • 𝑝=2
The supporting cable of a suspension bridge hangs in the • 𝑏 = 𝐿𝑅 = 4𝑝 = 8
form of a parabola from the top of 22 m tall towers which
are 150 m horizontally apart. If the lowest point on the • ℎ=𝑝=2
cable is 7 m above the roadway, find the vertical distance 2
in meters of the cable from the roadway at the point • 𝐴 = 3 𝑏ℎ
which is 15 m from one of the supports. 2
• 𝐴 = 3 (8)(2)
𝟑𝟐
• 𝑨= 𝟑
𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
 VI) The Circle ▪ Common chord or common
tangent

Circle

• 𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 = 2(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
o Orthogonal Circles

Example
• A 2nd degree conic section
Given is a circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 12 = 0. Find (a)
• Locus of points with constant distance (radius) the location of center, (b) its radius, (c) the tangent
from a fixed point (center) distance from the point (8, 6)
• Transform to standard form.
Circle
2 2
• (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) + (𝑦 2 + 6𝑦) = 12
Gen. Form 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
• Divide middle coefficient by 2, then square.
Standard (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
• (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + (𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9) = 12 + 9 + 4
(Center-Radius)
Form • (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 25 = 52
Standard Form 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 • (a) C (2, -3)
with C (0,0) • (b) 𝒓 = 𝟓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
Center 𝐶 (ℎ, 𝑘) • (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 ) = (8,6)
𝐴 • 𝑑𝑇 = √𝑥𝑜2 + 𝑦𝑜2 − 4𝑥𝑜 + 6𝑦𝑜 − 12
ℎ=−
2
• (c) 𝒅𝑻 = 𝟐√𝟐𝟑 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝟗. 𝟓𝟗 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
𝐵
𝑘=− • (Alternative Method)
2
• For a and b, transforming to standard form can
Radius 1
𝑟 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 4𝐶 not be done at all and just use the formulas
2 𝐴
o ℎ = −2
𝐵
Properties of a Circle o 𝑘 = −2
𝝅
• 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 = 𝟒 𝒅𝟐 o
1
𝑟 = 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 𝐶 2
o Area
• 𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝝅𝒅 Example
o Circumference Given are 2 circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 5 = 0 and 𝑥 2 +
𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 + 2 = 0. Find the value of k so that they
• 𝒅𝑻 = √𝒙𝟐𝒐 + 𝒚𝟐𝒐 + 𝑨𝒙𝒐 + 𝑩𝒚𝒐 + 𝑪 are orthogonal.
o Tangential distance from point Po (xo, yo)
• 𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 = 2(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
• (𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝟏 𝑬𝒒. ) − (𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝟐 𝑬𝒒. ) = 𝟎
• 2 ⋅ 4 + (−3) ⋅ 𝑘 = 2(−5 + 2)
o Equation of Radical Axis
• 8 − 3𝑘 = −6
o Radical Axis 𝟏𝟒
• 𝒌= 𝟑
 VII) The Ellipse

Ellipse
• A member of central conic section
• Locus of points which sum of distances from two
fixed points (Foci F and F’) is a constant.
 Properties of an Ellipse
Wide Ellipse Tall Ellipse
• 𝒆<𝟏
Gen. Form 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐸 = 0
o First eccentricity
𝑨&𝑩 𝐴<𝐵 𝐴>𝐵 𝒄 𝑎
▪ 𝒆=𝒂=𝑑
(𝑥 − ℎ) 2 (𝑦 − 𝑘) 2 (𝑥 − ℎ) 2 (𝑦 − 𝑘) 2
Standard + =1 + =1
Form
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑎2 o Second eccentricity
𝑐
Standard 𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥 2 ▪ 𝑒=𝑏
+ =1 + =1
Form for V 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2
o Third eccentricity
(0,0) 𝑐
𝒂&𝒃 𝑎>𝑏 𝑎>𝑏 ▪ 𝑒=
√𝑎 2 +𝑏2
𝑎 = √𝐵 𝑎 = √𝐴
𝑏 = √𝐴 𝑏 = √𝐵 • 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
o a is semi-major axis
Major Axis Horizontal Vertical
o b is semi-minor axis
𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑎 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑎
(connects the (connects the o c is center to focus distance
𝟐𝒃𝟐
vertices) vertices) • 𝑳𝑹 =
𝒂
Minor Axis Vertical Horizontal
o Length of latus rectums
𝑚𝐴 = 2𝑏 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑏
𝒂𝟐 𝒂
(connects the (connects the • 𝒅= =
𝒄 𝒆
covertices) covertices)
o Distance of directrix from the center
Center 𝐶 (ℎ, 𝑘) 𝐶 (ℎ, 𝑘) • 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒂𝒃
𝐶 𝐶 o Area
ℎ=− ℎ=−
2𝐴 2𝐴
𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐
𝐷 𝐷 • 𝑷 ≈ 𝟐𝝅√ 𝟐
𝑘=− 𝑘=−
2𝐵 2𝐵 • 𝒇 = 𝒂 ± 𝒆𝒙
Center to Foci 𝑐= √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 𝑐= √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 o Distance of point (x, y) on the ellipse
Distance from F and F’
Foci 𝐹(ℎ + 𝑐, 𝑘) 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑐) o 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑒𝑥
𝐹′(ℎ − 𝑐, 𝑘) 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑐) o 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑒𝑥
o 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑎
Length of 𝐿𝑅 = 𝐿′𝑅′ 𝐿𝑅 = 𝐿′𝑅′
Latus 2𝑏 2 2𝑏 2 ▪ Distance from the two foci to any
Rectums = = point on the ellipse will always
𝑎 𝑎 add up to 2a.
Vertices 𝑉 (ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘) 𝑉 (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑎)
𝑉′(ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘) 𝑉′(ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑎) Example

Covertices 𝐵 (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏) 𝐵 (ℎ + 𝑏, 𝑘) Given is an ellipse 9𝑥 2 + 16𝑦 2 − 36𝑥 + 32𝑦 − 92 = 0.

Find:
𝐵 (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏) 𝐵′ (ℎ − 𝑏, 𝑘) (a) The location of its center.
2 2
Distance of 𝑎 𝑎 (b) The length of its latus rectum.
Directrices 𝑑= 𝑑=
𝑐 𝑐 (c) The first eccentricity.
from center
(d) The area and perimeter.
Directrices 𝐷: 𝑥 = 𝑘 + 𝑑 𝐷: 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑑
𝐷′: 𝑥 = 𝑘 − 𝑑 𝐷′: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 𝑑 • 9(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 16(𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1) = 92 +
36 + 16
• 9(𝑥 − 2)2 + 16(𝑦 + 1)2 = 144
 •
(𝑥−2)2
+
(𝑦+1)2
=1 • 𝑦 = 2.4
16 9
• 𝐻 = 6 + 𝑦 (required is the entire length of violet
• (a) C (2, -1) line)
2𝑏2 2(9)
• 𝐿𝑅 = = • 𝑯 = 𝟖. 𝟒
𝑎 16
• (b) LR = 1.125
𝑐 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2 Example
• 𝑒=𝑎= 𝑎 A trough has an elliptical cross-section which is 18 inches
√16−9 wide on top and 12 inches deep. If the water surface is 8
• 𝑒= 4
= 0.6614 inches below the top, find the width of the water surface?
• (c) e = 0.6614
• 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
• (d) 𝑨 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝟎 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟐𝛑 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
𝑎 2 +𝑏2
• 𝑃 ≈ 2𝜋√ 2

• (d) 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬

Example
A hallway 10 m wide has a semi-elliptical arch ceiling
which is 9 m high at the center from the floor. If the walls
are 6 m tall at both ends of the ceiling, how high is the
ceiling 2 m horizontally from either wall?

18
• 𝑏= 2
=9
• 𝑎 = 12
• 𝑊 =? (green line length)
• 𝑊 = 2𝑥 when 𝑦 = −8
𝑥2 𝑦2
• 92
+ 122 = 1
• Get x when y = -8.
• 𝑥 = 6.71
• 𝑊 = 2𝑥
• 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟏 𝐢𝐧 𝐨𝐫 𝟔√𝟓 𝐢𝐧

• Height of Ceiling from floor is 9m and height of Example

walls are 6m. Thus, the height of semi-elliptical
arch is 3m which is the b. An ellipse has its center at (0, 0) with its axis horizontal.
The distance between the vertices is 8 and its eccentricity
o 𝑏=3 is 0.5. Compute the length of the longest focal radius
• Since hallway is 10 m wide from point (2, 3) on the curve.

o 𝑎=5 • ℎ=0
𝑥2 𝑦2 • 𝑘=0
• + =1
25 9 8
• 𝑎= =4
• 2 meters away from wall is 3 meters away from 2
center. • 𝑒 = 0.5
• Getting y when x = 3… • 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?
 • (𝑥, 𝑦) = (2,3)
Horizontal Vertical
• 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑒𝑥 2 2
Gen. Form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐸 = 0
o 4 + 0.5(2)
𝑨&𝑩 𝐵<0 𝐴<0
o 5
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2
• 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓 Standard − =1 − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2
Form
Standard 𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥 2
VIII) The Hyperbola − =1 − =1
Form for V 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2
(0,0)
𝑎 = √|𝐵| 𝑎 = √|𝐴|
Hyperbola
𝑏 = √𝐴 𝑏 = √𝐵

Transverse Horizontal Vertical

Axis 𝑇𝐴 = 2𝑎 𝑇𝐴 = 2𝑎
(connects the (connects the
vertices) vertices)
Conjugate Vertical Horizontal
Axis 𝐶𝐴 = 2𝑏 𝐶𝐴 = 2𝑏
(connects the (connects the
covertices) covertices)
Slope of 𝑏 𝑎
𝑚=± 𝑚=±
Asymptotes 𝑎 𝑏
Center 𝐶 (ℎ, 𝑘) 𝐶 (ℎ, 𝑘)
𝐶 𝐶
ℎ=− ℎ=−
2𝐴 2𝐴
𝐷 𝐷
𝑘=− 𝑘=−
2𝐵 2𝐵
Center to Foci 𝑐 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑐 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Distance
Foci 𝐹(ℎ + 𝑐, 𝑘) 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑐)
𝐹′(ℎ − 𝑐, 𝑘) 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑐)
Length of 𝐿𝑅 = 𝐿′𝑅′ 𝐿𝑅 = 𝐿′𝑅′
Latus 2𝑏 2 2𝑏 2
Rectums = =
𝑎 𝑎
Vertices 𝑉 (ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘) 𝑉 (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑎)
𝑉′(ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘) 𝑉′(ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑎)
Covertices 𝐵 (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏) 𝐵 (ℎ + 𝑏, 𝑘)
𝐵 (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏) 𝐵′ (ℎ − 𝑏, 𝑘)
Distance of 𝑎2 𝑎2
Directrices 𝑑= 𝑑=
𝑐 𝑐
from center
• Is a member of the 2nd degree central conic Directrices 𝐷: 𝑥 = 𝑘 + 𝑑 𝐷: 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑑
sections with difference of distances from two
fixed points (foci, F and F’) are constant 𝐷′: 𝑥 = 𝑘 − 𝑑 𝐷′: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 𝑑
Properties of a Hyperbola Example
• 𝒆>𝟏 Find the equation of the hyperbola with center at (0, 0)
𝒄 and transverse axis 6 and a focus at (5,0)
• 𝒆=𝒂
• 𝑇𝐴 = 2𝑎 = 6 → 𝑎 = 3
• 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
• ℎ = 0; 𝑘 = 0
𝟐𝒃𝟐
• 𝑳𝑹 = 𝒂 • 𝑐 = 5 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠)
• 𝒅=
𝒂
• 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 → 𝑏 = 4
𝒆
𝒃 • Transverse axis is horizontal.
• 𝝓 = 𝟐 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 (𝒂)
𝑥2 𝑦2
• − 𝑏2 = 1
o Angle between asymptotes wherein the 𝑎2
hyperbola is found 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
• 𝟗
− 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟏
• Eq. of asymptotes
o Use point slope form of line.
Special Cases of Hyperbola
o The point is the center of the hyperbola.
• Point of intersection of asymptote is center of
parabola. Equilateral “Rectangular” Hyperbola
• Slope of asymptote • 𝑎=𝑏

o
𝑏
𝑚 = ± 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 ± 𝑏
𝑎 • Horizontal Transverse Axis

Example
Given is a hyperbola 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2 = 0. Find:
(a) LR
(b) Eccentricity
(c) Angle between asymptotes
(d) Distance between directrices
o 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2
• 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −3, 𝐶 = −4, 𝐷 = −6, 𝐸 = −2 • Vertical Transverse Axis
• 𝐵 < 1 → Horizontal Hyperbola
• 𝑎 = √|𝐵| = √3
• 𝑏 = √𝐴 = 1
2𝑏2 2(1)2
• 𝐿𝑅 = 𝑎
=
√3
• (a) LR = 1.15
𝑐 √𝑎 2 +𝑏2 √3+1
• 𝑒=𝑎= 𝑎
=
√3
• (b) 𝑒 = 1.15
•
𝑏
𝜙 = arctan (𝑎) = 2 arctan ( 3)
1 o 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2
√
• Diagonal Transverse Axis (Leaning Right)
• (c) 𝜙 = 60°
𝑎2 3
• 𝐷 = 2𝑑 = 2 ( ) = 2 ( )
𝑐 √3+1
• (d) 𝐷 = 3
 𝑐 √𝑎 2 +𝑏2 √2+2
• 𝑒=𝑎= 𝑎
=
√2

• (b) 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏 = √𝟐

IX) General Equation of 2nd Degree Conic Sections

General Equation of 2nd Degree Conic Sections

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

Condition Eccentricity
1 Circle 𝐴 = 𝐶, 𝐵 = 0 𝑒=0
o 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎2
2
o Asymptotes is x and y axis. Parabola 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 = 0 𝑒=1

• Diagonal Transverse Axis (Leaning Left) Ellipse 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 < 0 𝑒<1

Hyperbola 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 > 0 𝑒>1
• 2
𝐷 = 𝐵 − 4𝐴𝐶
o Discriminant or Invariant
• Angle of rotation to eliminate the product term xy
is:
𝐵
o tan 2𝜃 =
𝐴−𝐶
o 0° < 2𝜃 < 180°
o 0° < 𝜃 < 90°

Example
1
o 𝑥𝑦 = − 2 𝑎2 Given equation is 2𝑥 2 − √3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 2
o Asymptotes is x and y axis. (a) Identify the curve.
(b) To what angle should the axis be rotated to
eliminate the product term xy.
Example
Find the vertices and eccentricity of the equilateral
hyperbola 𝑥𝑦 = 4 • 𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = −√3, 𝐶 = 1
•
1 2
𝑎 =4 • 𝐷 = 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶
2
• 𝐷 = 3 − 4(2)(1)
• 𝑎 = 𝑏2 = 2
2
• 𝐷 = −5 < 0
• Diagonal transverse axis leaning to the right.
• Ellipse.
• Transverse axis is 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝐵
• Solving for intersection. • tan 2𝜃 =
𝐴−𝐶

• 𝑥2 = 4 • 2𝜃 = arctan (
𝐵
)
𝐴−𝐶
• 𝑥 = ±2 − √3
• 2𝜃 = arctan ( 2−1 )
• 𝑦 = ±2
• (a) • 2𝜃 = −60°
𝑽 (𝟐, 𝟐) o Fourth quadrant.
′
𝑽 (−𝟐, −𝟐) • But 0° < 2𝜃 < 180°…
𝑐
• 𝑒= 𝑎
• Tangent is also negative in second quadrant.
 • The angle in second quadrant can be taken by Example
extending terminal of angle −60° in the fourth Find the equivalent of (-3, 4) in the polar coordinate
quadrant to second quadrant. system.
• 2𝜃 = 180° − 60° = 120° • 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 4
• (b) 𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎°
• 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √32 + 42
• 𝑟=5
X) The Polar Coordinate System 𝑦 4
• 𝜃 = arctan 𝑥 + 𝜙 = arctan −3 + 180°

Polar Coordinate System • 𝜃 = 126.87°

• (-3, 4) = (5, 126.87°)

Example
Find the equivalent equation of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 −
2𝑦 = 0 in the polar coordinate system.
• 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
• 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
• 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 0
• 𝒓 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

Example
Identify the curve represented by:
2
𝑟=
1 + cos 𝜃
𝑥
• cos 𝜃 = 𝑟
2
• 𝑟= 𝑥
1+
𝑟
2𝑟
• 𝑟=
𝑟+𝑥
2
• 1= 𝑟+𝑥
• 𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 • 𝑟+𝑥 =2
• 𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 • √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 = 2
• 𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 • √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2 − 𝑥
𝒚
• 𝜽= 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝝓 • 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 − 4𝑥 + 𝑥 2
o 𝜙 = 0 if 𝑥 > 0 • 𝑦 2 = 4(𝑥 − 1)
o 𝜙 = 180° = 𝜋 if 𝑥 < 0 • Parabola.
• 𝑟 is radius vector
• 𝜃 is vectorial angle
o −180° < 𝜃 < 180°
• X-axis is polar axis.
• Y-axis is normal axis.
 XI) Common Polar Curves Limacon of Pascal
• 𝑎>𝑏
Circles
• Circle with radius = a and center at (0, 0)

o 𝒓=𝒂
▪ Radius is a.
• Circle with center on x-axis and tangent to y-axis.

o 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
▪ 𝑏 > 0 heart bottom points right
▪ 𝑏 < 0 heart bottom points left
o 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
▪ 𝑏 > 0 heart bottom points up
o 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
▪ 𝑏 < 0 heart bottom points down
▪ 𝑎 > 0 circle at right side of y- 𝝅
axis o 𝑨= 𝟐
(𝟐𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 )
▪ 𝑎 < 0 circle at left side of y-axis • 𝑎<𝑏
▪ Radius is a/2.
• Circle with center on y-axis and tangent to x-axis.

o Will have inner loops.

o 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 o Intersect itself at origin.
▪ 𝑎 > 0 circle at top side of x-axis
▪ 𝑎 < 0 circle at bottom side of x-
axis
▪ Radius is a/2.
 • 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Cardioid
• Similar to limacon if 𝑎 = 𝑏
• 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 ± 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)
• 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 ± 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)
• Has its cusp on the origin.
o The point where the curve changes point
abruptly.
• Can be pictured the same way as limacons with
the cusp at the origin.
• 𝑨=
𝟑𝝅 𝟐
𝒂 o 𝑨 = 𝟐𝒂𝟐
𝟐
• 𝑷 = 𝟖𝒂
Rose
• 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒏𝜽) , 𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒
Lemniscate of Bernoulli
• 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝜽)

• 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒏𝜽) , 𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒
o 𝑨 = 𝒂𝟐
• 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝜽)

• Number of petals and Area

o 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝟐
o 𝑨=𝒂 ▪ Number of petals is 𝑛
𝜋
▪ 𝐴 = 4 𝑎2
o 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
▪ Number of petals is 2𝑛
𝜋
▪ 𝐴 = 𝑎2
2
• 𝑛 = 1 it becomes a circle.
Example XII) Equation of Curves in Complex Variable Z
Find the area bounded by the following polar curves.
(1) 𝑟 = 2(1 + cos 𝜃)
(2) 𝑟 = 2 sin(2𝜃)
(3) 𝑟 = 2 cos 𝜃
(4) 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃
(5) 𝑟 2 = 16 sin(2𝜃)
(6) 𝑟 = 1 − sin 𝜃

• First, identify the type of curve, and then use

formula of area for that type of curve.
• (1) is a cardioid. Example
3𝜋 2 3𝜋 Identify the curve and find the area bounded by the curve
• 𝐴= 𝑎 = (2)2
2 2 |𝑧 − 2| = 3
• 𝑨 = 𝟔𝛑 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 • |𝑧 − 2| = |𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 − 2|
• (2) is a rose with even n.
• √(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 3
𝜋 2
• 𝐴= 𝑎
2 • (𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
𝜋
• 𝐴= 2
(2)2 • Circle.
• 𝐀 = 𝟐𝛑 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 • 𝑟2 = 9
• (3) is a circle with radius a/2 • 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

• 𝐴=
𝜋𝑎 2
=
𝜋(2)2 • 𝑨 = 𝟗𝝅 𝒔𝒒. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
4 4
• 𝑨 = 𝝅 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Example
• (4) is a Limacon
𝜋
Identify the curve represented by:
• 𝐴 = 2 (2𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
|𝑧 − 3| + |𝑧 + 3| = 10
𝜋
• 𝐴= 2
(2(2)2 + (1)2 ) • 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
• 𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝛑 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 • |𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 − 3| + |𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 + 3| = 10
• (5) is a lemniscate. • √(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 + √(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 10
• 𝐴 = 𝑎2 = (16) • √(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 10 − √(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2
• 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟔 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
• (𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 100 − 20√(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2 +
• (6) is a cardioid. (𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2
3𝜋 2
• 𝐴= 𝑎 • 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 = 100 −
2
3𝜋
20√(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2
• 𝐴= (1)2
2
• 12𝑥 + 100 = 20√(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2
• 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝛑 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
• 3𝑥 + 25 = 5√(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2
• 9𝑥 2 + 150𝑥 + 252 = 25((𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2 )
• = 25(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 )
• 25𝑥 2 + 150𝑥 + 225 + 25𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 2 − 150𝑥 −
252 = 0
• 16𝑥 2 − 400 + 25𝑦 2 = 0
 𝑥2 𝑦2
• 25
− 1 + 16 = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2
• 25
+ 16 = 1
• Ellipse.

Note: If |𝑧 − 3| − |𝑧 + 3| = 10, curve is a hyperbola.

Example
Identify the curve represented by
𝐼𝑚{𝑧 2 } = 4
• 𝐼𝑚{(𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦)2 } = 4
• 𝐼𝑚{𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑗𝑥𝑦} = 4
• 2𝑥𝑦 = 4
• 𝑥𝑦 = 2
• Equilateral Hyperbola.
 SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
I) Distance Between Two Points 𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑚 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃
• = = = = ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑟
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑧2 −𝑧1 𝑚+𝑛 𝐴𝐵
𝑛
• 1−𝑟 = 𝑚+𝑛
Distance Between Two Points
• 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) • 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒓(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )
• 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) • 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒓(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )

• 𝒅 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 )𝟐 • 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒓(𝒛𝟑 − 𝒛𝟏 )

Special Case: Middle Point M (xm, ym)

Example
1
Find the distance from (3, -2, 1) to (2, 4, -2). • 𝑟=2
𝟏
2 • 𝒙𝒎 = 𝟐 (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 )
• 𝑑 = √(3 − 2)2 + (−2 − 4)2 + (1 − (−2))
𝟏
• 𝒅 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟖 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 • 𝒚𝒎 = 𝟐 (𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 )
𝟏
• 𝒛𝒎 = (𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 )
𝟐
Example
Find the point on the line x = y = z that is equidistant Example
from the point (3,0,5) and (1,-1,4).
Find the mid-point of the line segment joining (3, 4, 2)
• 𝑃1 (3, 0, 5) and (1, 6, 3).
• 𝑃2 (1, −1,4) • 𝑟=
1
2
• 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑥) 1
• 𝑥 = 2 (3 + 1) = 2
• 𝑃1 𝑃 = 𝑃2 𝑃
1
• √(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑥 2 + (𝑥 − 5)2 = • 𝑦 = 2 (4 + 6) = 5
√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑥 − 4)2 •
1
𝑧 = 2 (2 + 3) = 2.5
• Shift-solve.
• 𝑀 (2, 5, 2.5)
• 𝑥=2
• 𝑷 (𝟐, 𝟐, 𝟐) Example
The three points (1, -1, -3), (2, 0, -1) and (a, b, 3) lie on a
II) Division of Line Segment straight line, find the values of a and b.
• Since 𝑧: −3 < −1 < 3
Division of Line Segment • 𝑃1 (1, −1, −3)
• 𝑃 (2,0, −1)
• 𝑃2 (𝑎, 𝑏, 3)
𝑧−𝑧1 −1−(−3) 1
• 𝑟= = =
𝑧2 −𝑧1 3−(−3) 3

• 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑟(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
1
• 2 = 1 + 3 (𝑎 − 1)
• 𝒂=𝟒
• 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑟(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
 • 0 = −1 + 𝑟(𝑏 − (−1)) Two Planes
• 𝒃=𝟐 𝑃1 : 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 = 0
𝑃2 : 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 + 𝐷2 = 0
Example Description of Formulas
Find the coordinates of the point where the segment Intersection
joining the points (2, -2, 1) and (5, 1, -2) crosses the xy-
plane. 𝑷𝟏 ||𝑷𝟐 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
= =
𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2
• 𝑧 = 0 (crosses xy-plane)
• 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) =? 𝑷𝟏 ⊥ 𝑷𝟐 𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 = 0

• 𝑃1 (2, −2,1) 𝑷𝟏 coincides 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1 𝐷1

= = =
with 𝑷𝟐 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 𝐷2
• 𝑃2 (5,1, −2)
𝑧−𝑧1 0−1 1
• 𝑟=𝑧 = −2−1 = 3
2 −𝑧1
• Parallel – 𝑃1 ||𝑃2
• 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑟(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) 𝐴1 𝐵 𝐶
1 o = 𝐵1 = 𝐶1
• 𝑦 = −2 + (1 − (−2)) 𝐴2 2 2
3
𝑃1 : 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷1 = 0
• 𝑦 = −1
𝑃2 : 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷2 = 0
• 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑟(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑫𝟐 −𝑫𝟏
1 o 𝑑=| |
• 𝑥 =2+ 3
(5 − 2) √𝑨𝟐 +𝑩𝟐 +𝑪𝟐

• 𝑥=3 ▪ Shortest or Perpendicular

distance of the two parallel lines
• 𝑷 (𝟑, −𝟏, 𝟎) ▪ Difference over Pythagorean
• Perpendicular – 𝑃1 ⊥ 𝑃2
III) The Plane
o 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎
o SOP of pairs equals zero.
The Plane
• Acute Angle Between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2
• A flat surface
• General Form o 𝜽 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 |
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 +𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟐 +𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
|
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0 √𝑨𝟐𝟏 +𝑩𝟐𝟏 +𝑪𝟐𝟏 √𝑨𝟐𝟐 +𝑩𝟐𝟐 +𝑪𝟐𝟐

• Intercept Form o Inverse cosine of SOP of pairs over

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 product of Pythagorean.
+ + =1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• Three-Points Form (Perpendicular or Shortest) Distance from a point
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1 • 𝑃𝑜 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 )
| 2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 | = 0
𝑥
𝑥3 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 − 𝑦1 𝑧3 − 𝑧1 • 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
𝐴𝑥𝑜 +𝐵𝑦𝑜 +𝐶𝑧𝑜 +𝐷
• Expanded form of 3 Points Form • 𝑑=| |.
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶 2
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
|𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑧 | (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
3 1 3 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 Volume of Polyhedron Pyramid
− |𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑧 − 𝑧 | (𝑦 − 𝑥1 )
3 1 3 1
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 • Volume of polyhedron pyramid bounded by
+ |𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑧 | (𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) = 0 plane and the 3-coordinate planes.
3 1 3 1
𝑫𝟑 𝒂𝒃𝒄
• 𝑽𝒑 |𝟔𝑨𝑩𝑪| = | 𝟔
|
Example Example
Find the equation of the plane that passes through (3, -2, Find the angle between planes 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 5 = 0 and
1), (2, 4, -2), and (-1, 3, 2). 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 2 = 0
• Labeling the points P1, P2, and P3, • Labelling the planes as P1 and P2 as mentioned.
consecutively…
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝐴1 𝐴2 +𝐵1 𝐵2 +𝐶1𝐶2
• 𝜃 = arccos ( )
• | 2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 | = 0
𝑥 √𝐴21 +𝐵12 +𝐶12 √𝐴22 +𝐵22 +𝐶22
𝑥3 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 − 𝑦1 𝑧3 − 𝑧1
𝑥−3 𝑦+2 𝑧−1 • Substituting…
• | 2 − 3 4 + 2 −2 − 1| = 0 • 𝜽 = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟒𝟓°
−1 − 3 3 + 2 2 − 1
𝑥−3 𝑦+2 𝑧−1
• | −1 6 −3 | = 0 Example
−4 5 1 Find the volume of the pyramid in the first octant by the
• (6 + 15)(𝑥 − 3) − (−1 − 12)(𝑦 + 2) + plane 6𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 5𝑧 − 30 = 0 and the 3-coordinate
(−5 + 24)(𝑧 − 1) = 0 planes.
• 21𝑥 − 63 + 13𝑦 + 26 + 19𝑧 − 19 = 0 • Given eq.→ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 = 0
𝐷3
• 𝟐𝟏𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑𝒚 + 𝟏𝟗𝒛 − 𝟓𝟔 = 𝟎 • 𝑉 = |6𝐴𝐵𝐶|
• Substitute.
Example
• 𝐕 = 𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Find the shortest distance from the point (5, 4, -2) to the
plane 21𝑥 + 13𝑦 + 19𝑧 − 56 = 0.
• Given eq. → 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0 IV) The Line

• Given pt. → (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 )

𝐴𝑥𝑜 +𝐵𝑦𝑜 +𝐶𝑧𝑜 +𝐷 Line
• 𝑑=| |
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶 2 • Locus of points that can be described as an
• Substitute. intersection of 2 planes.
• 𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 • General Form
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 = 0
Example 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 + 𝐷2 = 0
Find the volume of the cube having its 2 faces on the • Two-Points Form
planes 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 3 = 0 and 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 + 8 = 0 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
• The side of the cube is the distance between the 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
planes.
• Symmetric Form
• The formula for the distance between parallel (or point and direction nos. form)
planes need coefficients A, B, and C to be equal. 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
Thus, we multiply first plane equation mentioned = =
by 3. 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• Direction Vector or Nos.
• 𝑃1 : 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 − 9 = 0
𝐷𝑉 = [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐]
• 𝑃2 : 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 + 8 = 0
𝐷2 −𝐷1
• Parametric Form
• 𝑑=| |
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶 2 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑥1
• Substitute. 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑦1
17
• 𝑑= 9
𝑧 = 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑧1

• 𝑉=𝑑 3 o 𝑡 is called a parametric variable equated

to the symmetric form
𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟑
• 𝑽= 𝟕𝟐𝟗
𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝟔. 𝟕𝟒 𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Example • Perpendicular lines – 𝐿1 ⊥ 𝐿2
Given is the line represented by 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2 and o 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 = 0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1. Find the equivalent equation in:
o Dot product of direction vectors is zero.
(a) Symmetric Form
o Product of pairs add up to zero.
(b) Parametric Form
• Skew Lines
o Not parallel, not perpendicular, not
• Getting two points from the line of intersection… intersecting
• Set x = 0, and solve for y and z (use systems of o If does not satisfy equations above for
equation solver in calculator) parallel and perpendicular lines, then L1
and L2 are skew lines.
• 𝑃1 (0,4,3)
• Acute Angle Between Lines
• Set y = 0, and solve for x and z
• 𝑃2 (0.8,0,0.6) 𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1 𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
o 𝜃 = arccos | |
• Use two-points form: √𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12 √𝑎22 +𝑏22 +𝑐22
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
• 𝑥2 −𝑥1
=𝑦 =𝑧 o Inverse cosine of sum of product (SOP)
2 −𝑦1 2 −𝑧1
of pairs over product of Pythagorean
𝒙 𝒚−𝟒 𝒛−𝟑
• = =
𝟎.𝟖 −𝟒 −𝟐.𝟒
• Use formula for parametric form: Example
o 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑥1 Find the acute angle between the lines
o 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑦1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= = and = =
2 2 1 5 4 −3
o 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑧1
• [𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 ] = [2 2 1]
o OR equate symmetric form to t and solve
for x, y, and z. • [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] = [5 4 − 3]

• 𝑥 = 0.8𝑡 • 𝜃 =?

• 𝑦 = −4𝑡 + 4 𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1 𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2

• 𝜃 = arccos | |
• 𝑧 = −2.4𝑡 + 3 √𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12 √𝑎22 +𝑏22 +𝑐22

• 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°
Two Lines
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
𝐿1 : = = Distance Bet. Skew Lines and Parallel Lines
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑥 − 𝑥2 𝑦 − 𝑦2 𝑧 − 𝑧2 • Identify direction vectors 𝐷𝑉1 and 𝐷𝑉2
𝐿2 : = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 • Get equation of lines in parametric forms.

Description of Formulas o 𝑥1 = ⋯ 𝑡 + ⋯
Intersection o 𝑦1 = ⋯ 𝑡 + ⋯
𝑳𝟏 ||𝑳𝟐 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 o 𝑧1 = ⋯ 𝑡 + ⋯
= =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 o 𝑥2 = ⋯ 𝑠 + ⋯
𝑳𝟏 ⊥ 𝑳𝟐 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 = 0 o 𝑦2 = ⋯ 𝑠 + ⋯
𝑳𝟏 coincides 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 o 𝑧2 = ⋯ 𝑠 + ⋯
= =
with 𝑳𝟐 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 • Get DV using:
o 𝐷𝑉 = [𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ]
• Parallel Lines – 𝐿1 ||𝐿2 • Use the equation:
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
o = = o 𝐷𝑉1 ⋅ 𝐷𝑉 = 0 AND/OR
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

o Equal ratios of direction nos. o 𝐷𝑉2 ⋅ 𝐷𝑉 = 0

 o Results to two equations two unknowns s V) The Common Quadratic Surface Equations
and t.
• Solve for s and t. Common Quadric Surfaces
• Get magnitude of DV with values of s and t.
o 𝑑 = |𝐷𝑉|

Example
Find the distance between parallel lines
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= =
6 −2 1
And
𝑥−7 𝑦 𝑧+1
= =
6 −2 1
• 𝐷𝑉1 = [6 −2 1]
• 𝐷𝑉2 = [6 −2 1]
• Equate the given eq. to t and s, respectively.
• 𝑥1 = 6𝑡
• 𝑦1 = −2𝑡
• 𝑧1 = 𝑡
• 𝑥2 = 6𝑠 + 7
• 𝑦2 = −2𝑠
• 𝑧2 = 𝑠 − 1
• 𝐷𝑉 = [𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ]
• 𝐷𝑉 = [6𝑠 − 6𝑡 + 7 −2𝑠 + 2𝑡 𝑠 − 𝑡 − 1]
• 𝐷𝑉1 ⋅ 𝐷𝑉 = 0 and 𝐷𝑉2 ⋅ 𝐷𝑉 = 0
• 6(6𝑠 − 6𝑡 + 7) − 2(−2𝑠 + 2𝑡) + 1(𝑠 − 𝑡 −
1) = 0
• 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑡 = 0
• 𝑠 = −1
• 𝐷𝑉 = [1 2 −2]
• 𝑑 = |𝐷𝑉|
• 𝑑 = √12 + 22 + 22
• 𝒅 = 𝟑 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Sphere Ellipsoid + Properties
• General Form 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
+ + =1
o 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0 𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
(Vertex at 0)
• Center 𝐶 (ℎ, 𝑘, 𝑙)
4𝜋
𝐴 • 𝑉= 𝑎𝑏𝑐
o ℎ = −2 3

𝐵 • Largest rectangular parallelepiped inscribed in

o 𝑘 = −2 ellipsoid
𝐶 2𝑎 2𝑏 2𝑐
o 𝑙 = −2 o 𝐿= ;𝑊 = ;𝐻 =
√3 √3 √3
o coordinates = o 𝑉 = 𝐿𝑊𝐻 =
8𝑎𝑏𝑐
coefficient of 1st degree 3√3
− 2×coefficient of 2nd degree term

• Standard Form Example

o (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2 Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped
o 𝑟=
1
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 − 4𝐷 that can be inscribed in the ellipsoid 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 9𝑧 2 = 9
2
• Divide by 9.
2 𝐵 2 𝐶 2
o 𝑟= √(𝐴) + (2) + (2 ) −𝐷 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
2 • 32
+ 3
+ 12 = 1
• For vertex at origin: • 𝑎=3
o 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟2
• 𝑏 = √3
• 𝑐=1
Example 8
• 𝑉= 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Given is equation of sphere 3√3

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 6𝑥 + 8𝑧 • 𝑽 = 𝟖 𝐜𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Find the:
(a) Location of center Hyperboloid
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
(b) Radius • 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 = 1
o Axis on z-axis
• 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 8𝑧 = 0 o Hyperboloid with one sheet or nappe
coefficient of 1st degree
• coordinates = − 2×coefficient of 2nd degree term •
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
− 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 = 1
𝑎2
−6
• ℎ = − 2×1 = 3 o Axis on x-axis
0 o Hyperboloid with two sheets or two
• 𝑘 = − 2×1 = 0
napes
−8
• 𝑙 = − 2×1 = 4 • Refer to pictures before this page for determining
axis and number of sheets.
• 𝑪 (𝟑, 𝟎, 𝟒)
o Number of negative signs is number of
• 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 are coefficient of 1st degree terms sheets.
𝐴 2 𝐵 2 𝐶 2 o Axis on the one different sign (yung nag-
• 𝑟 = √( 2 ) + ( 2 ) + (2 ) − 𝐷 iisang positive or nag-iisang negative)
• 𝒓=𝟓
The Cone VI) Equation of Surface of Revolution
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
2
+ 2 = 2 𝑜𝑟 2 + 2 − 2 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 Equation of Surface of Revolution
• Axis on z-axis. • The equation of curve will be given
• Determining axis: • The axis about which the curve will be revolved
o Axis is on isolated variable in one side. will be given
o Axis is on the one negative signed Curve
variable.
Revolved
Replace What? With What?
About What
Elliptic Paraboloid Axis?
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧 x-axis y or z √𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
+ =
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 x or z
y-axis √𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2
• Level curves are ellipses
o Curves at different values of z. z-axis x or y √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
• Axis on isolated variable without square (z-axis The variable that Pythagorean
in this case). is not the axis. theorem of
variables that
are not the axis.
Hyperbolic Paraboloid
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧
− = Example
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐
Find the equation of the surface generated by revolving
• Level curves are hyperbolas 𝑥2 𝑦2
the ellipse 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1 about the x-axis.
o Curves at different values of z.
• Axis on isolated variable without square (z-axis • Replace y or z with √𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
in this case). 𝑥2 𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
• + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐
Cylinder • + + =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟐
• Hyperbolic Cylinder • 𝑎>𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2
o − 2 =1 • One big radius, two small radii…
𝑎2 𝑏
• Elliptic Cylinder • Shape is prolate like rugby ball.
𝑥2 𝑦2
o 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1
o Circular Cylinder
▪ 𝑎=𝑏
• Axis on missing variable (z-axis in this case)
• Level curves are hyperbolas, ellipses, or circles,
that are the same in all values of z.

Parabolic Cylinder
𝑥2 𝑦
• =
𝑎2 𝑏
• Axis on missing variable (z-axis in this case)
• Level curves are parabolas that is the same in all
values of z.
 VII) Transformation of Coordinate System To \From RCS CCS SCS
𝜌 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
Coordinate Systems 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑦
𝑦 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
• RCS – Rectangular Coordinate System RCS --- 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) 𝑥
𝑥 𝑧
𝑧=𝑧 𝜙 = cos −1 ( )
𝜌

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝜌 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2

CCS 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 --- 𝜃=𝜃

𝑧
𝑧=𝑧 𝜙 = cos −1 ( )
𝜌

𝑥 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 𝑟 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙

SCS 𝑦 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃 𝜃=𝜃 ---
𝑧 = 𝜌 cos 𝜙 𝑧 = 𝜌 cos 𝜙

Example
Find the equivalent equation of the 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 15
• CCS – Cylindrical Coordinate System in cylindrical coordinate system.
• 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
• 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
• 𝑧=𝑧
• 2𝑟 2 cos 2 𝜃 + 2𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑧 2 = 15
• 𝟐𝒓𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓

Example
Find the equivalent equation of 𝜙 = 60° in spherical
coordinates system to the rectangular coordinates system.
𝑧
• 𝜙 = arccos ( )
𝜌
𝑧
• cos 𝜙 =
𝜌
• SCS – Spherical Coordinate System
𝑧
• cos 60° = 𝜌
1 𝑧
• 2
=𝜌

• 𝜌 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
1 𝑧
• =
2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

• √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 2𝑧
• 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 4𝑧 2
• 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟑𝒛𝟐
 Differential Calculus
I. Derivative 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
▪ Ex: (𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑦 = 2𝑦 𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
o Solve for 𝑦′ or 𝑑𝑥
Derivative
• Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) • Derivative of implicit functions shortcut

o Then derivative of y with respect to x is: o Model: 𝑓 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
▪ 𝑑𝑥 o = − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
▪ 𝑦′
• For parametric equations
▪ 𝑓′(𝑥)
o Model:
• Importance of derivative
▪ 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑦
o 𝑑𝑥
=𝑚 ▪ 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)
▪ Derivative tells slope of curve or 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡
tangent line to curve. o Use 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
o 𝑑𝑥
=𝑟
▪ Derivative is the rate of change Example
of a dependent quantity y over an
independent quantity x Find the derivative of 𝑦 = sin2 𝑥
𝑑
▪ Ex: • 𝑦 ′ = 2 sin 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑥) (Chain Rule)
𝑑𝑠
• 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 • 𝑦 ′ = 2 sin 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥
o Instantaneous • 𝒚′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 (From Identity)
velocity
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑠 𝑑2 𝑠
• 𝑎= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝑑𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 2 Example
o Instantaneous Find the derivative of y implicitly defined by the
acceleration equation: 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5 = 0.
o First derivative • 𝑓 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5
of velocity 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑦
o Second • 𝑑𝑥
=− 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓
derivative of 𝜕𝑦

position or 𝜕𝑓
• 𝜕𝑥
= 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 2
distance
𝜕𝑓
• 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 3
II. Evaluating Derivatives 𝑑𝑦 2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2 −2
• 𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦+3

Evaluation of Derivatives
• For explicit functions 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) Example
𝑑𝑦
o Use the formulas. Find
𝑑𝑥
if y is defined by the parametric equations:
• For implicit functions 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos3 𝑡
o Derive both sides of the equation by x. 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin3 𝑡
o Use chain rule for the variable y. (Parametric Equations of Astroid or 4-cusps hypocycloid)
 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 Example
• 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Find the slope of the cardioid:
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 = 2(1 + cos 𝜃)
• 𝑑𝑡
= 3𝑎 cos2 𝑡 (− sin 𝑡)
𝜋
𝑑𝑥 At the point where 𝜃 =
• 𝑑𝑡
= −3𝑎 sin 𝑡 cos2 𝑡 6

𝑑𝑦
• 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
• = 3𝑎 sin2 𝑡 (cos 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 • 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑑𝑡
= 3𝑎 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡2
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3𝑎 sin2 𝑡 cos 𝑡
• 𝑑𝑥
= −3𝑎 sin 𝑡 cos2 𝑡 𝑑𝜃
𝑑
(𝑟 sin 𝜃)
•
𝑑𝑦
= −
sin 𝑡 • 𝑚= 𝑑𝜃
𝑑
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑡 (𝑟 cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝜃
𝒅𝒚
• = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒕 𝑑
(2(1+cos 𝜃) sin 𝜃)
𝒅𝒙 • 𝑚= 𝑑𝜃
𝑑
(2(1+cos 𝜃) cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝜃
𝜋
A) Slope of Line Tangent to the Curve • Evaluate derivatives at 𝜃 = in calculator.
6
• 𝒎 = −𝟏
Instantaneous Slope
𝑑𝑦
• Rectangular Coordinate System: 𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 B) Equation of Tangent Line and Normal Line

• Polar Coordinates System:

o Model: Tangent Line and Normal Line

▪ 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃)
▪ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
▪ 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
▪ 𝑚= = 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃
𝑟 ′ sin 𝜃+𝑟 cos 𝜃
▪ 𝑚 = 𝑟′ cos 𝜃−𝑟 sin 𝜃

Example
Find the slope of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 at the point (1,2). • Tangent Line: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑚= 𝑑𝑥 o Slope of line same as slope of curve at
point of intersection.
• 𝑓 = 𝑦 − 4𝑥2
𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑓 o 𝑚 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
• =− 𝜕𝑥
1
•
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑦 Normal Line: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = − 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑑𝑦 −4 4
• 𝑑𝑥
= − 2𝑦 = 2𝑦 o Slope of line is negative reciprocal of
slope of curve at point of intersection.
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑚|(1,2) = 𝑑𝑥 |(1,2) 1 1
o 𝑚𝑁𝐿 = − 𝑚 = −𝑚
𝑇𝐿
4
• 𝑚|(1,2) = =1
2(2)

• 𝒎=𝟏
Example ▪ Arc length formula
Find the equation of the tangent line and normal line to √1+(𝑦 ′)2 𝑑𝑥
the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 at the point (1,2). o 𝜌= 𝑦′′ 𝑑𝑥
2
1+(𝑦′ )
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑚= 3
𝑑𝑥 2 2
[1+(𝑦′ ) ]
𝑑𝑦
• 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 4 o 𝜌= 𝑦 ′′
𝑑𝑦 4 4 3
• 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑦 = 2(2) =1 [𝑟 2 +(𝑟 ′ ) ]
2 2

• Polar CS: 𝜌 = 𝑟2 +2(𝑟′ )2 −𝑟 𝑟′′

• 𝑚𝑇 = 𝑚 = 1
1
o From RCS Formula, derivative equation
• 𝑚𝑁 = − = −1 for PCS can be used to substitute for 𝑦′.
𝑚
• 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) • Curvature, 𝜅
1
• Tangent Line o 𝜅=𝜌
o 𝑦−2=𝑥−1 • Sign
o 𝒙−𝒚+𝟏=𝟎 o Positive curvature or radius means
• Normal Line positive concavity.
o 𝑦 − 2 = −(𝑥 − 1) o Negative curvature or radius means
negative concavity.
o 𝒙+𝒚−𝟑=𝟎

Example
C) Curvature and Radius of Curvature
Find the radius of curvature of the sinusoidal curve 𝑦 =
𝜋
sin 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 2 .
Curvature and Radius of Curvature 3
2 2
[1+(𝑦′ ) ]
• 𝜌= 𝑦 ′′

• 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
𝜋
• 𝑦 ′ = cos 𝑥 = cos 2 = 0
𝜋
• 𝑦 ′′ = − sin 𝑥 = − sin 2 = −1
3
[1+02 ]2
• 𝜌= −1
• 𝝆 = −𝟏

𝟑 Example
𝟐 𝟐
[𝟏+(𝒚′ ) ]
• Rectangular CS: 𝝆 = Find the curvature of the lemniscate of Bernoulli 𝑟 2 =
𝒚′′
𝑎2 cos 2𝜃 at 𝜃 = 0.
o 𝑠 = 𝜌𝛼 3
2 2
[𝑟 2 +(𝑟 ′ ) ]
▪ Arc length = radius of curvature • 𝜌 = 𝑟2 +2(𝑟′ )2 −𝑟 𝑟′′
times angle
o 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝛼 • 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 cos 2𝜃
𝑑𝑠 • Subs. 𝜃 = 0
o 𝜌 = 𝑑𝛼
• 𝑟=𝑎
o 𝑚 = 𝑦 ′ = tan 𝛼
• 2𝑟 𝑟 ′ = −2𝑎2 sin 2𝜃
o 𝛼 = arctan(𝑦′)
𝑦 ′′ 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑟 𝑟 ′ = −𝑎2 sin 2𝜃
o 𝑑𝛼 = 1+(𝑦 ′ )2 • Subs 𝑟 = 𝑎 and 𝜃 = 0
o 𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑦 ′ )2 𝑑𝑥 • 𝑟′ = 0
 • 𝑟 𝑟 ′′ + (𝑟 ′ )2 = −2𝑎2 cos 2𝜃 Example
• Substitute 𝑟 = 𝑎, 𝑟 ′ = 0, and 𝜃 = 0 Find the maximum point, minimum point, and point of
inflection for the polynomial curve:
• 𝑎𝑟 ′′ = −2𝑎2
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5
• ′′
𝑟 = −2𝑎
3
• 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 = 0
[𝑎 2 +02 ]2 2
• 𝜌 = 𝑎2 +2(0)2−𝑎(−2𝑎) • Critical points at 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −2

• 𝜌 = 3𝑎2
𝑎3 • 𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥 + 4 = 0
2
𝑎 • Inflection point at 𝑥 = −
• 𝜌= 3
3
1 • Make a table
• 𝜅= 𝜌
𝟑 𝑦′′ Remarks
• 𝜿=𝒂
𝟐 Negative Concave
𝒙<−
𝟑 Down
D) Maximum and Minimum Point, Has
and Point of Inflection maximum
𝟐 0 Inflection
𝒙=−
Definition of Points 𝟑 Point

𝟐 Positive Concave
𝒙>−
𝟑 Up
Has
minimum
• Maximum point at 𝑥 = −2
2
• Inflection point at 𝑥 = −
3
2
• Minimum point at 𝑥 =
3
• Substituting to 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5
• Max. point (−2,13)
2 223
• Inflection point (− 3 , )
• Maximum and Minimum Points are called critical 27
2 95
points. • Min. point (3 , 27)
𝑑𝑦
• Critical Point: 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑2 𝑦
• Concave Down: 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0
𝑑2 𝑦
• Concave Up: 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0
𝑑2 𝑦
• Point of Inflection: 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0
o Point at which curve changes concavity
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• Maximum point: 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0 and 𝑑𝑥 = 0
o Concave down and critical point.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• Minimum point: 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0 and 𝑑𝑥 = 0
o Concave up and critical point.
 E) Maxima Minima Problems Given sum, Maximize Product Problem Shortcut
𝑃 = 𝑥𝑚𝑦𝑛
Steps for Solution 𝑥+𝑦 =𝑘
𝑚𝑘
• Identify quantity to maximize or minimize. 𝑥=
𝑚+𝑛
o 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 =?
𝑦 =𝑘−𝑥
• Relate Q to other variables by use of theorem or
formulas, or as stated in the problem. • Using shortcut for previous example:

o 𝑄 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) o 𝑚=1
o 𝑛=2
• Express Q in terms of one variable.
o 𝑘 = 36
o 𝑄 = 𝑓(𝑥)
36
• Derive and equate to zero (get critical point). o 𝑥 = 1+2 = 12
o 𝑄 ′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 → 𝑥 = 𝑎 o 𝑦 = 36 − 12 = 24
• Use value of x to solve the requirements of the
problem. Example
o 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑎) A triangular lot is bounded by 2 perpendicular streets on
2 sides which are 30 m and 40 m long, respectively. Find
the dimensions and base area of the largest rectangular
Example building that can be constructed with 2 sides facing the
Find 2 numbers with sum equal to 36 so that the product streets.
of the 1st no. with the square of the other is a maximum.
• 𝑥 =?
• 𝑦 =?
• 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 36
• 𝑃 = 𝑥𝑦 2 → 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒
• 𝑥 = 36 − 𝑦
• 𝑃 = (36 − 𝑦)(𝑦 2 )
• 𝑃 = 36𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3
• 𝑃′ = 72𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 = 0
• Critical points at 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 24
• Reject 𝑦 = 0
• For 𝑦 = 0, 𝑃 = 0
• For 𝑦 = 24, 𝑃 = 6912 • 𝐴𝐵 → 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒
• 𝑃 is maximum when 𝑦 = 24 • 𝐿 × 𝑊 =?
• 𝑥 = 36 − 𝑦 = 12 • Putting the right angled point at the origin, the
hypothenuse is a line with intercepts 𝑎 = 40 and
• 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑏 = 30
• 𝒚 = 𝟐𝟒 •
𝑥
+
𝑦
=1
40 30
• 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 120
• 4𝑦 = 120 − 3𝑥
3
• 𝑦 = 30 − 𝑥
4
3
• 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝑊 = 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 (30 − 𝑥)
4
3
• 𝐴𝐵 = 30𝑥 − 𝑥 2
4
 3
• 𝐴′𝐵 = 30 − 2 𝑥 = 0 Largest Inscribed Rectangle Shortcut

• Critical point at 𝑥 = 20 Inscribed in… Formulas

3
• 𝑦 = 30 − (20) A right triangle 𝟏
4 𝒉= 𝑯
𝟐
• 𝑦 = 15
𝟏
• 𝐴𝐵 , 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 15 × 20 𝒃= 𝑩
𝟐
• 𝐿 × 𝑊 = 15 𝑏𝑦 20 𝟏
𝒂 = 𝑩𝑯
• 𝑨𝑩,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝟐 𝟒
1 1 1
𝑎 = 𝐴 = ( 𝐵𝐻)
2 2 2

𝟏
𝒃= √𝑩𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝑩𝑯
𝒉=
𝟐 √ 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒂= 𝑨 = 𝑩𝑯
𝟐 𝟒
1 1
𝑎 ( 𝐵𝐻)
ℎ= = 2 2
𝑏 1 √𝐵2 + 𝐻 2
2

𝒔 = 𝒓√𝟐
𝑨 = 𝟐𝒓𝟐

𝑳 = 𝒂√𝟐
𝑾 = 𝒃√𝟐
𝑨 = 𝟐𝒂𝒃
Example • Critical point at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2
Find the dimensions and volume of the largest cylinder • Reject radius of 0.
that can be cut from a given cone with radius 3 m and
height 6 m. • 𝑦 = 6 − 2(2) = 2
• 𝒓=𝟐𝒎
• 𝒉=𝟐𝒎
• 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ =
• 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜋(2)2 (2)
• 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟖𝝅 𝒎𝟑

Largest Inscribed Cylinder Shortcut

Inscribed in a… Formulas
Cone 2
𝑟= 𝑅
3
1
ℎ= 𝐻
3
4 4 1
𝑣 = 𝑉 = ( 𝜋𝑅 2 𝐻)
9 9 3
𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

• 𝐻 = 3 𝑐𝑚
Sphere
• 𝑅 = 6 𝑐𝑚 2
𝑑=√ 𝐷
3
• 𝑟 =?
• ℎ =? 1
ℎ= 𝐷
• 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =? √3

• Putting base center of triangle in figure at origin. 𝑉 4 𝐷 31

𝑣= = ( 𝜋( ) )
The slant line equation is √3 √3 3 2
𝑥 𝑦
• 𝑅
+𝐻 =1 𝑑 2
𝑉 = 𝜋( ) ℎ
•
𝑥 𝑦
+6 =1 2
3
• 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6
• 𝑦 = 6 − 2𝑥
• 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
• 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑦
• 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑥 2 (6 − 2𝑥 )
• 𝑉 = 𝜋(6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 )
• 𝑉 ′ = 𝜋(12𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 ) = 0
Example Example
Given are 2 ports which are 15 m apart and 8 m and 12 m A boy 1.6 m tall is viewing a 2 m tall statue atop a 3.3 m
tall. Find the distance of common stake between them tall pedestal. How far from the bases of the pedestal must
from 8 m post for minimum length of guy wire running the boy stand on level ground to get the best view of the
from the top of the ports to the stake. statue

• 𝛼 → 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒
• 𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
• 𝛼 =𝜙−𝜔
• 𝐿 → 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 2+1.7 3.7
• tan 𝜙 = 𝑥
= 𝑥
• 𝐿 = √𝑥 2 + 82 + √(𝑥 − 15)2 + 122 1.7
• tan 𝜔 =
• 𝐿 = √𝑥 2 + 64 + √𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 369 𝑥
3.7 1.7
• 𝐿′ =
2𝑥
+
2𝑥−30
=0 • 𝛼 = arctan 𝑥 − arctan 𝑥
2√𝑥 2 +64 2√𝑥 2 −30𝑥+369
3.7 1.7
− 2 − 2
• Critical point at 𝑥 = 6 • ′
𝛼 = 𝑥
− 𝑥
=0
3.7 2 1.7 2
1+( ) 1+( )
• 𝒙=𝟔𝐦 𝑥 𝑥
3.7 1.7
• 𝛼 ′ = − 𝑥 2 +3.72 + 𝑥 2 +1.72 = 0
Minimize Length Problem Shortcut • Critical point at 𝑥 = 2.51
• 𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝐦

Best View Shortcut

𝑎 𝑏
• tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 = 𝑑−𝑥
𝑎
• 𝑥 = 𝑑 (𝑎+𝑏)
o Parang voltage division lang…

• 𝒙 = √𝒂𝒃
Example Max. Area for Trapezoid w/ 3 Sides Equal Shortcut
A rectangular lot is bounded by 2 perpendicular walls.
Find the area of the largest lot if the fencing material is
20m.
• 𝐴 → maximize
• 𝑏 + ℎ = 20
• ℎ = 20 − 𝑏
• 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
• 𝐴 = 𝑏(20 − 𝑏)
• 𝐴 = 20𝑏 − 𝑏 2
• 𝐴′ = 20 − 2𝑏 = 0
• Critical point at 𝑏 = 10 • 𝐵 = 2𝑏
1
• ℎ = 20 − 10 = 10 • 𝐴 = 3(2 𝑏 2 sin 60°)
• 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ = 10 ⋅ 10 • Shape should be half a regular hexagon.
• 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝟐

Fencing Material for Maximum Area Shortcut Max. Discharge for Canal

Scenario Formulas
Bounded by two walls 𝑏+ℎ =𝐹
𝐹 = fencing material
𝑳
𝒃=𝒉=
𝟐
𝑳 𝟐
𝑨 = 𝒃𝟐 = ( )
𝟐
Shape should be a square.

• Max. Discharge means max. area

Bounded by one wall 𝑏 + 2ℎ = 𝐹
• Shape should be a semi-circle
𝑏 = 2ℎ
• 𝑠 = 𝜋𝑟
𝐹 𝑠
𝑏= • 𝑟=𝜋
2
𝐹
ℎ=
4 Example
𝐹2 The three sides of a trapezoid are each 10 cm long, how
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ = long must the fourth side be if the area is a maximum?
8
• 𝑏 = 10 cm
• 𝐵 = 2𝑏
• 𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐜𝐦
Example Passage Way or Ladder Shortcut
An open cylindrical through is constructed by bending a (Long object made to pass across
given sheet of tin and breadth 2a. Find the radius of the two perpendicular passages,
cylinder of which are through forms when the capacity of minimum width of passage or longest ladder)
the trough is a maximum.
• 𝑠 = 2𝑎
• 𝑠 = 𝜋𝑟
𝑠
• 𝑟=𝜋
2𝑎
• 𝑟= 𝜋
• 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝝅

Example (Shortest Ladder That can reach the building)

A steel girder 8 m long is moved on rollers along a
passageway 4 m wide and into a corridor at right angles
to the passageway. Neglecting the width of the girder,
how wide must the corridor be?

2 2 2
𝐿3 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3

Shortest Tangent Line to Ellipse Shortcut

2 2 2
• 𝐿3 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3
2 2 2
• 83 = 43 + 𝑏 3
• 𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝐦

𝑥2 𝑦2
• 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1
• 𝑳= 𝒂+𝒃
o Shortest Line tangent to ellipse and
meeting or ending at the coordinate axes.
Example Example
A person in a rowboat is 3 km from a point P on a straight A piece of wire 36 cm long is cut in two, one part being
shore while his destination is 5 km directly east of point bent in the shape of an equilateral triangle and the other in
P. If he is able to row 4 kph and walk 5 kph, how far from the form of a circle. Find the length of wire for the
the destination must he land on the shore in order to reach equilateral triangle if the sum of the two areas of these
his destination in the shortest possible time. two figures is to be minimum.
• 𝐴 𝑇 → minimize
• 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 + 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑇
• 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 36 (36 cm long is cut in two)
𝑥
• 𝑠 = (x is for equilateral triangle, s is side of
3
triangle)
• 𝑦 = 2𝜋𝑟 (y is for circle that is the circumference,
r is radius of circle)
• 𝑥 =?
• 𝑦 =𝐿−𝑥
• 𝐿 − 𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑟
𝐿−𝑥
• 𝑟=
2𝜋
• 𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 → 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 • 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 + 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑇
𝑠 𝑠
• 𝑣=𝑡→𝑡=𝑣 1
• 𝐴 𝑇 = 2 𝑠 2 sin 60° + 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑠 𝑠
• 𝑡 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 √3 2
1 2
• 𝐴𝑇 = 4
𝑠 + 𝜋𝑟 2
√𝑥 2 +32 5−𝑥
• 𝑡= + √3 𝑥 2 𝐿−𝑥 2
4 5
• 𝐴𝑇 = ( )
4 3
+ 𝜋 ( 2𝜋 )
2𝑥 1
• 𝑡′ = −5=0
4(2√𝑥 2 +32 ) √3 1
• 𝐴′𝑇 = 4⋅9 ⋅ 2𝑥 + 4𝜋 2(𝑥 − 𝐿) = 0
• Critical point at 𝑥 = 4
√3 1
• 𝐿 =5−𝑥 =5−4=1 • 2𝑥 + (𝑥 − 𝐿) = 0
18 2𝜋

• 𝑳 = 𝟏 𝐤𝐦 •
√3
𝑥
1
+ (𝑥 − 𝐿) = 0
9 𝜋
√3 1 𝐿
Slant Travel Then Straight Travel Shortcut • ( 9 + 𝜋) 𝑥 = 𝜋
𝜋√3+9 𝐿
• ( 9𝜋
)𝑥 =𝜋
𝟗𝑳
• 𝒙 = 𝝅√𝟑+𝟗 ; 𝐿 = 36
• Critical point at 𝑥 = 22.4355
• 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 𝐜𝐦

𝒗𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘 ⋅𝒚
• 𝒙=
𝟐
√(𝒗𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕 ) −(𝒗𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘 )𝟐

• Solving previous problem:

4⋅3
o 𝑥= =4
√52 −42
o 𝑳 − 𝒙 = 𝟓 − 𝟒 = 𝟏 𝐤𝐦
Wire to Equilateral and Circle Shortcut Example
Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed
in an ellipse 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 4 with the sides parallel to the
axes of the ellipse.
𝑥2 𝑦2
• 22
+ 12 = 1
• 𝑎 = 2; 𝑏 = 1
• 𝑊 = 𝑎√2
• 𝐻 = 𝑏√2
• 𝐴 = 𝑊𝐻 = 2𝑎𝑏
• 𝐴=2⋅2⋅1
9𝐿
• 𝑥=𝜋 • 𝐴 = 4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
√3+9

Example Example
In how many equal parts can a wire 50 cm long be cut so A cardboard 20 in x 20 in is to be formed into a box by
that the product of its parts is a maximum? cutting four equal squares and folding the edges. Find the
volume of the largest box.
• 𝐿 = 50 𝑐𝑚
𝐿 𝑥
• 𝑃 = product = ( )
𝑥
𝐿
• ln 𝑃 = 𝑥 ln (𝑥)
1 ′ 𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
• 𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑥 𝐿 (− 𝑥 2 ) + ln (𝑥)
𝐿
• 𝑃′ = 𝑃 (−1 + ln (𝑥)) = 0
𝐿
• ln (𝑥) = 1
𝐿
• 𝑥
=𝑒
𝑳
• 𝒙=𝒆
50
• 𝑥= = 18.39
𝑒
50 18
• 𝑃(18) = (18) = 96.95𝑀
50 19
• 𝑃(19) = (19) = 96.41𝑀 • 𝑉 = 𝑠2𝑥
• 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟖 𝐜𝐦 • 𝑠 + 2𝑥 = 𝐿
• 𝑠 = 𝐿 − 2𝑥
Maximize Product of Equal Parts Shortcut • 𝑉 = (2𝑥 − 𝐿)2 𝑥
• 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = given number or length of wire • 𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 4𝐿𝑥 2 + 𝐿2 𝑥
• 𝑥 = number of divisions or equal pieces cut out • 𝑉 ′ = 12𝑥 2 − 8𝐿𝑥 + 𝐿2 = 0
• 𝑃 = product of parts maximized 4𝐿±√16𝐿2 −12𝐿2 4𝐿±2𝐿
• 𝑥= 12
= 12
𝐿 𝑥 𝑁 𝑥
• 𝑃 = (𝑥) = (𝑥 ) 𝐿 𝐿
• 𝑥 = 6,2
𝐿 𝑁
• 𝑥=𝑒=𝑒 𝐿
o Reject 2, 𝑠 will become 0.
𝐿
• 𝑥 =6
 20 10 𝑉
• 𝑥= 6
= 3
• ℎ = 𝜋𝑟2
• 𝑉 = (2𝑥 − 𝐿)2 (𝑥) • 𝑆𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟 (
𝑉
)+ 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋𝑟 2
10 2 10
• 𝑉 = (3 − 20) ( 3 ) • 𝑆𝑇 =
2𝑉
+ 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟
• 𝑽 = 𝟓𝟗𝟐. 𝟓𝟗 𝐢𝐧 𝟐
•
2𝑉
𝑆𝑇′ = − 𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝑟 = 0
2𝑉
• 𝑟2
= 2𝜋𝑟
Cardboard to Largest Box Shortcut
𝑟2 1
• 2𝑉
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑉
• 𝑟3 = 𝜋
𝟑 𝑽
• 𝒓= √
𝝅

𝑉 3 𝑉
• ℎ = 𝜋𝑟2 = √𝜋 = 𝑟

Least Amount of Material for Cylindrical Measure

𝑳
• 𝒙=𝟔
• 𝑽 = 𝒔𝟐 𝒙 = 𝒙(𝑳 − 𝟐𝒙)𝟐 • Open tank, just one base at bottom
3 𝑉
o 𝑟=ℎ= √
𝜋
Example
• Closed tank, two base, with bottom and top lid
Find the height of a right circular cylinder of maximum
volume which can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 10 3 4𝑉
cm. o 𝑑 =ℎ = √𝜋
• 𝐷 = 2(10) = 20 𝑐𝑚
2 Example
• 𝑑 = √3 𝐷
Postal regulations require that a parcel post package be no
1 greater than 3 m in the sum of its length and girth
• ℎ= 𝐷
√3 (perimeter of the cross section). What is the volume in cu.
𝟐𝟎 m. of the largest package allowed by postal regulations if
• 𝒉= 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝐜𝐦 the package is to be rectangular in shape and has square
√𝟑
ends?
Example • 4𝑠 + 𝐿 = 𝑇
Find the radius of a cylindrical measure and given a o s = side
volume V so that the area of its sides and bottom shall be o L = length
a minimum.
o T = Sum or Total
• 𝑆𝐿 → 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒
• 𝑉 → 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒
• 𝑆𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 𝜋𝑟 2
• 𝑉 = 𝑠2𝐿
o Only one circular base. (and bottom daw)
• 𝐿 = 𝑇 − 4𝑠
• 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
• 𝑉 = 𝑠 2 (𝑇 − 4𝑠)
 • 𝑉 = 𝑇𝑠 2 − 4𝑠 3 • 2𝑥 = 3𝑦
• 𝑉 ′ = 2𝑇𝑠 − 12𝑠 2 = 0 • 𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒚
• −𝑠(12𝑠 − 2𝑇) = 0 • 𝑥 = 1.5(4)
• Reject s = 0 • 𝒙 = 𝟔 𝐤𝐩𝐡
𝑇
• 𝑠=
6
3 1 Example
• 𝑠= =
6 2 For a certain specified sum, a man takes the contract to
• 𝑉 = 𝑇𝑠 2 − 4𝑠 3 build a rectangular water tank, lined with lead. It has a
square base and open top and holds 108 cu. m. What
• 𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐦𝟑 should be the height of the tank that requires the least
quantity of lead?
Largest Volume Allowed by Postal Reg. Shortcut • 𝑠 = side of square
• ℎ = height of tank
• 𝑉 = 108 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚.
• 𝑆𝑇 → 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒
• 𝑉 = 𝑠 2 ℎ = 108
𝑉
• ℎ = 𝑠2
• 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠ℎ
𝑉
• 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 ( 2 )
𝑠
4𝑉
• 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑠 2 +
𝑠
4𝑉
• 𝑆𝑇′ = 2𝑠 − 2 =0
𝑇 𝑠
• 𝑠 =6 4𝑉
• 𝑠2
= 2𝑠
𝑇
• 𝐿 =
3 • 4𝑉 = 2𝑠 3
𝑇3
• 𝑉= • 𝑠 3 = 2𝑉
108
•
𝟑
𝒔 = √𝟐𝑽
1
Example 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉3
• ℎ= 𝑆2
= 2 = 2
Assuming that the energy per hour expended in driving a (2𝑉)3 23
steam boat through the water varies as the cube of the
𝟑 𝑽
velocity, find the most economical rate per hour when • 𝒉= √
steaming against a current running 4 kph. 𝟒

• 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 3 • 𝒉=𝟑𝐦
• 𝑣 =𝑥−𝑦 =𝑥−4
• For economical rate per how we maximize the
velocity per energy or the ratio velocity per
energy.
𝑣 𝑥−𝑦
• 𝑅=𝐸= 𝑘𝑥 3
1 𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2 (𝑥−𝑦)
• 𝑅′ = 𝑘 𝑥3
=0
• 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 𝑦 = 0
3 2

• −2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 = 0
• −𝑥 2 (2𝑥 − 3𝑦) = 0
• 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0
 𝑦−𝑥 1.6
Minimize Material For Rectangular Tank Shortcut • 𝑦
= 6

• 6𝑦 − 6𝑥 = 1.6𝑦
• 4.4𝑦 = 6𝑥
15
• 𝑦 = 11 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 15 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑑𝑡
= 11 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 15
• 𝑑𝑡
= 11 (0.8)
𝒅𝒚
• = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗 𝒎/𝒔
𝒅𝒕

Example
𝟑 𝑽
• 𝒉= √
𝟒 A man on a wharf 3.6 m above the level of water is
pulling a rope tied to raft at 0.6 m/s. How fast is the raft
𝑽 approaching the wharf when there are 6 m of rope out?
•
𝟑
𝒔 = √ = √𝟐𝑽
𝒉

• 𝑽 = 𝒔𝟐 𝒉

F) Related Rates Problems

(Time Related Problems)

Steps for Solution

• Identify the quantity whose rate is required.
o 𝑄 • 𝑥 2 + 3.62 = 𝐿2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐿
• Relate the other quantities with known or given • 2𝑥 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝐿 𝑑𝑡
rates by the use of theorems or formulas. 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐿
• 2√𝐿2 − 3.62 = 2𝐿
o 𝑄 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿
• Evaluate derivative with respect to time. • Subs. L = 6, = −0.6
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑚
o 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑡 • = −0.75 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝒎
• Solve for 𝑑𝑡 by substituting given. • The raft approaches wharf 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒔 .

Example
A boy 1.6 m tall is walking away from a street lamp 6 m
tall at the rate of 0.8 m/s. Find how fast is the shadow
moving.
Example Example
Water is running out of a conical funnel at the rate 1 cu. The diameter of a circle is 10 cm. If the length of the
in/s. If the radius of the base of tunnel is 4 in. and the chord is decreasing at the rate of 1 cm/s, find how fast is
altitude is 8 in., find the rate at which the water level is the arc subtended by the chord changing when the chord
dropping when it is 2 in. from the top. is 8 cm.

• 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
10
• 𝑟= = 5 𝑐𝑚
2
• 𝑅 = 4 𝑖𝑛.
• 𝑠 = 5𝜃
• ℎ = 8 𝑖𝑛. 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑉 𝑖𝑛3
• =5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• = −1
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝐿 𝜃
𝑑ℎ
• 2
= 𝑟 sin 2
• =?
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝐿 5 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟 ℎ
• 2 𝑑𝑡
= 2 cos 2 𝑑𝑡
• 𝑅
=𝐻
• 𝐿 = 8 𝑐𝑚
𝑟 𝑅 4
• =𝐻=8 𝐿
ℎ • 𝜃 = 2 arcsin (2𝑅)
1
• 𝑟 = 2 ℎ or ℎ = 2𝑟 4
• 𝜃 = 2 arcsin ( )
1 5
• 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ 4
3
• Substituting dL/dt = -1 and 𝜃 = 2 arcsin (5)
1 1 2
• 𝑉 = 3 𝜋 (2 ℎ) ℎ 𝑑𝜃 1
• 𝑑𝑡
= −3
1
• 𝑉 = 𝜋ℎ3 𝑑𝑠 1
12 • 𝑑𝑡
= 5(− 3
)
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑ℎ
• = 4 𝜋ℎ2 𝑑𝑡 𝒅𝒔 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝒄𝒎
𝑑𝑡 • 𝒅𝒕
= −𝟑 𝒔 = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝒔
• We do not know what h to use yet.
• 𝐻−ℎ =2
Example
• ℎ = 𝐻−2 = 8−2= 6
The 2 sides of a triangle are 5 cm and 10 cm respectively
• Now we know h = 6 and dV/dt = -1. and the acute angle between them is increasing at the rate
Substituting… of 5 degrees per minute. Find how fast is the 3rd side
𝒅𝒉 𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒏 growing when the angle between the given 2 sides is 60°.
• = − 𝟗𝝅 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟒
𝒅𝒕 𝒔 𝒔 • 𝑎 = 5 (constant)
• 𝑏 = 10 (constant)
𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
• =5
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑑𝑐
• =? @ 𝐶 = 60°
𝑑𝑡
• 2 2 2
𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
• Substituting…
• 𝑐 = √75 G) The Differential
𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝐶
• 2𝑐 𝑑𝑡 = −2𝑎𝑏 (− sin 𝐶) 𝑑𝑡
Differential
• 𝑎
𝑑𝐶
• Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑐 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶
• 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑐
𝑑𝑡
o The differential is 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑐 (5)(10) sin( )(
𝜋 5𝜋
) o differential = (derivative)𝑑𝑥
• = 3 180
𝑑𝑡 √75 • Differential
o When an angle is used in an equation o Can be used to approximate change
outside of a trigonometric function,
always use rad format. o 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)dx ≈ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)Δ𝑥 = Δ𝑦
𝒅𝒄 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝒄𝒎
• = 𝝅 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒
𝒅𝒕 𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒏
Example
• Shortcut:
Find the approximate increase in volume of sphere if its
• 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶 radius increases from 2 to 2.05 cm.
• 𝑐 2 = 125 − 100 cos 𝐶 •
4
𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3
• 𝑐 = √125 − 100 cos 𝐶 • 𝑑𝑉 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
• Evaluate following derivative in calculator. • 𝑑𝑉 = 4𝜋(2)2 (2.05 − 2)
𝑑𝑐 𝑑 𝑑𝐶
• 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
√125 − 100 cos 𝐶 |𝑐=𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 • 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝐜𝐦𝟑
3
𝑑𝐶 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
o =
𝑑𝑡 36 𝑠
Example
𝒅𝒄 𝐜𝐦
• 𝒅𝒕
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 𝐬 The volume of a cube is 8 m3. If the error in measuring its
volume is 0.03 m3, find the error in measuring the edge of
the given cube.
• 𝑉 = 𝑠3
• 8 = 𝑠3 → 𝑠 = 2
• 𝑑𝑉 = 3𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠
• 0.03 = 3(2)2 𝑑𝑠
• 𝒅𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝐦𝐦

Example
The specific gravity of body can be evaluated by the use
of formula:
𝐴
𝑆=
𝐴−𝑊
Where:
𝐴 = weight in air
𝑊 = weight in water
Find the maximum error in s if 𝐴 = 16𝑁, 𝑊 = 8𝑁 and
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑊 = 0.01𝑁.
• 𝑑𝑆 =?
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆
• 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜕𝐴 𝑑𝐴 + 𝜕𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝜕𝑆 (𝐴−𝑊)(1)−𝐴(1) 𝑊
• 𝜕𝐴
= (𝐴−𝑊)2
= − (𝐴−𝑊)2
 𝜕𝑆 (𝐴−𝑊)(0)−𝐴(−1) 𝐴 H) Evaluating Limits
• 𝜕𝑊
= (𝐴−𝑊)2
= (𝐴−𝑊)2
𝑊 𝐴
• 𝑑𝑠 = − (𝐴−𝑊)2 𝑑𝐴 + (𝐴−𝑊)2 𝑑𝑊
Evaluation of Limits
• Substitute. Negative sign is omitted since all • Direct Substitution
terms must be positive for maximum error in s
(maximum ds). • L’Hospital’s Rule
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇′ (𝒙)
• 𝒅𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 o 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈′ (𝒙) = ⋯
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
o If direct substitution results to
Relative Error and Percent Error indeterminate forms, derive the
𝑑𝑄 numerator and denominator.
• 𝑅𝐸 = 𝑄 o Indeterminate forms:
𝑑𝑄
• 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑄
× 100 ▪
0
or
∞
0 ∞
• Where: ▪ 0⋅∞
o 𝑄 = Quantity ▪ 00 or ∞0 or 1∞
o 𝑑𝑄 = Approximate Error o
0
= 0;
∞
=∞
∞ 0
• RE has no units.
• By calculator:
o Error mentioned in given without units is
relative error. o Put the function using variable x in
calculator and CALC (calculate) the
expression at a value close to where the
Example limit is evaluated.

The error in measuring the radius of a sphere is 0.01. o 𝑥 → 0: 𝑥 = 0.0001

Find: o 𝑥 → 1: 𝑥 = 0.9999
(a) Relative error in surface area, and o 𝑥 → 𝜋: 𝑥 = 3.14
(b) Percent error in volume o 𝑥 → 𝑒: 𝑥 = 2.718
o 𝑥 → ∞:𝑥 = 9999
𝑑𝑟
• 𝑅𝐸𝑟 = 𝑟
= 0.01
• 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 Example
Evaluate:
• 𝑑𝑆 = 4𝜋(2𝑟 𝑑𝑟)
𝑑𝑆 8𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 2𝑑𝑟 𝑥−4
• 𝑅𝐸𝑆 = = = lim
𝑥→4 𝑥 2
𝑆 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟 − 𝑥 − 12
• (𝐚)𝑹𝑬𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 •
4−4 0
= 0 → indeterminate
4 2 −4−12
4
• 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐𝒙−𝟏 = 𝟐⋅𝟒−𝟏 = 𝟕
𝒙→𝟒
• 𝑑𝑉 = 4𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 2

𝑑𝑉 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
• 𝑃𝐸𝑉 = × 100 = 4 × 100 Example
𝑉 𝜋𝑟 3
3
3𝑑𝑟 Evaluate:
• 𝑃𝐸𝑉 = 𝑟
× 100 𝜋
lim 𝑥 sin
• (𝐛)𝑷𝑬𝑽 = 𝟑% 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
• Calculate at 𝑥 = 9999…
𝜋
• lim 𝑥 sin 𝑥 ≈ 3.1416
𝑥→∞
𝝅
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝝅
𝒙→∞
Example
Evaluate:
𝜋𝑥
lim (2 − 𝑥)tan 2
𝑥→1
• Calculate at 0.9999
𝜋𝑥
• lim (2 − 𝑥)tan 2 ≈ 1.89 = 𝑒 2𝜋
𝑥→1
• (Alternative method)

Example
Evaluate:
lim
𝜋−
(tan 𝑥)cos 𝑥
𝑥→
2
• Negative at limit means approaching from left
side, so the value should be near but at the left
side.
• Evaluate at 89.99°.
• lim
𝜋−
(tan 𝑥)cos 𝑥 ≈ 1.002
𝑥→
2

• 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝝅−
(𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙)𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝒙→
𝟐

Example
Evaluate:
𝑧2
lim𝜋 4
𝑖𝑧 +𝑧+1
𝑧→𝑒 4
𝜋
𝜋
• 𝑒 4 𝑖 = 1∠ 4
𝜋
• Evaluate at 1∠ 4 in complex mode calculator.
o 𝑧 4 might need to be inputted as (𝑧 2 )2
𝒛𝟐 √𝟐 √𝟐
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝝅 = + 𝒊
𝒊 𝒛𝟒 +𝒛+𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝒛→𝒆 𝟒

Example
Evaluate:
sin(𝑥 + 𝑦)
lim
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 3𝑥 + 3𝑦
• Evaluate at (0.001,0.001) in calculator.
sin(𝑥+𝑦)
• lim ≈ 0.3333
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 3𝑥+3𝑦
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙+𝒚) 𝟏
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟑
(𝒙,𝒚)→(𝟎,𝟎) 𝟑𝒙+𝟑𝒚
 Integral Calculus
I) The Indefinite Integral 𝒙𝒏+𝟏
o Integral: ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒏+𝟏
• Product Rule
Indefinite Integral
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
o Derivative: (𝑢𝑣) =𝑢 +𝑣
• Integral without limits 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• When evaluating, the answer contains a constant o Differential: 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = (𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑢)𝑑𝑥

of integration C. o Integrate both sides.
• Model: o ∫ 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
o ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 o 𝑢𝑣 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
▪ ∫ is the integral operator. o ∫ 𝒖 𝒅𝒗 = 𝒖𝒗 − ∫ 𝒗 𝒅𝒖
▪ 𝑓(𝑥) is the integrand ▪ Integration by Parts Formula
▪ 𝐹(𝑥) is the integral of the
function 𝑓(𝑥)
Example
▪ 𝐶 is the constant of integration
Evaluate the integral of the following:
• Can be:
∫ 4𝑒 3 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
o Explicit
• 𝐼 = ∫ 4𝑒 3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
▪ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 3
▪ Dependent variable (y) isolated • 𝐼 = 4∫ 𝑒 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

o Implicit • 𝐼 = 4∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3+1
▪ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 • 𝐼=4 = 𝑥4
3+1
▪ Dependent variable (y) is not • 𝑰=𝒙 +𝑪 𝟒
isolated

Example
Integral of Differential
Evaluate:
• Integral of differential of a function is the
function itself. ∫ (7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
• ∫ 𝑑(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥) • 𝐼 = ∫ (7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
𝟕 𝟒
• ∫ 𝑑(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 • 𝑰 = 𝟒 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + 𝑪

Integral as an anti-derivative Example

• Power Rule: Evaluate:
𝑑
o Derivative: (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑛)
∫
o Differential: 𝑑(𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 √25 − 𝑒 2𝑥
o Integrate both sides:
o ∫ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 ) • 𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥
o ∫ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 • 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑛
o ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 = • 𝑢2 = 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑛
o 𝑛 →𝑛+1 • 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓
 𝑑𝑢 II) The Definite Integral
• 𝐼=∫
√𝑎 2 −𝑢2
𝑢
• 𝐼 = arcsin ( ) = +𝐶 Definite Integral
𝑎
𝑒𝑥 • Integral with limits
• 𝐼 = arcsin ( 5 ) + 𝐶
• When evaluating, answer is a constant.

Calculator Technique for Indefinite Integral

Theorems for Definite Integrals
• ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶
• Theorem 1
• Derive both sides. 𝑏
•
𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝐹(𝑥)) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑥=𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎
• Set a test value for x (say 𝑥 = 𝑎) • Theorem 2
• Evaluate the integrand at a using calculator. 𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
o 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑎 𝑏
• Evaluate the integrals in the choices • Theorem 3
o 𝐹(𝑎) 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
Calculator Technique for Previous Example • Theorem 4
Evaluate: For even function 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫
√25 − 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑎 0
For odd function 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎
𝑒𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
a) arccos ( 5 ) + 𝐶
−𝑎
𝑥)
b) arccos(𝑒 +𝐶
c) arcsin(𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝐶
𝑒𝑥 Side Note:
d) arcsin ( ) + 𝐶
5

𝑒𝑥
• 𝑓(𝑥) =
√25−𝑒 2𝑥
• Evaluate at -2.
• 𝑓(−2) = 0.027
𝑑
• Evaluating 𝑑𝑥 (𝐹(𝑥)) |𝑥=3
o For a: = −0.027
• Even Function
o For b: = −0.14
o 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
o For c: = 0.14
o Symmetric about y-axis
o For d: = 0.027
o Even degree functions
• Answer is d.
• Odd Function
o 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
o Symmetric about origin
o Odd degree functions
Walli’s Formula Example
𝜋⁄ Evaluate:
2
∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜋⁄
2
0
∫ sin5 𝑥 cos3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
{(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 3) … 1 𝑜𝑟 2}{(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 3) … 1 𝑜𝑟 2} 0
= ×𝛼 𝜋⁄
{(𝑚 + 𝑛)(𝑚 + 𝑛 − 2) … 1 𝑜𝑟 2}
• 𝐼= ∫0 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
both m and n are even
• 𝛼= {2 • 𝑚=5
1 otherwise
• 𝑛=3
o If one is odd, then one.
o If the two is even, then pi over two. • 𝛼=1
4⋅2×2
• Numerator • 𝐼 = 8⋅6⋅4⋅2
o 𝑚 − 1 tapos minus two ng minus two 1
• 𝐼 = 24
from there hanggang maging 1 or 2
o Tapos times sa… • Alternatively, the integral can be put in the
calculator.
o 𝑛 − 1 tapos minus two ng minus two
from there hanggang maging 1 or 2
Example
• Denominator
Evaluate:
o 𝑚 + 𝑛 tapos minus two ng minus two
from there hanggang maging 1 or 2 1
∫ (𝑥 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 7 + ⋯ + 𝑥 99 )𝑑𝑥
−1
The Forbidden Technique • Integrand 𝑓(𝑥) is 99th degree function which is
an odd degree function. Thus, it is an odd
• Definite Integrals can be solved using function.
calculator… :O
• By theorem…
𝟏
Example • ∫−𝟏 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎
Evaluate the following:
4 Example
𝑑𝑥
∫
0 √𝑥 Evaluate:
1 ∞
•
4 𝑑𝑥 4
= ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑑𝑥
∫0 2
∫
√𝑥
2 𝑥3
1 4
4 𝑑𝑥
− +1
𝑥 2 4 • Can be evaluated in calculator with upper limit
• ∫0 =[ ] = [2√𝑥]𝑥=0
√𝑥
1
− +1
2
being 999…
𝑥=0
∞ 𝟐𝒅𝒙
•
4 𝑑𝑥
∫0 𝑥 = 2√4 − 2√0 • ∫𝟐 𝒙𝟑
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
√
𝟒 𝒅𝒙
• ∫𝟎 =𝟒
√𝒙 Example
• (Alternatively…)
Evaluate the line integral of [√𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦] from
• Integral can be evaluated from 0.0001 to 4. (0,0) to (1,1)
o Why 0.0001? Because integrand is • (0,0) → (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
undefined at 0 which causes math error in
calculator. • (1,1) → (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
• Line connecting two points can be derived using
the two points form.
𝑥 −𝑥
• 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 −𝑦1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2 1

• 𝑦=𝑥
 • From this, we can simplify the integrands to have •
1 1
∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 = 2 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃
only variables x for dx and only variables y for
dy. The integrand/s becomes… • Evaluating the next outer integral
• √𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 0𝑑𝑦 •
1 1 1 1
∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 = ∫0 (2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) 𝑑𝑟
• √𝑥𝑑𝑥 1 1 1 1
• ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 = [6 𝑟 3 sin 𝜃]
• We use the limits 𝑥1 to𝑥2 𝑟=0
1 1 1
1 2 3 1
• ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 = sin 𝜃 (13 − 03 )
• ∫ √𝑥𝑑𝑥 = [3 𝑥 2 ] 6
0 𝑥=0 1 1 1
𝟐 • ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 = sin 𝜃
• Answer: 𝟑
6
• Evaluating outermost integral (whole integral)
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1
III) Multiple Integral • ∫02 ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = ∫02 (6 sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1
•
2
∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
2 = [− 6 cos 𝜃]
Multiple Integral 𝜃=0
𝜋
• Double Integral – Surface Integral •
1 1
∫02 ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = − 6 (cos 2 −
1 𝜋

• Triple Integral – Volume Integral cos 0)

• Evaluate integral from inside out. 𝜋
1 1 1
• ∫02 ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = − 6 (0 − 1)
𝝅
Example 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
• ∫𝟎𝟐 ∫𝟎 ∫𝟎 𝒛𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝜽 = 𝟔
1
Evaluate the integral of 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 with inner bounds 2y to
𝑥−𝑦
3y and outer bounds of 0 to 2. Calculator Technique for Multiple Integral
2 3𝑦 1
• ∫0 ∫2𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 • If operation in integrand has only multiplication
and division and no addition and subtraction,
• Integrating with respect to x (Integrating just the variables can be separated.
inner integral)
3𝑦 𝑑𝑥 3𝑦
• ∫2𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
= [ln(𝑥 − 𝑦)]𝑥=2𝑦 Example
3𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 (Same as previous, but we use the shorter method)
• ∫2𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
= ln 2𝑦 − ln 𝑦 = ln ( 𝑦 ) = ln 2
𝜋
1 1
• Integrating with respect to y (Putting back the • ∫02 ∫0 ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
outer integrals to the result of the inner integral) 𝜋⁄ 1 1
2
• ∫0 2 sin 𝜃
∫0 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 ∫0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
• ∫0 ln 2 𝑑𝑦 = [ln 2 ⋅ 𝑦]2𝑦=0 = ln 2 ⋅ (2 − 0)
• We can then input this in the calculator replacing
2
• ∫0 ln 2 𝑑𝑦 = 2 ln 2 = ln 22 = ln 4 all variables with x.
2 3𝑦 1 • We get…
• ∫0 ∫2𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ln 4 𝝅⁄
• ∫𝟎 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ∫𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒓 ∫𝟏 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 =𝟔
𝟏
𝟎 𝟎

Example
Evaluate:
𝜋
1 1
2
∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
0 0 0
• Evaluating inner integral…
1 1 1
• ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 = [2 𝑧 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]
𝑧=0
1 1 2
• ∫0 𝑧𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 (12 − 02 )
2
 IV) Area in Rectangular Coordinates System ▪ Curves up from origin in QI.
▪ Curves down from origin in QIII.
Differential Area o 𝑦=8
▪ Horizontal line at y = 8
▪ Will intersect 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 at 𝑦 = 8
which is at 𝑥 = 2
o 𝑥=0
▪ y-axis
▪ Intersects 𝑦 = 8 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
• 𝑦 = 8 is upper y.
• 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 • 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 is lower y.
• 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑𝑦 • Variable of integration is x. (dx)
• Limit is from 0 to 2
Vertical Element / Strip • Vertical Element
2
• 𝐴 = ∫0 (𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿 )𝑑𝑥
2
• 𝐴 = ∫0 (8 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
o Can already be evaluated in calculator.
2
𝑥4
• 𝐴 = [8𝑥 − ]
4 𝑥=0
1
• 𝐴 = 8(2 − 0) − (24 − 04 )
4
• 𝐴 = 16 − 4 = 12
𝑏
• 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 (𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿 )𝑑𝑥
• 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟐 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬

Horizontal Element / Strip Example

Find the area bounded by the parabolas:
𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
• Using imagination:
o The first parabola concaves down.
o The second parabola concaves up.
o Thus, the first parabola is the upper y and
the second parabola is the lower y.
o We get the intersection to know the limit
of integration.
𝑏
• 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 (𝑥𝑅 − 𝑥𝐿 )𝑑𝑦 • Subtract the equations.
• 0 = −2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥
Example • 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = 0
3
Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 8, and
• 2𝑥(𝑥 − 4) = 0
𝑥 = 0.
• 𝑥=0
• Using imagination
• 𝑥=4
o 𝑦 = 𝑥3
• 𝑥=0
 • 𝑥=4 Example
• Since we have upper and lower y’s, we use a Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 = −2,
vertical strip. 𝑥 = 1, and the x-axis.
• Variable of integration is x. (dx) • Using Imagination:
• Limits is from 0 to 4. o We have a curved line 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 through
4 the origin going from QIII to Q1.
• 𝐴 = ∫0 (𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿 )𝑑𝑥
o There are two vertical lines 𝑥 = −2 and
4 𝑥=1
• 𝐴= ∫0 (6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥))𝑑𝑥
4 o And the x-axis is 𝑦 = 0
• 𝐴= ∫0 (−2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥)𝑑𝑥
o There arises two areas. One in QIII and
o Can already be evaluated in calculator. one in QI.
2 4 o In QIII, 𝐴1
• 𝐴 = [− 3 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 ]
𝑥=0
▪ The upper y is 𝑦 = 0.
2
• 𝐴= − 3 (4 − 0 ) + 4(42
3 3
− 02 ) ▪ The lower y is 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .
2
• 𝐴= − 3 (64) + 64 o In QI,, 𝐴2
1 ▪ The upper y is 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .
• 𝐴= 3
(64)
▪ The lower y is 𝑦 = 0.
𝟔𝟒
• 𝑨= 𝟑 • 𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
0 1
• 𝐴 = ∫−2(0 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 (𝑥 3 − 0)𝑑𝑥
Example 0 1
2 2 (1 • 𝐴 = − ∫−2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
Find the area enclosed by the loop of 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥).
0 1
𝑥4 𝑥4
• Taking square root of both sides. • 𝐴 = −[4 ] +[4]
𝑥=−2 𝑥=0
• 𝑦 = ±2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 1 1
• 𝐴= − 4 (0 − (−2) ) + 4 (14
4 4
− 04 )
• One of these is upper and one is lower. The
1
equation is hard to imagine, so let us just take the • 𝐴= 4+4
absolute value if we arrive to a negative value
17
later. Assume + for upper and – for lower. • 𝐴=
4
• 𝑦𝑈 = 2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 • 𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒔𝒒. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
• 𝑦𝐿 = −2𝑥√1 − 𝑥
• Solving intersection points Shortcut for Area Bounded by Curve and X-axis
• 𝑦𝑈 = 𝑦𝐿 •
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫𝑎 |𝑦|𝑑𝑥
• 2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 = −2𝑥√1 − 𝑥
• 2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 = 0 Example
• 4𝑥√1 − 𝑥 = 0 • (Same as previous, but we use the shorter
• 𝑥=0 method)

• 1−𝑥 =0→𝑥 =1 • 𝑦 = 𝑥3
1
• The limits are from 0 to 1. • 𝐴 = ∫−2|𝑥 3 |𝑑𝑥
• Using vertical element… • Evaluating in calculator…
•
1
𝐴 = ∫0 (𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿 )𝑑𝑥 • 𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
1
• 𝐴 = ∫0 (2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 − (−2𝑥√1 − 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
• Evaluating in Calculator: 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟕
 V) Area Bounded by Parametric Equations • 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
• Getting the limits…
Example o 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
nd rd
Find the area bounded by the curve at the 2 and 3 o 𝑥: 0 to 2𝜋𝑎 → 𝜃: 0 to 2𝜋
quadrants. 2𝜋
• 𝐴 = ∫0 𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑡2 − 1
2𝜋
𝑦 = 5𝑡 3 (𝑡 2 − 1) • 𝐴 = 𝑎2 ∫0 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
• 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑑𝑡 • Evaluating integral in calculator.
• 𝑦 = 5𝑡 5 − 5𝑡 3 • 𝑨 = 𝟑𝝅𝒂𝟐
• 𝑥=0
• 𝑡2 − 1 = 0 VI) Area in Polar Coordinates System
• 𝑡 = ±1
• 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 Differential Area
1
• 𝐴 = ∫−1(5𝑡 5 − 5𝑡 3 )2𝑡𝑑𝑡
• Evaluate in calculator.
8
• 𝐴 = −7
• Take absolute value.
𝟖
• 𝑨 = 𝟕 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬

Example
Find the area bounded by one arc of cycloid: 1
• 𝑑𝐴 = 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 − sin 𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃) 1 𝛽
o 𝐴 = 2 ∫𝛼 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
And x-axis.
Note: Cycloid – locus of points made by a fixed point in a
circle as it rolls on a straight line (such as the x-axis in Example
this case).
Find the area bounded by the cardioid 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃)

• The point of the circle will touch the x-axis again •

1 2𝜋
𝐴 = 2 ∫0 (𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃)) 𝑑𝜃
2
when it goes one full revolution.
1 2𝜋
• That happens when it already travelled on the x- • 𝐴 = 𝑎2 ∫0 (1 + cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
2
axis the length of its circumference.
• Evaluate integral in calculator.
• Thus, the point where it intersects the x-axis
again is (2𝜋𝑎, 0) o Integral results to 3𝜋
𝟑𝝅𝒂𝟐
• 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 • 𝑨= 𝟐
• 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥
• 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
Example • 𝑅 and 𝑟 are like 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 and 𝑟𝑖𝑛
Find the area of the loop made by the folium of • 𝑅 = 1 + cos 𝜃
Descartes:
• 𝑟=1
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑎𝑥𝑦
• To get limits, find intersection
• 𝑅=𝑟
• 1 + cos 𝜃 = 1
• cos 𝜃 = 0
𝜋
• 𝛼 = −2
𝜋
• 𝛽= 2
1 𝛽
• 𝐴 = 2 ∫𝛼 (𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑑𝜃
1 𝜋⁄
• 𝐴 = 2 ∫−𝜋⁄2 ((1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 − 12 )𝑑𝜃
2
• Convert to polar coordinate system. 1 𝜋⁄2
• 𝐴= ∫
2 −𝜋⁄2
((1 + cos 𝜃)2 − 1)𝑑𝜃
• 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝜋⁄
• 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 • 𝐴= ∫0 2((1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 − 1)𝑑𝜃
• 𝑟 3 (cos3 𝜃 + sin3 𝜃) = 3𝑎𝑟 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 • Evaluating in calculator…
• 𝑟=
3𝑎 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 • 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗
cos3 𝜃+sin3 𝜃
1 𝛽
• 𝐴 = 2 ∫𝛼 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
VII) Volume of Solids of Revolution
1 𝜋⁄2 3𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2
• 𝐴= ∫ (𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2 0
9 2 𝜋⁄2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 Disk Method
• 𝐴= 𝑎 ∫0 ( 3 3 ) 𝑑𝜃
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
• Evaluating the integral using calculator.
1
o Integral evaluates to
3
9 1
• 𝐴 = 𝑎2 ⋅
2 3 • 𝒅𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒉
𝟑 𝟐
• 𝑨= 𝟐
𝒂 • Pag may butas…
• 𝒅𝑽 = 𝝅(𝒓𝟐𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝒓𝟐𝒊𝒏 )𝒅𝒉
Example
Find the area outside the circle 𝑟 = 1 and inside the
cardioid 𝑟 = 1 + cos 𝜃.
 8 2⁄
Cylindrical Shell Method • 𝐴 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦

5 8
3
• 𝐴 = 𝜋 [5 𝑦 3 ]
𝑦=0
5 5
3𝜋
• 𝐴= (83 − 03 )
5
3𝜋
• 𝐴= 5
(25 )
𝟗𝟔
• 𝑨= 𝝅 𝐜𝐮. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
𝟓
• (By cylindrical method)
• The radius is still x.
(Cutting the cylindrical shell, and laying it flat)
• The height of cylinder is 𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿
• Upper y is 𝑦 = 8
• Lower y is 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
• Thickness of cylinder is 𝑑𝑥
2
• 𝐴 = ∫0 2𝜋𝑥(8 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
2
• 𝐴 = 2𝜋 ∫0 (8𝑥 − 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
1 2
• 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ𝑑𝑟 • 𝐴 = 2𝜋 [4𝑥 2 − 5 𝑥 5 ]
𝑥=0
• Pag may butas… • 𝐴 = 2𝜋 [4(22 −
1
02 ) − 5 (25 − 05 )]
• 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓(𝒉𝑼 − 𝒉𝑳 )𝒅𝒓 32
• 𝐴 = 2𝜋 (16 − 5
)
𝟗𝟔
Example • 𝑨= 𝟓
𝝅 𝐜𝐮. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
Find the volume of the solid generated when the area
bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = 8, and 𝑥 = 0 is
revolved about the y-axis. Example
• Determining limits of integration without Find the volume generated when the area bounded by
sketch… 𝑦 2 = 12𝑥 and the line 𝑥 = 3 is revolved about the line
𝑥 = 3.
o 𝑦 = 𝑥3
• 𝑦 2 = 12(3) = 36
o 𝑦=8
• 𝑦 = ±6
o 𝑥3 = 8
• Use disk method.
o 𝑥 = ±2
𝑦2
o Reject -2 because area is in QI. • Radius is 3 − 12
o 𝑥=2 6
• 𝐴 = ∫−6 𝜋(𝑥𝑅2 − 𝑥𝐿2 )𝑑𝑦
o Limits of integration is 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2 2
6 𝑦2
o For integrating with respect to y, 𝑦 = 0 • 𝐴 = ∫−6 𝜋 (3 − 12) 𝑑𝑦
and 𝑦 = 8 • Evaluating using calculator…
• (By disk method) 𝟐𝟖𝟖
• 𝑨= 𝟓
𝝅
• The radius is 𝑥
• Disk thickness / height is dy.
8
• 𝐴 = ∫0 𝜋(𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑦
• 𝑦 = 𝑥3
2⁄
• 𝑦 3 = 𝑥2
Example Example
2
The area bounded by the parabola 𝑥 = 4𝑦 and the line Find the volume of the solid generated when the area of
𝑥 = 4 − 2𝑦 revolves about the line 𝑥 = 3. Find the the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 36 on the 2nd quadrant is revolved
volume generated. about this line 𝑦 + 10 = 0.
• 2𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥
• 4𝑦 = 8 − 2𝑥
• 𝑥 2 = 8 − 2𝑥
• 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 = 0
• 𝑥 = 2, −4
• Cylindrical method looks easier when imagined
since there is a hole in the disk if disk method is
used.
• Radius is 3 − 𝑥.
4−𝑥 𝑥2
• Height is Upper minus lower is 2
− 4
• Thickness of cylinder is 𝑑𝑥
2 4−𝑥 𝑥2
• 𝐴 = ∫−4 2𝜋(3 − 𝑥) ( 2
− 4
) 𝑑𝑥
• Evaluating in calculator…
• 𝑨 = 𝟕𝟐𝝅 𝐜𝐮. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 4𝑟
• Centroid of a quarter-circle is 3𝜋 away from
center, in both x and y-directions.
VIII) Volume of Solids of Revolution by • 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑
Second Theorem of Pappus
1 4(6)
• 𝑉 = (4 𝜋(6)2 ) (2𝜋 (10 + 3𝜋
))
Second Theorem of Pappus • 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟗𝟐 𝐜𝐮. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
• First Theorem (Surface Area)
Example
The area bounded by the parabola 𝑦 2 = −2(𝑥 − 2) and
𝑥 = 0 is revolved about the line 𝑥 = 4. Find the volume
generated.

o 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑟̅ 𝐿
• Second Theorem (Volume)

2
• Centroid of parabola is 5 ℎ from the base.
• ℎ=2
4
o 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑟̅ 𝐴 • Centroid is 5 from the base.
o 𝑟̅ = radius of circular path travelled by centroid
•
4
𝑟̅ = 4 − 5 =
16
5
 • 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑 IX) Arc Length
2
• 𝑉 = ( 𝑏ℎ) (2𝜋𝑟̅ )
3
Arc Length
2 16
• 𝑉 = (3 (4)(2)) (2𝜋 ( 5 ))
𝟓𝟏𝟐
• 𝑽= 𝟏𝟓
𝝅 𝐜𝐮. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬

Example
Find the volume generated by rotating a circle:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 12 = 0
About the y-axis.
• (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = −12 + 9 + 4
• (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 12
• 𝑟=1 𝑏
2
𝑑𝑦
• Center 𝐶 (−3, −2) • 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 (Rectangular C.S.)
𝑎
• 𝑟̅ = 0 − (−3) = 3 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 2
o 𝑥 of y-axis minum 𝑥 of center 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + (𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
• 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑎

• 𝑉= (𝜋(1)2 )(2𝜋(3)) o 𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2

• 𝑽 = 𝟔𝝅𝟐 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐮. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 o 𝑑𝑠 = √𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2

𝑑𝑥
o 𝑑𝑠 = √𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥
Example
𝑑𝑥 2 +𝑑𝑦 2
The area enclosed by the ellipse 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 36 is o 𝑑𝑠 = √ 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
revolved about the line 𝑥 = 3. What is the volume
generated? 𝑑𝑦 2
o 𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑦2
• 32
+ 22 = 1 𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
• 𝑟̅ = 3 o 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
o Distance of center (0,0) and 𝑥 = 3 𝑎
𝒃
• 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑 = (𝜋𝑎𝑏)(2𝜋𝑟̅ ) 𝒅𝒓 𝟐
• 𝒔 = ∫ √𝒓𝟐 + (𝒅𝜽) 𝒅𝜽 (Polar C.S.)
• 𝑉 = (𝜋 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2)(2𝜋 ⋅ 3)
𝒂
• 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝟐 = 𝟑𝟓𝟓. 𝟑𝟏 𝐜𝐮. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
𝑑𝑦 2
o 𝑑𝑠 = √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

o 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
o 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑟
o 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
o 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟
o 𝑑𝑠 = √𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2
o 𝑑𝑠 = √(−𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝑟)2 + (𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑟)2

o 𝑑𝑠 = √𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 + 𝑑𝑟 2
𝑑𝜃
o 𝑑𝑠 = √𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 + 𝑑𝑟 2 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃
 𝑑𝑟 2 Example
o 𝑑𝑠 = √𝑟 2 + (𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
Find the length of the curve described by the cardioid 𝑟 =
𝑏 2(1 + cos 𝜃).
𝑑𝑟 2
o 𝑠 = ∫ √𝑟 2 + (𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 𝑏
• 𝑠 = ∫ √𝑟 2 + (𝑟 ′ )2 𝑑𝜃
𝑎 𝑎
𝒃 2𝜋
𝟐 𝟐
•
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝒔 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝒅𝒕 (Parametric Eq’n) • 𝑠 = ∫ √4(1 + cos 𝜃)2 + 4 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 0
𝒂
𝑑𝑦
• Evaluating in calculator…X
𝑑𝑦
o
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 • 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 2
o 𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 Example
Find the length of the curve described by the 4-cusps
𝑑𝑦 2
hypocycloid or astroid:
o 𝑑𝑠 = √1 + ( 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑥 = 4 cos3 𝑡
2 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑦 = 4 sin3 𝑡
o 𝑑𝑠 = √(𝑑𝑥) + ( 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
⋅ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
o 𝑑𝑠 = √( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 2
o 𝑠 = ∫ √( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

Example
Find the length of the arc described by 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦 from 𝑥 =
−2 to 𝑥 = 2.
• Since limits for x are given, use:
𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
o 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝜋
2 • Limits is 0 to 2𝜋 or just 0 to 2 to get one
𝑑 𝑥 2 2 quadrant, then just multiply by 4 to get the length
o 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ( 4 )) 𝑑𝑥 of curve in all quadrants.
𝜋⁄
2
−2 • 𝑠 = 4∫ √(𝑥 ′ )2 + (𝑦 ′ )2 𝑑𝑥
0
2
1 2 • 𝑠=
o 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + (2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝜋⁄
2
−2 4∫ √(12 cos 2 𝑡 sin 𝑡)2 + (12 sin2 𝑡 cos 𝑡)2 𝑑𝑥
2 0

o 𝑠=∫ √
𝑥2
+ 1 𝑑𝑥 • Evaluating in calculator…
4
−2 • 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟒 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
o Evaluate in calculator…
o 𝒔 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟗 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
 X) Surface Area of Solids of Revolution Example
Find the surface area formed by revolving the cardioid
𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃) about the x-axis.
Surface Area Formulas
• Revolution about x-axis

𝒙=𝒃 • 𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦𝑑𝑠
o 𝑺 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝒙=𝒂 𝒚𝒅𝒔
• 𝑆 = 2𝜋∫ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 √𝑟 2 + (𝑟 ′ )2 𝑑𝜃
o 𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑦 ′ )2 𝑑𝑥 𝜋
• 𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑎(1 +
𝑏
o 𝑆= 2𝜋 ∫𝑎 𝑦√1 + (𝑦 ′ )2 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝜃)(sin 𝜃)√𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜃)2 + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
• Revolution about y-axis •
𝜋
𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑎2 ∫0 (1 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)√(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
• Evaluating in Calculator….
16
• 𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑎2 ⋅ 5
𝟑𝟐
• 𝑺= 𝟓
𝝅𝒂𝟐

𝒙=𝒃
o 𝑺 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝒙=𝒂 𝒙𝒅𝒔

o 𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑥 ′ )2 𝑑𝑦
𝑦(𝑏)
o 𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫𝑦(𝑎) 𝑥√1 + (𝑥 ′ )2 𝑑𝑦

Example
Find the surface area are generated when the parabola
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 from (0,0) to (1,1) is revolved about the x-axis.
• 𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦𝑑𝑠
1
• 𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑦√1 + (𝑦 ′ )2 𝑑𝑥
1
1 2
• 𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫ √𝑥 √1 + (2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
√
0
1
1
• 𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫ √𝑥√1 + 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
• 𝑆 = 𝜋 ∫ √4𝑥 + 1𝑑𝑥
0
• Evaluating in calculator…
• 𝑺 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟑
 XI) Surface Area of Solids of Revolution Example
Find the surface area generated by the circular arc
symmetric with respect to x-axis, subtended by angle 𝜃
First Theorem of Pappus
and with radius 𝑟 when revolved about the y-axis.
• First Theorem (Surface Area)

o 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑟̅ 𝐿
• Second Theorem (Volume)

2𝑅 𝜃
• 𝑟̅ = 𝜃
sin 2
• 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑑
• 𝐴 = (𝑟𝜃)(2𝜋𝑟̅ )
o 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑟̅ 𝐴 2𝑟 𝜃
• 𝐴 = (𝑟𝜃) (2𝜋 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
o 𝑟̅ = radius of circular path travelled by centroid 𝜃 2
𝜽
• 𝑨 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
Example
• (Alternative Method using formula for Zone)
Find the surface area generated by revolving a semi-
circular arc on the 1st and 2nd quadrants 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 • 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
about the x-axis. 𝜃
• 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 (2𝑟 sin )
2
• 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑑 𝜽
• 𝑨 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
• 𝐴 = (𝜋𝑟)(2𝜋𝑟̅ )
2𝑟
• 𝐴 = (𝜋𝑟) (2𝜋 ⋅ 𝜋
)
XII) Moment of Inertia of Area
• 𝐴 = (𝜋𝑟)(4𝑟)
• 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 (Surface Area of sphere) Moment of Inertia
• 𝐴 = 4𝜋(4)2 • Tendency to resist angular acceleration.
• 𝑨 = 𝟔𝟒𝝅 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 • Resistance of material to flexure and twist
Parallel Axis Method 2 𝑦2
• 𝐼𝑥 = ∫−2 𝑦 2 (1 − 4
) 𝑑𝑦
𝟑𝟐
• 𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑 … = 𝟏𝟓
• Perpendicular axis method:

• 𝐼 = ∫𝐴 𝜆2 𝑑𝐴
• Differential area is parallel to axis of moment.

Perpendicular Axis Method

1
• 𝐼 = 3 ∫𝐵 ℎ3 𝑑𝑏 1
• 𝐼𝑥 = 3 ∫ (𝑦 3 − (−𝑦 3 ))𝑑𝑥
• Differential area is perpendicular to axis of
2
moment. • 𝐼𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥
3
2 1
• 𝐼𝑥 = 3 ∫0 (4𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
Example
𝟑𝟐
Find the moment of inertia of the area bounded by 𝑦 2 = • 𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑 … =
𝟏𝟓
4𝑥 and the line 𝑥 = 1 with respect to x-axis.
• Parallel axis method
Example
Find the moment of inertia of the area of the loop of the
curve 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥) with respect to y-axis.

• 𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
• 𝑦𝑈,𝐿 = ±2𝑥√1 − 𝑥
1
• 𝐼𝑦 = ∫0 𝑥 2 (𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿 )𝑑𝑥
1
• 𝐼𝑦 = ∫0 𝑥 2 (4𝑥√1 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
• 𝑰𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟑

XIII) Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

(x’ is centroidal axis or neutral axis)

• 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑑2
o 𝐼̅𝑥 = centroidal moment of inertia
o 𝐼𝑥 = moment of inertia about line x
Example XIV) Polar Moment of Inertia
2
Find the moment of inertia of the area enclosed by 𝑥 +
𝑦 2 = 36 with respect to the line 𝑦 = 8. Polar Moment of Inertia
• 𝑟=6
• 𝑑=8
𝜋𝑟 4
• 𝐼̅𝑥 = 4
• 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑑2
𝜋
• 𝐼𝑥 = 4 (6)4 + 𝜋(6)2 (8)2
• 𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟖𝝅 = 𝟖𝟐𝟓𝟔. 𝟏𝟏 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬𝟒

Example
• Tendency to resist torsion
Find the moment of inertia of a triangle with base b and
1 𝜃
height h with respect to its vertex. • 𝐽 = ∫𝐴 𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴 = 4 ∫𝜃 2 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃
1

• 𝐽 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦

Example
Find the polar moment of inertia of circle with radius 𝑎
and center at origin.
• 𝑟=𝑎
1 𝜃
• 𝐽 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃
4 1
2 1 2𝜋 4
• 𝑑= ℎ • 𝐽= ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝜃
4 0
3
3 1 4 2𝜋
•
𝑏ℎ
𝐼̅𝑥 = 12 • 𝐽= [𝑎 𝜃]𝜃=0
4
1 4
• 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑑2 • 𝐽= 𝑎 (2𝜋 − 0)
4
𝑏ℎ 3 1 2 2 𝝅 𝟒
• 𝐼𝑥 = + (2 𝑏ℎ) (3 ℎ) • 𝑱= 𝒂
12 𝟐
𝑏ℎ 3 2𝑏ℎ 3
• 𝐼𝑥 = +
36 9
Examples
𝒃𝒉𝟑
• 𝑰𝒙 = Find the polar moment of inertia 𝐼𝑜 or 𝐽 of the area
𝟒
bounded by 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 cos 𝜃.
• 𝑟 4 = 𝑎4 cos2 𝜃
1 𝜃
• 𝐽 = 4 ∫𝜃 2 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃
1
1 2𝜋 4
• 𝐽= ∫ (𝑎 cos2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
4 0
1 4 2𝜋
• 𝐽= 4
𝑎 ∫0 (cos2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
𝝅 𝟒
• 𝑱= 𝟒
𝒂
 XV) Moment of Inertia for Volume • (b) About y-axis
o Use horizontal element and disk method.
Parallel Axis Method o 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
• 𝐼 = ∫𝑉 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉 2
o 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
o 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑑𝑟 1
o 𝐼 = 2 ∫𝑉 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉
▪ Cylindrical Shell Method 2 2
1 8
o 𝐼 = 2 ∫0 𝑦 3 𝜋𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
4
Perpendicular Axis Method 1 8
o 𝐼𝑦 = 2 𝜋 ∫0 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
1
• 𝐼 = 2 ∫𝑉 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉 𝟏𝟗𝟐𝝅
o 𝑰𝒚 = 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝟒
2 𝟕
o 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 𝑑ℎ
▪ Disk Method
Example
The area bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0 is revolved
Example about the line 𝑦 = 0, find the moment of inertia at the
Find the moment of inertia of the solid generated by solid formed with respect to the axis of revolution.
revolving the area bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = 8 and y-axis: • 𝐼𝑥 =?
(a) With respect to x-axis • Use vertical element and disk method.
(b) With respect to y-axs • 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
Note: Axis of Moment is axis of revolution.
• 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
• 𝐼𝑥 = 2 ∫𝑉 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉
1 2
• 𝐼𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥 2 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
1 2
• 𝐼𝑥 = 2 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
𝟏𝟔
• 𝑰𝒙 = 𝝅
𝟓
• Shortcut eq’n
o Solid of revolution is a cone.
𝝅 𝟒
o 𝑰𝒙 = 𝒓 𝒉
𝟏𝟎

XVI) Centroid of Plane Area

• (a) About x-axis
o Use horizontal element and cylindrical
shell method. Varignon’s Theorem
Σ𝐴𝑥̅ 𝑀𝑦 ∫𝐴 𝑥𝑐 𝑑𝐴
o 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑦𝑥𝑑𝑦 • 𝑥̅ = Σ𝐴
= 𝐴
= 𝐴
1
o 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦 Σ𝐴𝑦̅ 𝑀𝑥 ∫𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝑑𝐴
3
• 𝑦̅ = = =
Σ𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
o 𝐼𝑥 = ∫𝑉 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉
o (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) – Centroid or Center of Gravity
1
8
o 𝐼𝑥 = ∫0 𝑦 2 2𝜋𝑦𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 o (𝑥𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 ) – Centroid of Differential Area
1
8
o 𝐼𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑦 3 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
o 𝑰𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟖. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬𝟒
Example Example
Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area Find the centroid of the area enclosed by the cardioid:
bounded by the curve 𝑥 2 = −(𝑦 − 4), the x-axis and the
𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃)
y-axis on the first quadrant.

• ̅=𝟎
𝒚
o By symmetry
2 2
• 𝑥𝑐 = 3 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 3 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃)(cos 𝜃)
1 1
• 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑥 • 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
2 2

• 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 4 • 𝑥̅ =
∫𝐴 𝑥𝑐 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
𝑦 −𝑥 2 +4
• 𝑦𝑐 = 2
= 2
2𝜋 2 1
∫0 (3𝑎(1+cos 𝜃)(cos 𝜃))(2𝑎2 (1+cos 𝜃)2 )𝑑𝜃
• 𝑥̅ =
• 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 1
∫0 (2𝑎 2 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 )𝑑𝜃

• 𝑑𝐴 = (−𝑥 2 + 4)𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 2 1
∫0 (3(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃))(2(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 )𝑑𝜃
∫𝐴 𝑥𝑐 𝑑𝐴
• 𝑥̅ = 𝑎 2𝜋 1
• 𝑥̅ = ∫0 (2(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 )𝑑𝜃
𝐴
𝟓
2
∫0 𝑥(−𝑥 2 +4)𝑑𝑥 • ̅= 𝒂
𝒙 𝟔
• 𝑥̅ = 2
∫0 (−𝑥 2 +4)𝑑𝑥 𝟓
• ( 𝒂, 𝟎)
𝟑 𝟔
• ̅=
𝒙 𝟒
∫𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝑑𝐴
• 𝑦̅ = 𝐴
XVII) Centroid of Volume of Solids of Revolution
2 −𝑥2 +4
∫0 ( )(−𝑥 2 +4)𝑑𝑥
• 𝑦̅ = 2
2
Formulas
∫0 (−𝑥 2 +4)𝑑𝑥
Σ𝑉𝑥̅ ∫𝑉 𝑥𝑐 𝑑𝑉
• ̅=
𝒚
𝟖 • 𝑥̅ = =
𝟓 Σ𝐴 𝑉
Σ𝑉𝑦̅ ∫𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝑑𝑉
•
𝟑 𝟖
(𝟒 , 𝟓) • 𝑦̅ = Σ𝑉
= 𝑉
o (𝑥𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 ) is centroid of differential volume
dV
Example Centroids of Common Solids
Find the centroid of the solid generated when the area
bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = 8 and 𝑥 = 0 is revolved about 𝑽
Shape Figure ̅
𝒙 (𝒓 = 𝒂)
the y-axis.

1
Cylinder ℎ 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
2

3 2 3
Hemisphere 𝑟 𝜋𝑟
8 3

Semi- 3 2 2
ellipsoid of ℎ 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
Revolution 8 3

• 𝑥𝑐 = 0; 𝑥̅ = 0
• 𝒚𝒄 = 𝒚
2 Paraboloid 1 1 2
• 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 of ℎ 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
Revolution 3 2
∫𝑉 𝑦𝑐 𝑑𝑉
• 𝑦̅ = 𝑉
2
8
∫0 𝑦𝜋𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
• 𝑦̅ = 8
2
∫0 𝜋𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦

• ̅=𝟓
𝒚
• (𝟎, 𝟓) 1 1 2
Cone ℎ 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
4 3

1 1
Pyramid ℎ 𝑎𝑏ℎ
4 3
 Example
Find the pressure on the submerged vertical lower half of
𝑥2 𝑦2
the ellipse 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1, with the x-axis on the surface of
the water.

𝜋ℎ (3𝑟 − ℎ)
Spherical

3 2𝑟 − ℎ)2
4(3𝑟 − ℎ)
Cap
(Spherical
Segment

1 2
(
with One

3
Base)

Note: 𝑥̅ is measured
from center of
whole sphere

XVIII) Common Application of

Centroids in Fluid Mechanics

Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface 4𝑏

• ℎ̅ =
3𝜋
1
• 𝐴 = 2 𝜋𝑎𝑏
• 𝐹 = 𝛾𝐴ℎ̅
1 4𝑏
• 𝐹 = 𝛾 ⋅ 2 𝜋𝑎𝑏 ⋅ 3𝜋
𝟐
• 𝑭 = 𝜸𝒂𝒃𝟐
𝟑

Example
Find the pressure on the submerged vertical area bounded
• Aka liquid pressure by the parabola 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 + 9, and the x-axis, with the x-
axis being on the water surface.
• 𝐹 = 𝛾𝐴ℎ̅
o 𝐹 is the hydrostatic force
o ℎ̅ is the vertical distance of the centroid
of submerged area from the liquid surface
o 𝛾 is the specific weight of liquid
o 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁⁄ 3 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏⁄ 3
𝑚 𝑓𝑡

2 2 18
• ℎ̅ = ℎ = (9) =
5 5 5
2 2
• 𝐴 = 3 𝑏ℎ = 3 (6)(9) = 36
• 𝐹 = 𝛾𝐴ℎ̅
𝟔𝟒𝟖
• 𝑭= 𝟓
𝜸
Example Example
The cross-section of a trough is a parabolic segment 8 ft The inner surface of a tank is in the form of hemisphere
wide and 4 ft deep. If the trough is filled by liquid of radius 3 m with the diametral plane on top. Determine
weighing 45 lb/ft2, find the total force in Newton at one the total work done in pumping the water to the top of the
end. tank. For water, 𝛾 = 9.802 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 .

3 3 9
• ℎ̅ = 8 𝑟 = 8 (3) = 8
2
• Considering one end… • 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 = 18𝜋
2 64
• 𝐴 = 3 (4)(8) = 𝑠𝑞. 𝑓𝑡. • 𝛾 = 9.802
3
2 8 • 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉ℎ̅ = 623.58 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
• ℎ̅ = 5 (4) = 5 = 𝑓𝑡.
• 𝑾 = 𝟔𝟐𝟑. 𝟓𝟖 𝐤𝐉
• 𝛾 = 45 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
• 𝐹 = 𝛾𝐴ℎ
Example
9.81𝑁
• 𝐹 = 1536 𝑙𝑏 × ≈ 8 = 6837 N A canal is 10 long and with parabolic end sections which
2.204 𝑙𝑏
is 3 m wide on top and 4 m deep and is full of water. Find
the work done in pumping the water to a level which is 1
Work Done in Plumping Liquid to LOD m from the top.

• LOD – “Level of Discharge” • 𝑏 = 3 𝑚; ℎ = 4 𝑚; 𝐿 = 10 𝑚

2 13
• 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉ℎ̅ • ℎ̅ = 1 + 5 (4) = 5
o 𝑊 is work done in pumping •
2 2
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 𝐿 = 𝑏ℎ𝐿 = (3)(4)(10) = 80
3 3
o ℎ̅ is vertical distance of centroid to level 𝑘𝑁
of discharge • 𝛾 = 9.81 𝑚3
o 𝑉 is volume of liquid • 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉ℎ̅
o 𝛾 is specific weight of liquid • 𝑊 = (9.81)(80) ( )
13
5
▪ 𝛾 = 𝑠𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
• 𝑾 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝐤𝐉
• 𝑠 is specific weight of
liquid
 XIX) The Average Value Principle • Since 𝑥 has constant limits, our outer differential
𝜋
is 𝑑𝑥 with outer limits 0 to .
2
Average Value • 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 • 𝑚 = ∬𝐴 𝜌𝑑𝐴
• 𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑏−𝑎
= 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑡𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝜋/2 cos 𝑥
o Base width is the length of integration • 𝑚 = ∫0 ∫0 7𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑦=cos 𝑥
• 𝑚 = ∫02 [7𝑥𝑦]𝑦=0 𝑑𝑥
Example 𝜋

Find the average value of the volume of sphere if its • 𝑚 = ∫02 7𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
radius changes from 3 cm to 6 cm. • 𝒎=𝟒
4
• 𝑉= 𝜋𝑟 3
3
6
4 Surface Area
∫ ( 𝜋𝑟 3 )𝑑𝑟
3
• 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 3
• Surface Area bounded by the function
6−3
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
• 𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝝅 𝐜𝐦𝟑
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2 2
• 𝑆 = ∬√1 + ( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
XX) Some Applications of Double Integral 𝑆
o 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦 can be interchanged, the outer
differential should be the one with
Mass of Lamina constant limits.

Example
Find the area above the xy-plane of that portion of the
surface of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 intercepted by
the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑎𝑥 = 0
• 𝑧 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑧 −2𝑥
• =
𝜕𝑥 2√𝑎2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦2

𝜕𝑧 2 𝑥2
• ( ) =
𝜕𝑥 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
𝜕𝑧 −2𝑦
• =
𝜕𝑦 2√𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦 2

𝜕𝑧 2 𝑦2
• (𝜕𝑦) = 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦2
• 𝑚 = ∬𝐴 𝜌𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
• 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 • 1 + (𝜕𝑥) + (𝜕𝑦)
o Outer differential will have constant 𝑥2 𝑦2
outer limits. o = 1 + 𝑎2 −𝑥2 −𝑦2 + 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦2
o Inner differential can have limits having 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦2 +𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
variables of the outer differentials. o = 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
𝑎2
o 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
Example
𝑎
Find the mass of lamina in a given region and density • 𝑆=∬ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
√𝑎 2−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
function, 𝑆

𝜋 • Convert to polar coordinates

𝐷(𝑥, 𝑦): 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ , 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ cos 𝑥
2 • 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝜌 = 7𝑥 • 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟
• Getting the limits
o From cylinder…
o 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑎𝑥 = 0
o 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑥
o 𝑟 2 = 𝑎𝑟 sin 𝜃
o 𝑟 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
o 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 sin 𝜃
▪ How so? Referring to the
cylinder in the figure as seen in
the xy-plane. When 𝜃 = 0, 𝑟
goes from 0 to 0. When 𝜃 =
90° or 𝜋, 𝑟 goes from 0 to 2a.
o 𝜃 goes from 0 to 𝜋 to go over the whole
cross-sectional circle of the cylinder.
𝜋 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑟
• 𝑆 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
√𝑎 2 −𝑟 2
• For the inner integral:
o 𝑢 = 𝑎2 − 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑢
o 𝑑𝑢 = −2𝑟𝑑𝑟 → 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − 2
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑎𝑟 𝑎 𝑑𝑢
o ∫0 𝑑𝑟 = − 2 ∫
√𝑎 2 −𝑟 2 √𝑢
1
𝑎 𝑢2
o = −2 1 = −𝑎√𝑢 + 𝐶
2

o = −𝑎√𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 + 𝐶
𝜋 𝑟=𝑎 sin 𝜃
• 𝑆 = −𝑎 ∫0 [√𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 ]𝑟=0 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
• 𝑆 = −𝑎 ∫0 (√𝑎2 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − √𝑎2 )𝑑𝜃
𝜋
• 𝑆 = −𝑎 ∫0 (𝑎|cos 𝜃| − 𝑎)𝑑𝜃
𝜋
• 𝑆 = −𝑎2 ∫0 (|cos 𝜃| − 1)𝑑𝜃
• 𝑆 = −𝑎2 (−1.1415 … )
o Use calculator for integration.
• 2
𝑆 = −𝑎 (2 − 𝜋)
• 𝑺 = (𝝅 − 𝟐)𝒂𝟐
 Differential Equations
A) Definition of Terms General Solution
• The solution to given DE that contains arbitrary
Differential Equation constants usually represented as C’s.

• Equation with derivatives or differentials • No. of constants or C’s is order of DE

• Ex.: • Ex:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 o 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶
o 𝑑𝑥
=𝑥
o 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 2𝑥
▪ Or 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
o 𝑦 ′′ − 5𝑦 ′ + 6𝑦 = 0
Particular Solution
▪ Or (𝐷 2 − 5𝐷 + 6)𝑦 = 0
• The solution to DE which is evaluated from GS
▪ 𝐷→
𝑑 after solving for the values of C’s by the use of
𝑑𝑥 given or known conditions.
𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
o 𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2 = 0
▪ Laplace’s Equation Example
Given the general solution 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶 and
conditions such that 𝑦 = 6 when 𝑥 = 1, find the
Ordinary vs Partial DE particular solution.
• Ordinary DE • Substitute.
o One independent variable • 6 = (1)2 + 2(1) + 𝐶
o Ex: First and Second Example Above • 𝐶 =6−1−2
• Partial DE • 𝐶=3
o Two or more independent variable • 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑
o Contains partial derivatives.
o Ex: Third Example Above

Order of DE
• Order of highest ordered derivative in the DE
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
• 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 → 1𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
• (𝐷 2 − 5𝐷 + 6)𝑦 = 0 → 2𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟

Degree of DE
• Integral (whole no.) power of the highest ordered
derivative in the DE
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
• 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 → 1𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
• = √1 + ( ) → ( 2 ) = 1 + ( ) →
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
 I) Derivation of DE • 1 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ 𝑦′ = 0
𝑥 ′′
• 1− 𝑦 + (𝑦 ′ )2 = 0
𝑦′
How to Derive a Differential Equation
• 𝒙𝒚′′ − (𝒚′ )𝟑 − 𝒚′ = 𝟎
• Number of Constants = Order of DE
• Find the first order, second order, and so on
derivatives of the DE. Stop at order of DE. Example
Find the differential equation for the family of lines that
• Solve for the constant variables.
passes through a fixed point (h, k).
• 𝑦 − 𝑘 = 𝑚(𝑥 − ℎ)
Example
• One arbitrary constant 𝑚. Indicates differential
Find the differential equation for 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑥 equation must be first-order.
• Two arbitrary constants. Indicates differential o 𝑘 and ℎ is a fixed point. Only 𝑚 has
equation must be second order. unknown value.
• 𝑦 ′ = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑥 •
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 − 𝑘 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − ℎ)
• 𝑦 ′′ = 𝐶2 𝑒𝑥
• (𝑦 − 𝑘)𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 − ℎ)𝑑𝑦
• 𝑦 ′ = 𝐶1 + 𝑦′′
• (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝒅𝒙 − (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎
• 𝐶1 = 𝑦 ′ − 𝑦′′
• 𝑦 = (𝑦′ − 𝑦 ′′ )𝑥 + 𝑦′′ II) Solution to Common 1st Order – 1st Degree DE
• (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝒚′′ − 𝒙𝒚′ + 𝒚 = 𝟎
Separable DE
Example • Separate the variables and integrate.
Find the differential equation for the family of parabolas • Model:
w/ vertices at the origin and their foci on the x-axis.
o 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹(𝑥)𝐺(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
• Parabolas that open in the left or right direction
are considered… o
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
+
𝐺(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
=0
𝐹(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑦)
o Based on description 1
▪ Multiplying by: 𝑔(𝑦)𝐹(𝑥)
• 𝑦 2 = ±𝑎𝑥
• 𝑦 2 = 𝐶𝑥 o 𝐴(𝑥) + 𝐵(𝑦) = 𝐶
• One arbitrary constant 𝐶. Indicates differential ▪ After integrating…
equation must be first order.
• 2𝑦 𝑦 ′ = 𝐶 Example
• 2
𝑦 = 2𝑦𝑦′𝑥 Solve the differential equation.
𝒚 𝑑𝑥
• 𝒚′ = or 𝟐𝒙𝒅𝒚 − 𝒚𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒙 = 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
• = (1 − 𝑥)(1 − 𝑡)
Example 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Find the differential equation for the family of circles • = (1 − 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
1−𝑥
with center on the y-axis.
o 𝑢 =1−𝑥
• 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
o 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑥
• Two arbitrary constants 𝑘 and 𝑟. Indicates 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
differential equation must be second order. o ∫ 1−𝑥 = ∫ − 𝑢
= − ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
• 2𝑥 + 2(𝑦 − 𝑘)𝑦 ′ = 0 o 𝑣 =1−𝑡
• 𝑥 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)𝑦 ′ = 0 o 𝑑𝑣 = −𝑑𝑡
𝑥
• 𝑦−𝑘 = −
𝑦′
 𝑣2 Example
o ∫(1 − 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = − 2
=
1 Given is 𝑥(𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑥 − (𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 4 when
− 2 (1 − 𝑡)2 + 𝐶 𝑦 = 2. Find 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 2.
1
• − ln(1 − 𝑥) = − 2 (1 − 𝑡)2 + 𝐶 • Dividing DE by (𝑦 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
• 𝟐 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝒙) − (𝟏 − 𝒕)𝟐 = 𝑪 • 𝑥+1
− 𝑦−1 = 0
o Multiplying by −2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
• 𝑥+1
= 𝑦−1
4 2
𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Shortcut by Calculator • ∫ 𝑥+1
=∫ 𝑦−1
Solve the differential equation. 2 𝑦𝑜

𝑑𝑥 • Evaluate left side using calculator.

= 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑡 𝑦=2
𝑑𝑡 • 1.4892 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑦 − 1||𝑦=𝑦𝑜
(a) … • 1.4892 = ln 1 − ln|𝑦𝑜 − 1|
(b) …
• 1.4892 = − ln|𝑦𝑜 − 1|
(c) …
• Shift-solve.
(d) 2 ln(1 − 𝑥) − (1 − 𝑡)2 = 𝐶
• 𝑦𝑜 = 1.23
• Set values for x and t.
• 𝑥 should be set as less than 1 so ln (1 − 𝑥) would
Exact Differential Equation
not cause an error.
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
• Set 𝑥 = 0.1, 𝑡 = 0.2
𝑑𝑥 If:
• Solve for 𝑑𝑡 using the set values…
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝑑𝑥 18 =
• 𝑑𝑡
= 25
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑀𝑦 = 𝑁𝑥
• Solve for 𝑑𝑡 in the choices by implicit
differentiation. Then:
2 𝑑𝑥 The differential equation is said to be exact.
• − 1−𝑥 𝑑𝑡 + 2(1 − 𝑡) = 0
To solve:
𝑑𝑥 18
• 𝑑𝑡
= 0.72 = 25 Set 𝑦 = 0 in 𝑀
• Answer is d. Set 𝑥 = 0 in 𝑁

Example Example
Solve the differential equation. Solve the given differential equation.
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
1
• Multiplying by • Test DE if exact.
sin 𝑦 cos 𝑥

• tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + cot 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 • 𝑀 = 2𝑥𝑦

• ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cot 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 • 𝑀𝑦 = 2𝑥

• ln|sec 𝑥| − ln|csc 𝑦| = 𝐶 • 𝑁 = 2 + 𝑥2
sec 𝑥 1/ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 • 𝑁𝑥 = 2𝑥
• ln |csc 𝑦| = ln | 1/ sin 𝑦 | = ln |cos 𝑥| = 𝐶
• 𝑀𝑦 = 𝑁𝑥 , ∴ Exact
• Taking 𝑒 raised to both sides.
• Set 𝑦 = 0 in 𝑀
sin 𝑦
• |cos 𝑥| =𝑒 =𝐶 𝐶
• ∫(2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 = 𝑪 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 • (𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝒚 = 𝑪 or
o If absolute value is dropped.
 • 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝑪 Bernoulli’s DE
• If there are choices: •
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑞(𝑥)𝑦 𝑛
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
o Solve 𝑑𝑥 from DE by setting values for 𝑥 (1−𝑛)∫ 𝜇(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥)𝑑𝑥+𝐶
• 𝑦1−𝑛 = 𝜇(𝑥)
and 𝑦.
o
𝑑𝑦
The solve for 𝑑𝑥 from choices by implicit • 𝜇(𝑡) = 𝑒 (1−𝑛) ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
differentiation.
▪ The following formula can be Example
used. Solve the differential equation.
𝜕𝐹
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
▪ 𝑑𝑥
=− 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐹 − 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 /2
• 𝜇(𝑥) = 𝑒 (1−2) ∫ −𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
Linear DE 𝑥2
(1−2) ∫ 𝑒 2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 • 𝑦1−2 = +𝐶
+ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 𝑒2
2
∫ 𝜇(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 − ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 /2 𝑑𝑥+𝐶
𝑦= • 𝑦 −1
=
𝜇(𝑥) 2
𝑒 𝑥 /2

𝜇(𝑡) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
• 𝑢=
2
• 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Example 𝑥2 𝑥2
Solve the differential equation. • ∫ 𝑥𝑒 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑒 2
𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 −𝑒 2 +𝐶
+ (1 + 𝑥)𝑦 = 3𝑥
𝑥 • 𝑦 −1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
𝑒2
• Divide by 𝑥
• Reciprocating both sides…
𝑑𝑦 1
• + ( + 1) 𝑦 = 3 𝟐
𝒆𝒙 /𝟐
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
• 𝒚= 𝟐
1
+1)𝑑𝑥 𝑪−𝒆𝒙 /𝟐
• 𝜇(𝑥) = 𝑒 ∫(𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥+𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
∫ 3𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝐶
• 𝑦= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
• Integration by parts in tabular form.

Derive Integrate
(+) 𝟑𝒙 𝑒𝑥
(−) 𝟑 𝑒𝑥
(+) 𝟎 𝑒𝑥

𝒆𝒙 (𝟑𝒙−𝟑)+𝑪
• 𝒚= 𝒙𝒆𝒙
or…
• 𝑥
𝑦𝑥𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥 (3𝑥
− 3) + 𝐶
• 𝒆 𝒙 (𝒙𝒚
− 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟑) = 𝑪
 III) Solutions to Common Higher Order DE Example
(𝐷 4 − 1)𝑦(𝑡) = 0
Homogeneous LDE w/ Constant Coefficients • 𝑟4 − 1 = 0
(𝑎𝑜 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 )𝑦 = 0 • (𝑟 2 − 1)(𝑟 2 + 1)
Right side of equation is zero. • 𝑟 = ±1, ±𝑗
• To solve, transform DE to its auxiliary equation • 𝒚 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒕 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒕 + 𝒄𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 + 𝒄𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕
or characteristic equaion:
𝑑𝑛𝑥
o 𝐷 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑟 𝑛 Non-Homogeneous LDE with Constant Coefficients
𝑛 𝑛−1
o 𝑎𝑜 𝑟 + 𝑎1 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑟 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0 (𝑎𝑜 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 )𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
• General solutions are as follows… Right side 𝒇(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎
• For real and distinct roots: • General solution:
𝑟1 𝑥 𝑟2 𝑥
o 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 + 𝑐2 𝑒 +⋯ o 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃
• For repeated roots: (𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟3 = ⋯) • 𝑦𝑐
𝑟1 𝑥 𝑟2 𝑥 2 𝑟3 𝑥
o 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 + 𝑐2 𝑡𝑒 + 𝑐3 𝑡 𝑒 +⋯ o Complementary solution
• For imaginary roots: 𝑟 = 𝑗𝜔 o Homogeneous Solution
o 𝑦 = 𝑐1 cos 𝜔𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝜔𝑥 ▪ Can also be 𝑦ℎ
• For complex roots: 𝑟 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 o To solve, set 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and solve like a
homogeneous LDE with constant
o 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝜎𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝜔𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝜔𝑥) coefficients.
• 𝑌𝑃
Example
o Particular solution
Solve the differential equation.
o To solve, do:
(𝐷 2 − 5𝐷 + 6)𝑦 = 0
▪ Method of undetermined
• 𝑟 2 − 5𝑟 + 6 = 0 coefficients
• (𝑟 − 3)(𝑟 − 2) = 0 ▪ Variation of Parameter –
Wronskian
• 𝑟 = 3,2
• 𝒚 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝟑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝒙
Method of Undetermined Coefficients

Example (𝑎𝑜 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 )𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡)

Solve the differential equation.
(𝐷 2 − 4𝐷 + 4)𝑦 = 0 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒀𝑷
• 2
𝑟 − 4𝑅 + 4 = 0 𝒂𝒆𝜷𝒕 𝐴𝑒 𝛽𝑡
• 2
(𝑟 − 2) = 0 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷𝒕) 𝐴 cos(𝛽𝑡) + 𝐵 sin(𝛽𝑡)
• 𝑟 = 2,2
𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜷𝒕) 𝐴 cos(𝛽𝑡) + 𝐵 sin(𝛽𝑡)
• 𝒚 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝟐𝒕 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒕𝒆𝟐𝒕
𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷𝒕) + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜷𝒕) 𝐴 cos(𝛽𝑡) + 𝐵 sin(𝛽𝑡)
1
n-th degree polynomial 𝐴𝑡 𝑛 + 𝐵𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑌𝑡 + 𝑍
Example
Solve the differential equation. • Derive the 𝑌𝑃 with undetermined coefficient, and
then substitute to DE.
(𝐷 2 + 10𝐷 + 41)𝑦 = 0
• Then solve for undetermined coefficient to
• 𝑟 2 + 10𝑟 + 41 = 0 determine.
• 𝑟 = −5 ± 𝑗4
• 𝒚 = 𝒆−𝟓𝒕 (𝒄𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒕 + 𝒄𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒕)
 1
Variation of Parameter • 𝐴=5
Given DE:
• 𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 0
(𝑎𝑜 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 )𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐴 1
• 𝐵= 2
= 10
Given homogeneous solution:
1 1
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑐2 𝑦2 (𝑡) + ⋯ 𝑐𝑛 𝑦𝑛 (𝑡) • 𝑌𝑃 = 5 cos 𝑥 + 10 sin 𝑥
Particular solution is solved as follows… • 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃
Wronskian Determinant •
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝟑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆𝒙 + 𝟓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝑦1 𝑦2 ⋯ 𝑦𝑛
′ ′
𝑦1 𝑦2 ⋯ 𝑦𝑛′
𝑊=| ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ | Example
(𝑛−1) (𝑛−1) (𝑛−1)
𝑦1 𝑦2 ⋯ 𝑦𝑛 𝑦 ′′ − 5𝑦 ′ + 4𝑦 = 8𝑒 𝑥
• 𝑟 2 − 5𝑟 + 4 = 0
𝑊𝑛 is Wronskian determinant but with nth column • (𝑟 − 4)(𝑟 − 1) = 0
0
0 • 𝑟 = 4,1
replaced by [ ]
⋮ • 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 4𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥
1
• 𝑌𝑃 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 is wrong because the right side
𝑊𝑘 (𝑡)
𝑛
𝑌𝑃 (𝑡) = Σ𝑘=1 [𝑦𝑘 (𝑡) ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡] function also has 𝑒 𝑥 , thus we add a factor 𝑥
𝑊(𝑡)
• 𝑌𝑃 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 𝑥
• 𝑌𝑃′ = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
Example
• 𝑌𝑃′′ = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)
Solve the differential equation.
• 𝑌𝑃′′ − 5𝑌𝑃′ + 4𝑌𝑃 = 8𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ + 3𝑦 = sin 𝑥
• Collecting 𝑒 𝑥
• 𝑟 2 − 4𝑟 + 3 = 0
• 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) − 5𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 4𝐴𝑥 = 8
• (𝑟 − 3)(𝑟 − 1) = 0
• Collecting no 𝑥
• 𝑟 = 3,1
• 2𝐴 − 5𝐴 = 8
• 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥
• −3𝐴 = 8
• (Method of undetermined coefficients)
8
• 𝑌𝑃 = 𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑥 • 𝐴=−
3
8
• 𝑌𝑃′ = −𝐴 sin 𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑥 • 𝑌𝑃 = − 3 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
• 𝑌𝑃′′ = −𝐴 cos 𝑥 − 𝐵 sin 𝑥 • 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃
• Substitute derivatives to DE. 𝟖
• 𝒚 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝟒𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒙𝒆𝒙
• 𝑌𝑃′′ − 4𝑌𝑃′ + 3𝑌𝑃 = sin 𝑥
• Collecting cos 𝑥
Example
• −𝐴 − 4𝐵 + 3𝐴 = 0
Solve the differential equation.
• 2𝐴 − 4𝐵 = 0
𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = sec 𝑥
• 𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 0 → (1)
• 𝑟2 + 1 = 0
• Collecting sin 𝑥
• 𝑟 = ±𝑗
• −𝐵 + 4𝐴 + 3𝐵 = 1
• 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥
• 4𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 1 → (2)
• 𝑦1 = cos 𝑥
• (1) + (2)
• 𝑦2 = sin 𝑥
• 5𝐴 = 1
• By Variation of Parameter
 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 IV) Common Applications of DE
• 𝑊=| | = cos2 𝑥 − (− sin2 𝑥)
− sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
• 𝑊=1
Orthogonal Trajectories
0 sin 𝑥
• 𝑊1 = | | = − sin 𝑥
1 cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥 0
• 𝑊2 = | | = cos 𝑥
− sin 𝑥 1
• 𝑓(𝑡) = sec 𝑥
𝑊1 𝑊2
• 𝑌𝑃 = 𝑦1 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝑊

sin 𝑥
• 𝑦 = − cos 𝑥 ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 +
1
cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥 ∫ 1
sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
• ∫ sin 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• ∫ sin 𝑥 sec 𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥|
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
• ∫ cos 𝑥 sec 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 • Is the family of curves that intersect a given
• 𝑌𝑃 = − ln|sec 𝑥| cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥 family of curves at right angle.

• 𝑌𝑃 = ln|cos 𝑥| cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥 • Ex:

o Electrostatics – Lines of Force and Lines
• 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃
of Constant Potential
• 𝒚 = 𝒄𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧|𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + o Hydrodynamics – Streamlines and the
𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 Lines of Constant Velocity
• Note: ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ⋅ ∇𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
o For this problem, 𝑌𝑃 can be solved by the 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔
derived formula: ( , )⋅( , )=0
𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
▪ 𝑌𝑃 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝛽) sin(𝑥 − 𝛽) 𝑑𝛽 + 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑔
𝐹(𝑎) + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
▪ 𝑌𝑃 = 𝐹(𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑎) + 𝐹(𝑎)
▪ 𝑌𝑃 = 𝐹(𝑥) Formulas
• Just integrate, then
• Given Lines R at G defined at some coordinates
substitute 𝛽 = 𝑥
• In general:
1
o 𝑚𝑅 = − 𝑚
𝐺

• In Rectangular CS:
𝑑𝑦 1
o (𝑑𝑥 ) = − 𝑑𝑦
𝑅 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐺

▪ DE for RCS
• In Polar CS:
𝑑𝜃 1
o (𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ) = − 𝑑𝜃
𝑅 (𝑟 )
𝑑𝑟 𝐺

▪ DE for PCS
Example Exponential Growth and Decay
Find the orthogonal trajectories to the family of • Or Exponential Law of Change
parabolas:
o The rate of change of a quantity is
𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 + 𝐶 proportional to the amount present
anytime
• 2𝑦 𝑦 ′ = 2
1 • DE
• 𝑦′ = 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
o 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑘𝑥
• Taking the negative reciprocal of the right side…
▪ 𝑘=
• 𝑦 ′ = −𝑦 constant of proportionality
𝑑𝑦 or rate constant
• 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑦
𝑑𝑦
• General Solution:
• 𝑦
= −𝑑𝑥 𝑥
o ln |𝑥 | = 𝑘𝑡
• ln|𝑦| = −𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑜

▪ 𝑥𝑜 amount at 𝑡 = 0
• |𝑦| = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝐶
▪ 𝑥 amount at time 𝑡
• |𝑦| = 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥
• Applies to:
• Dropping the absolute value…
o Population Growth
• 𝒚 = 𝑪𝒆−𝒙
o Radioactivity – Half-life
▪ Common problem is “carbon
Example dating”
Find the orthogonal trajectories to the family of circles: ▪ Half life of carbon-14 is 5700
𝑟 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 years.
𝑑𝑟 • At half-life
• 𝑟 ′ = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 =
𝑑𝜃
o 𝑥 = 0.5𝑥𝑜
𝑑𝜃 1
• 𝑑𝑟
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 ▪ Continuous Compounding of
𝑑𝜃 𝑟 𝑎 sin 𝜃 interest
• 𝑟 = = = tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑟 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 ▪ Electrical Energy “Power”
• Taking the negative reciprocal of the right side… Forecasting

•
𝑑𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = − cot 𝜃 ▪ Culture of Bacteria and etc.

𝑑𝑟
• − tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟 Example
• − ln|sec 𝜃| = ln|cos 𝜃| = ln|𝑟| + 𝐶 Radium decomposed at the rate proportional to the
amount present. In 100 years, 100 g becomes 96 g. What
• cos 𝜃 = 𝑒 ln|𝑟| 𝐶
𝑒
is the percentage remaining after 100 years.
• cos 𝜃 = 𝑟𝐶 𝑑𝑥
1
• 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑘𝑥
• 𝑟= 𝐶
cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑥
• = 𝑘𝑑𝑡
• 𝒓 = 𝑪 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝑥
𝑥
• ln |𝑥 | = 𝑘𝑡
𝑜
ln|𝑥/𝑥𝑜 | ln|96/100| ln|0.96|
• 𝑘= 𝑡
= 100 = 100
𝑥
• 𝑃 = 𝑥 × 100 =?
𝑜
𝑃 ln|0.96|
• ln |100| = 100
(200)
• 𝑷 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟏𝟔%
 • (Alternative Solution) 1
?
𝑥
• ln | | = 𝑘𝑡 6
𝑥𝑜
𝑥 1
• = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 𝑥̂ = 14734
𝑥𝑜 6
•
𝑥
𝑃 = 𝑥 × 100 • 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟒 𝒚𝒓𝒔
𝑜
𝑃
• 100
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑡
Example
• 𝑃 = 100𝑒 𝑘𝑡 Upon the birth of their 1st child a couple deposited $5000
• We can use exponential regression model 𝐴𝑒 𝐵𝑥 on the account that pays 8% interest compounded
in a calculator. Input first two rows. continuously.
𝑑𝑆
• = 𝑟𝑆
𝒙→𝒕 𝒚→𝑷 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑆
𝟎 100 • 𝑆
= 𝑟𝑑𝑡
𝟏𝟎𝟎 96 • ln|𝑆/𝑆𝑜 | = 𝑟𝑡
𝑆
𝟐𝟎𝟎 ? • = 𝑒 𝑟𝑡
𝑆𝑜
200𝑦̂ = 92.16 • 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑜 𝑒 𝑟𝑡
• 𝑷 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟏𝟔% • 𝑆 = 5000𝑒 0.08(18)
• 𝑺 = $𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟒𝟖
Example
Carbon extracted from an ancient skull contained only
Example
one-sixth as much carbon-14 as carbon extracted from the
present day bone. How old is the skull? (Half-life of In a certain country, the energy consumption is expected
carbon-14 is 5700 yrs.) to double in 10 yrs. Find the average per unit growth rate.
•
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘𝑥 • 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 𝑒 𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 • 2𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃𝑜 𝑒 𝑘(10)
• 𝑥
= 𝑘𝑑𝑡
• 2 = 𝑒 10𝑘
𝑥
• ln |𝑥 | = 𝑘𝑡 • 𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟗𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝟔. 𝟗𝟑%
𝑜

• ln|0.5| = 𝑘(5700)
ln|0.5| Example
• 𝑘= 5700
ln|𝑥/𝑥𝑜 | 1 5700
The intensity I of light at a depth of x meters below the
• 𝑡= = ln | | ⋅ 𝑑𝐼
surface of the lake satisfies the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑘 6 ln|0.5|

• 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟒 𝒚𝒓𝒔 −1.4𝐼. At what depth is the intensity half of the intensity
Io at the surface where 𝑥 = 0.
• (Alternative Method) 𝑑𝐼
𝑥
• 𝑑𝑥
= −1.4𝐼
• ln |𝑥 | = 𝑘𝑡
𝐼
•
𝑜
𝑥
ln |𝐼 | = −1.4𝑥
• 𝑥𝑜
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 𝑜
ln|𝐼/𝐼𝑜 | ln|1/2|
• 𝑥= =
• We can use exponential regression model 𝐴𝑒 𝐵𝑥 −1.4 −1.4
in a calculator. Input first two rows. • 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟓 𝒎

𝒙 → 𝒕 (𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞) 𝒙
𝒚→ (𝐚𝐦𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐂)
𝒙𝒐
𝟎 1
𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟎 0.5
Newton’s Law of Cooling Example
𝑑𝑇 Just before midday, the body of an apparent homicide
= 𝑘(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑚 ) victim is found in a room that is kept at a constant
𝑑𝑡
temperature of 70°F. At 12 noon, the temperature of the
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑚 body is 80°F and at 1PM, it is 75°F. Assume that the
ln | | = 𝑘𝑡
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚 temperature of the body at the time of death was 98.6°F
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑚 = (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚 )𝑒 𝑘𝑡 and it is cooled in accordance with Newton’s Law. What
was the time of death?
• 𝑇 = temperature of body at time t
• 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑚 = (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚 )𝑒 𝑘𝑡 → 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝐵𝑥
• 𝑘 = rate constant
• 𝑇𝑜 = initial temperature 𝒙→𝒕 𝒚 → 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒎

• 𝑇𝑚 = surrounding temperature ? 98.6 − 70 = 28.6

𝟏𝟐𝑵𝑵 → 𝟏𝟐 80 − 70 = 10
Example 𝟏𝑷𝑴 → 𝟏𝟑 75 − 70 = 5
In a room temperature of 25°C, a steel ball at 120°C cools (98.6 − 70)𝑥̂ = 10.48 = 10: 29: 2.35
down to 80°C in 20 minutes. Find the temperature after
one-half hour. • 𝟏𝟎: 𝟐𝟗: 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓𝑨𝑴
𝑇−𝑇𝑚
• ln |𝑇 | = 𝑘𝑡
𝑜 −𝑇𝑚 The Logistic Equation
80−25
• ln |120−25| = 𝑘(20) 𝒅𝑷
= 𝒌𝑷(𝑴 − 𝑷)
11
ln| |
𝒅𝒕
• 𝑘= 20
19
𝑀 = capacity
• 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑚 = (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚 )𝑒 𝑘𝑡 • Birth rate and death rate population model
11 𝒅𝑷
ln| |
19 ⋅30 o = (𝜷 − 𝜹)𝑷
• 𝑇 = (120 − 25)𝑒 20 + 25 𝒅𝒕
▪ 𝛽 = birth rate
• 𝑻 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟓°𝑪
▪ 𝛿 = death rate
• (Alternative Method)
• Common Problems:
• 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑚 = (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚 )𝑒 𝑘𝑡 → 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝐵𝑥
o Spreading Virus
𝒙→𝒕 𝒚 → 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒎 o Spreading Rumor, and others
𝟎 120 − 25
𝟐𝟎 80 − 25 Example
𝟑𝟎 ? The rate of virus spread is jointly proportional to those
infected and uninfected people. If there are 5000
30𝑦̂ + 25 = 66.85°𝐶 inhabitants at the start; after a week, there are 160
• 𝑻 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟓°𝑪 infected; after 2 weeks, there are 1200 people infected;
how many days will there be for 1500 people to be
infected?

𝒕 𝑷
𝟕 160
𝟏𝟒 1200
? 1500
𝑑𝑃
• 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑘𝑃(𝑀 − 𝑃)
𝑑𝑃
• 𝑃(𝑀−𝑃)
= 𝑘𝑑𝑡
1200 𝑑𝑃 14
• ∫160 𝑃(5000−𝑃)
= ∫7 𝑘𝑑𝑡 = 7𝑘
 1 1200 𝑑𝑃
• 𝑘 = 7 ∫160 𝑃(5000−𝑃)

• 𝑘 = 6.4480 × 10−5 → (𝐶) 𝑑𝑃

1500 𝑑𝑃 𝑡 • = (𝛽 − 𝛿)𝑃
• ∫160 𝑃(5000−𝑃) = ∫7 𝑘𝑑𝑡 = (𝑡 − 7)𝑘 𝑑𝑡
• 𝛽 𝛼 𝑃 → 𝛽 = 𝑘𝑃
1 1500 𝑑𝑃
• 𝑡 = 𝑘 ∫160 𝑃(5000−𝑃)
+7 • 𝛿 = 0.01
• Use stored value in (𝐶) for 𝑘 •
𝑑𝑃
= (𝑘𝑃 − 0.01)𝑃
𝑑𝑡
• 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟒𝟕 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬 ≈ 𝟏𝟓 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬
• 𝑃(0) = 200, 𝑃′ (0) = 2
• 2 = (200𝑘 − 0.01)200
Example
• 𝑘 = 0.0001
The time rate of change of rabbit population 𝑃 is 𝑑𝑃
proportional to the square root of 𝑃. At time 𝑡 = • 𝑑𝑡
= (0.0001𝑃 − 0.01)𝑃
0 (months) the population numbers 100 rabbits and is 𝑑𝑃
increasing at the rate of 20 rabbits per month. How many • (0.0001𝑃−0.01)𝑃
= 𝑑𝑡
rabbits will there be one year later?
1000 𝑑𝑃 𝑡
• ∫200 (0.0001𝑃−0.01)𝑃
= ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝒕 𝑷
• 𝒕𝒙 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟕𝟖
𝟎 100
∞ 𝑑𝑃 𝑡
• ∫200 (0.0001𝑃−0.01)𝑃 = ∫0 𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝟏𝟐 ?
• Approximating ∞ in calculator as 999999

•
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘√𝑃 • 𝒕𝒚 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟑
𝑑𝑡

• 20 = 𝑘√100
• 𝑘=2
𝑑𝑃
• 𝑑𝑡
= 2√𝑃
𝑑𝑃
• = 𝑑𝑡
2√𝑃
𝑃𝑥
• √𝑃|𝑃=100 = 𝑡|𝑡=0
𝑡=12

• √𝑃𝑥 − 10 = 12
• 𝑃𝑥 = (12 + 10)2
• 𝑷𝒙 = 𝟒𝟖𝟒 𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐛𝐢𝐭𝐬

Example
Consider an animal population 𝑃(𝑡) with constant death
rate 𝛿 = 0.01 and birth rate 𝛽 proportional to 𝑃. Suppose
that 𝑃(0) = 200, 𝑃′ (0) = 2:
(a) When is 𝑃 = 1000?
(b) When does doomsday occur?

𝒕 𝑷 𝑷′
𝟎 200 2
(a) ? 1000
(b) ? ∞
Acceleration Example
𝟐 A body falls from rest. If the resistance of the air is
𝒅𝒗 𝒅 𝒔
𝒂=
= proportional to the speed and the limiting speed is 160
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
ft/s, find the speed in ft/s at the end of 5 sec.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝒅𝒗
𝑑𝑡 = = →𝒂=𝒗 • 𝑅 = 𝑘𝑣
𝑎 𝑣 𝒅𝒔
Newton’s Second Law of Motion • Sign: negative for downward direction, positive
for upward direction
𝚺𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
• Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
• 𝑊 − 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
Example
• 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎
An arrow is shot straight upward from the ground with an
initial velocity of 160 ft/s. It experiences both the • Limiting speed is 160 ft/s daw
𝑣2
deceleration of gravity and deceleration 800 due to air o 𝑎 = 0, 𝑣 = 160
resistance. How high in the air does it go? Use 𝑔 =
• 𝑚𝑔 − 160𝑘 = 0
32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 .
𝑚𝑔
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 • 𝑘 = 160
• 𝑎= = 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑚𝑔
𝑣2 𝑑𝑣 • 𝑚𝑔 − 160 ⋅ 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎
• −𝑔 − 800 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑔𝑣
• 𝑔− =𝑎
𝑣2 25600+𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 160
• −32 − 800 = − 800
= 𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑣
• 𝑔 (1 − 160) = 𝑎
800𝑣 𝑑𝑣
• − = 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 2 +25600 𝑑𝑣
• 𝑔(160 − 𝑣) = 160𝑎 = 160
0 800𝑣 𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑑𝑡
• − ∫160 𝑣 2 +25600 = ∫0 𝑑𝑠 160𝑑𝑣
• 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 =
• 𝒉 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕. 𝟐𝟔 𝐟𝐭 160−𝑣
5 𝑣 160
• ∫0 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑓 160−𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣=𝑣
Example • −160 ln|160 − 𝑣| |𝑣=0𝑓 = 5(32)
An object falls from rest. If the velocity of the object 160−𝑣𝑓
before it reached the ground is represented by the • −160 ln | 160
| = 160
𝑑𝑣
differential equation plus 𝑣 per 10 equals 32, ft/s2. • 𝒗𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝐟𝐭/𝐬
𝑑𝑡
Find the velocity of the object in ft/s after 1 sec.
𝑑𝑣 𝑣
• 𝑑𝑡
+ 10 = 32 Shortcut
•
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
• 𝜇(𝑡) = 𝑒 ∫10
=𝑒 10 Resistance of air proportional to speed and
limiting speed given as 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑡 𝑡
𝑡
∫ 𝑒 10 ⋅32𝑑𝑡+𝐶 32⋅10𝑒 10 +𝐶 𝒈𝒕
• 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 320 + 𝐶𝑒 −10 −
𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
𝑒 10 𝑒 10
𝒗 = 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝟏 − 𝒆
• 𝑣(0) = 0
• Derivation
• 0 = 320 + 𝐶
o 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎
• 𝐶 = −320 o 𝑎 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
• 𝑣(1) =? o 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑘 = 0
1
− 𝑚𝑔
• 𝑣(1) = 320 − 320𝑒 10 o 𝑘=𝑣
𝑚𝑎𝑥
• 𝒗(𝟏) = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝐟𝐭/𝐬 𝑚𝑔
o 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑔𝑣
o 𝑔−𝑣 =𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
o 𝑔 (1 − ) =𝑎=
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑣 Escape Velocity
o 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣
1−
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
• It is the velocity of the body projected from the
𝑡 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 surface of a heavenly body to escape the pull of
o ∫0 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 1−𝑣/𝑣
𝑚𝑎𝑥 gravity
𝑣
1−
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
o 𝑔𝑡 = −𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ln | 0 | 𝟐𝑮𝑴
1−
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝒗𝒆 = √𝟐𝒈𝑹 = √
𝑹
𝑔𝑡 𝑣
o −𝑣 = ln |1 − 𝑣 |
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 • 𝑔 = gravitational acceleration
−
𝑔𝑡
𝑣 at the surface of heavenly body
o 𝑒 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =1−𝑣
𝑚𝑎𝑥 • 𝑅 = radius of heavenly body
𝑔𝑡
o
𝑣
=1−𝑒
−
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 • 𝑀 = mass of heavenly body
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝒎𝟐
−
𝒈𝒕
• 𝑮 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵 ⋅ 𝒌𝒈𝟐
o 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝟏 − 𝒆 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
• For Earth:
o 𝑹 ≈ 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒎 = 𝟔. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎
o 𝑴 ≈ 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝐤𝐠

Example
Find the escape velocity needed by a spacecraft projected
from the surface of the Earth so that it may never return.
• 𝑣𝑒 = √2𝑔𝑅 = √2(9.8)(6.4 × 106 )
• 𝒗𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐 𝐤𝐦⁄𝐬
Chemical Solution in Tank • 𝑐𝑖 = 0
• (Mixture Problem) •
𝑑𝑄
= 𝑞𝑖 𝑐𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜 𝑐𝑜
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝑑𝑡
= rate in − rate out • = −2 ⋅
𝑑𝑡 𝑡+100
𝒅𝑸 •
𝑑𝑄
=
2 𝑑𝑡
− 𝑡+100
= 𝒒𝒊 𝒄𝒊 − 𝒒𝒐 𝒄𝒐 𝑄
𝒅𝒕
𝑄 60+100
𝑸 • ln | 𝑥 | = −2 ln | |
𝒄𝒐 = 50 0+100
𝒗𝒕 • 𝑸𝒙 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟓𝟑 𝐤𝐠
𝑑𝑣
= 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜 → 𝒗𝒕 = 𝒗𝟏 + (𝒒𝒊 − 𝒒𝒐 )𝒕
𝑑𝑡
• 𝑞 = flow rate or volume per unit time
• 𝑐 = concentration or salt per volume
• 𝑣 = volume
• 𝑄 = amount of salt or any solute

Example
A tank contains 1000L of solution consisting of 100 kg of
salt dissolved in water. Pure water is pumped into the
tank at the rate of 5 L/s and the mixture — kept uniform
by stirring — is pumped out at the same rate. How long
will it be until only 10 kg of salt remains in the tank?
• 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞𝑜 = 5𝐿/𝑠
• 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣1 + (𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜 )𝑡 = 𝑣1 = 1000𝐿
𝑄 𝑄
• 𝑐𝑜 = 𝑣 = 1000
𝑡

• 𝑐𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑄
• 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑞𝑖 𝑐𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜 𝑐𝑜
𝑑𝑄 𝑄
• 𝑑𝑡
= −5 1000
𝑑𝑄 1
• =− 𝑑𝑡
𝑄 200
10 1
• ln |100| = − 200 𝑡𝑥
• 𝒕𝒙 = 𝟒𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝐬 = 𝟕 𝐦 𝟒𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝐬

Example
A tank contains 100 L of brine containing 50 kg of salt.
Pure water runs into the tank at the rate of 3 L/min. Brine
runs out at the rate of 2 L/min. The solution in the tank is
kept uniform by stirring. How much salt is in the tank
after 1 hour?
• 𝑞𝑖 = 3𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
• 𝑞𝑜 = 2𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
• 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣1 + (𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜 )𝑡
• 𝑣𝑡 = 100 + 𝑡
𝑄 𝑄
• 𝑐𝑜 = 𝑣 = 𝑡+100
𝑡
Orifice w/ Variable or Falling Head
For Hemispherical Tank w/ diametral plane at the
• Fluid Mechanics bottom
𝟖𝝅𝒓𝟓/𝟐
𝒕=
𝟓𝑪𝑨𝑶 √𝟐𝒈
𝒕 = Time it takes to empty the tank through the orifice
at the bottom
For Spherical Tank w/ Orifice at the Lowest Point
𝟓
𝟏𝟔√𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝒕=
𝟏𝟓𝑪𝑨𝑶 √𝟐𝒈
𝒕 = Time to empty

? 𝜋𝑟 5/2
𝑡=
? 𝐶𝐴𝑂 √2𝑔
• For hemispherical tank, half-plane on top
? 14
𝒅𝑽 o ?
= 15
− = 𝑪𝑨𝑶 √𝟐𝒈𝒚
𝒅𝒕 • For hemispherical tank, half-plane at bottom
• 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑨𝑳𝑺 𝒅𝒚 ? 8
o =
o 𝐴𝐿𝑆 = instantaneous area of ? 5
liquid surface • For spherical tank
• 𝐶 = coefficient of discharge o
?
=
16√2
? 15
o 𝐶 = 1 for ideal situation
o 𝐶 = 0.6 for standard orifice
Example
• 𝐴𝑂 = area of Orifice
A hemispherical bowl with top radius of 4m is full of
• 𝑦 = variable depth or head of liquid water. How long will it take to empty the bowl through an
8 cm orifice at the bottom?
14 𝜋𝑟 5/2
• 𝑡=
Shortcut Formulas 15 𝐶𝐴𝑂 √2𝑔

For Tank w/ Constant Cross-Section • 𝑟=4

• 𝐶=1
𝟐𝑨𝑳𝑺 (√𝒚𝒐 − √𝒚)
𝒕= 8×10−2
2
𝑪𝑨𝑶 √𝟐𝒈 • 𝐴𝑂 = 𝜋 ( 2
)
𝒕 = Time it takes for the depth to change from 𝒚𝒐 to 𝒚 • 𝑔 = 9.8
For hemispherical tank w/ diametral plane on top • 𝑡 = 4216.37 𝑠
𝟓
• In calculator, divide by 60 twice, then press ° ′ "
𝟏𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 button.
𝒕=
𝟏𝟓𝑪𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈
• 𝒕 = 𝟏𝐡 𝟏𝟎𝐦 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟕𝐬
𝒕 = Time it takes to empty the tank through the orifice
at the bottom
 𝑑𝑉
Example • − = 𝐶𝐴𝑂 √2𝑔𝑦
𝑑𝑡
A spherical tank of radius 4 ft is full of gasoline when a 3
circular bottom hole with radius one inch is opened. How 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
• − 1 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝑑𝑡
long will be required for all the gasoline to drain from the 𝑦2
tank?
𝐶𝐴𝑂 √2𝑔
16√2 𝜋𝑟 5/2 • −𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘𝑑𝑡
• 𝑡= 𝜋
15 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 1
• − 2 (ℎ2 − ℎ𝑜2 ) = 𝑘𝑡
• 𝑟=4
• Substituting…
• 𝑔 = 32
o ℎ=6
1 2
• 𝐴 = 𝜋 (12) o ℎ𝑜 = 12
• 𝐶=1 o 𝑡=1
• 𝑡 = 868.89 𝑠 • 𝑘 = 54
• Divide by 60 twice and press the degree minutes • Substituting…
seconds button.
o 𝑘 = 54
• 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒𝐦 𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟗𝐬
o ℎ𝑜 = 12
o ℎ=0
Example
• 𝑡 = 1. 3̅ ℎ
A water tank has the shape obtained by revolving the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4/3 around the y-axis. A plug at the bottom is • 𝑡 = 1h 20m since 12 nn
removed at 12 noon, when the depth of the water in the • 𝟏: 𝟐𝟎𝐏𝐌
tank is 12 ft. At 1 PM, the depth of the water is 6 ft.
When will the tank be empty?

• 𝑦 = 𝑥 4/3 → 𝑥 = 𝑦 3/4 → 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 3/2

• 𝐴𝐿𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋𝑥 2 = 𝜋𝑦 3/2
• 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝐿𝑆 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋𝑦 3/2 𝑑𝑦
• 𝐶=1
• 𝑔 = 32
 Advanced Mathematics
A) Complex Numbers Example
Evaluate 𝑖 247
Complex Numbers 247
• 4
= 61 𝑟3
• 𝑖247
= 𝑖 3 = −𝑖
• 𝑖 247 = −𝑖
• Or…
247
• 𝑖 247 = (√−1) = (−1)247/2
• 𝑖 247 = (−1)123.5 = (−1)123 (−1)0.5
• 𝒊𝟐𝟒𝟕 = −𝒊
Complex Numbers Forms
𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒋𝒚 Rectangular Example
𝒛 = 𝒓(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) Trigonometric
Evaluate (𝑖)𝑖
𝒛 = 𝒓 𝒄𝒋𝒔 𝜽 Shortened Trig. 𝜋
• 𝑖 = 𝑒 2𝑖
𝒛 = 𝒓∠𝜽 Polar
𝜋
o is 90 degrees in radians
𝒛 = 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝜽𝒓 Exponential or Euler’s 2
𝜋 𝑖 𝜋
• (𝑖)𝑖 = (𝑒 2 𝑖 ) = 𝑒 − 2
Things to Know
• (𝒊)𝒊 = 𝒆−𝝅/𝟐 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟗
𝒙 = 𝑹𝒆{𝒛} Real Part of Z
𝒚 = 𝑰𝒎{𝒛} Imaginary Part of Z
Example
𝒊 = √−𝟏 Unit Imag. Number
Evaluate 𝑖∠𝑖
𝒓 = |𝒛| Magnitude / Modulus of Z
• 𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃𝑟
𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 2
• 𝑖∠𝑖 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖⋅𝑖 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑒 −1
𝜽 = 𝐚𝐫𝐠 (𝒛) Argument / Direction Angle of Z 𝒊
𝒚
• 𝒊∠𝒊 = 𝒆 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟗𝒊
𝜽= 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 (𝒙) ± 𝝓
𝝓 = 𝝅 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟎 Conversion from One Form to Another
Find the equivalent of −3 + 4𝑖 in exponential form.
Note on Theta 𝜋 3
( +arctan( ))𝑖
(a) 5𝑒 2 4
• 𝜃 should be in radians in Euler’s form.
𝜋 4
( +arctan( ))𝑖
• 𝜃 is positive when measured counter-clockwise (b) 5𝑒 2 3

from positive x-axis. 𝜋

( +arctan( ))𝑖
3
(c) 5𝑒 2 5
• 𝜃 is negative when measured clockwise from the 𝜋 4
positive x-axis. ( +arctan( ))𝑖
(d) 5𝑒 2 5

• When calculator calculates 𝜃, its range is

−180° < 𝜃 < 180° or −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 𝜋.
• 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑟 𝑖
o For 𝜃 > 180° it measures
counterclockwise instead and outputs • 𝑟 = √32 + 42 = 5
negative 𝜃. 4
• 𝜃𝑟 = arctan (−3) ± 𝜋 = 2.214
 • Calculating 𝜃𝑟 of the choices: Theorems for Complex Numbers
o (a) 𝜃𝑟 = 2.214 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
• Answer is a. Negative of z
• Alternatively… −𝑧 = −𝑥 − 𝑗𝑦
o Use complex mode in calculator. Conjugate of z
o Input −3 + 4𝑖 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑥 − 𝑗𝑦
o Convert to polar form. Equal Complex Numbers
o The argument is 2.21. 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑦1 ; 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑦2
o Test which argument in the choices will 𝑧1 = 𝑧2
evaluate to the argument value in the 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
phasor form.
𝑦1 = 𝑦2
o Answer will be a.

Example
Basic Operations w/ Complex Numbers
Find the value of 𝑥 + 𝑦 in the complex expression 3 +
Addition 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦 + 2𝑖.
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑦2 )
• Equating real and imaginary part of both sides of
𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝒋(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 ) equations…
Subtraction • 3=𝑦
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑦1 ) − (𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑦2 ) • 𝑥=2
𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝒋(𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 ) • 𝑥+𝑦 =3+2
Multiplication • 𝒙+𝒚=𝟓
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑦1 )(𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑦2 )
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑗(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 ) Example
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 ⋅ 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 Find the value of 𝑦 from the given equation below if 𝑥
𝒛𝟏 ⋅ 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 ∠(𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 ) and 𝑦 are real numbers.
Division 1 1 1
= +
8 + 4𝑖 𝑥 10 + 𝑦𝑖
𝑧1 𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑦1 (𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑗(𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 )
=
𝑧2 𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑦2
=
𝑥22 + 𝑦22 • Multiply the fractions that are reciprocals of a
complex number by the conjugate of the complex
𝒛𝟏 𝒓𝟏 ∠𝜽𝟏 𝒓𝟏 number.
= = ∠(𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 )
𝒛𝟐 𝒓𝟐 ∠𝜽𝟐 𝒓𝟐 1 8−4𝑖 1 1 10−𝑦𝑖
• 8+4𝑖
⋅ 8−4𝑖 = 𝑥 + 10+𝑦𝑖 ⋅ 10−𝑦𝑖
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )
8−4𝑖 1 10−𝑦𝑖
• 82 +4 2
= 𝑥 + 102 +𝑦2
Example • Equating real parts:
If 𝑧1 = 1 − 𝑖, 𝑧2 = 2 + 4𝑖, 𝑧3 = √3 − 2𝑖, evaluate: 8 1 1 10
• 80
= 10 = 𝑥 + 102 +𝑦2
𝑅𝑒{2𝑧13 + 3𝑧22 − 5𝑧32 }
• Equating imaginary parts:
• Store 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 in (𝐴), (𝐵), (𝐶) 4 1 𝑦
• − 80 = − 20 = − 102 +𝑦2
• Type 2𝐴3 + 3𝐵2 − 5𝐶 2
• The real part is -35. • 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎
• 𝑹𝒆{𝟐𝒛𝟑𝟏 + 𝟑𝒛𝟐𝟐 − 𝟓𝒛𝟐𝟑 } = −𝟑𝟓 • 𝑥 = 20
Example Roots of Complex Numbers
𝑖𝑧 𝑖𝜋/3 𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃
Find |𝑒 | if 𝑧 = 6𝑒
• 𝑧 = 3 + 3√3𝑖 De Moivre's Theorem
𝜽+𝟐𝝅𝒌
o Utilize complex mode for converting 𝒛𝟏/𝒏 = 𝒓𝟏/𝒏 ∠ ( 𝒏
) 𝑘 = 0,1,2, … (𝑛 − 1)
from polar to rectangular form.
𝑘 = 0 → principal roots
• 𝑖𝑧 = −3√3 + 3𝑖
𝑘 = 1,2 … (𝑛 − 1) → secondary roots
• 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 = 𝑒 −3√3 ⋅ 𝑒 3𝑖
Note:
• 𝒊𝒛
|𝒆 | = 𝒆 −𝟑√𝟑
• Sum of All Roots = Zero
• Roots represents the vertices of regular polygon
More Operations w/ Complex Numbers with n-sides.
𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃
Powers of Complex Numbers Example
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 ∠(𝑛𝜃) Find all the roots of
De Moivre's Theorem 𝑧4 + 𝑧2 + 1 = 0
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 ∠((𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘)𝑛) 𝑘 = 0,1,2, … • (𝑧 2 )2 + 𝑧 2 + 1 = 0
• Apply quadratic equation…
Example −1±√12 −4(1)(1) 1 √3
• 𝑧2 = 2(1)
= −2 ± 2
𝑖
Find all values of 1√2 2𝜋
• 𝑧 2 = 1∠ ± 3
(a) cos √2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑖 sin √2𝑘𝜋
1 2𝜋
2𝜋 2 +2𝜋𝑘
(b) cos 2√2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 2√2𝑘𝜋 • 𝑧= (1∠ 3 ) = 1∠ ( 3
2
)
(c) cos(√2 + 𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(√2 + 𝑘𝜋) 𝜋
o 𝑘 = 0 → 𝑧 = 1∠ 3
(d) cos(2√2 + 𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(2√2 + 𝑘𝜋) 2𝜋
o 𝑘 = 1 → 𝑧 = 1∠ − 3
1 2𝜋
• 1 = 1∠0 = 1∠(0 + 2𝜋𝑘) = 1∠2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋 2 − +2𝜋𝑘
• 𝑧 = (1∠ − 3
) = 1∠ ( 3
2
)
• 1√2 = 1√2 ∠ ((0 + 2𝜋𝑘)√2) 𝜋
o 𝑘 = 0 → 𝑧 = 1∠ − 3
• 1√2 = 1√2 ∠(2√2𝜋𝑘) 2𝜋
o 𝑘 = 1 → 𝑧 = 1∠
• 1√2 = 1∠(2√2𝜋𝑘) 3
𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝝅 𝟐𝝅
• The argument of cosine and sine must be 2√2𝜋𝑘 • 𝒛 = 𝟏∠ 𝟑 , 𝟏∠ − 𝟑
, 𝟏∠ − 𝟑 , 𝟏∠ 𝟑

• Answer is b.
Logarithmic Properties of Complex No. Example
𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃 Evaluate log 𝑖 (3 + 4𝑖)
1. log 𝑏 𝑧 = log 𝑏 𝑟 + (𝜃𝑖) log 𝑏 𝑒 • log 𝑖 (3 + 4𝑖) =
ln(3+4𝑖)
=
ln(5∠0.927)
𝜋
ln(𝑖) ln(1∠ )
𝑏 = base, real no. 2
ln 5+0.927𝑖
2. log 𝑧 = log 𝑟 + (𝜃𝑖) log 𝑒 • log 𝑖 (3 + 4𝑖) = 𝜋
ln 1+ 𝑖
2
log = log10
• 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒊 (𝟑 + 𝟒𝒊) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒊
3. ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝜃𝑖
ln = log e Complex Number Raised to a Complex Number
ln 𝑧1
4. log 𝑧2 𝑧1 = ln 𝑧2 (𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖)(𝑎+𝑏𝑖) = (𝑟∠𝜃)(𝑎+𝑏𝑖) = (𝑟 𝑎−𝑏𝜃 )∠(𝑏 ln 𝑟 + 𝑎 𝜃)
log 𝑎 𝑀
log 𝑏 𝑀 =
log 𝑎 𝑏 Example
Evaluate (1 + 𝑖) raised to (1 − 𝑖)
Deriving First Property • 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑖)(1−𝑖)
• 𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃 𝜋
• ln 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑖) ln(1 + 𝑖) = (1 − 𝑖) ln (√2𝑒 4 𝑖 )
• 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃
𝜋
• log 𝑏 𝑧 = log 𝑏 (𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 ) • ln 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑖) ⋅ (ln √2 + 4 𝑖) → 𝐴

• log 𝑏 𝑧 = log 𝑏 𝑟 + log 𝑏 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 • Store complex number in (A)

• log 𝑏 𝑧 = log 𝑏 𝑟 + 𝑗𝜃 log 𝑏 𝑒 • 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑒 𝑅𝑒(𝐴) ∠𝐼𝑚(𝐴)
• Yay! • 𝑦 = 2.808 + 1.318𝑖

Example Example
Evaluate log(3 + 4𝑖) Find all values of 𝑅𝑒{(−𝑖)(−𝑖) }
• 3 + 4𝑖 = 5∠0.927 • 𝑦 = (−𝑖)(−𝑖)
• log(5∠0.927) = log 5 + 0.927𝑖 log 𝑒 • ln 𝑦 = −𝑖 ln(−𝑖) = −𝑖 ln (1∠ (− + 2𝜋𝑘))
𝜋
2
• 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟑 + 𝟒𝒊) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟑𝒊 𝜋
• ln 𝑦 = −𝑖 ⋅ (ln 1 + (− 2 + 2𝜋𝑘) 𝑖)
𝜋
Example • ln 𝑦 = − 2 + 2𝜋𝑘
𝝅
Evaluate ln(3 − 4𝑖)
• 𝒚 = 𝒆−𝟐+𝟐𝝅𝒌
• 3 − 4𝑖 = 5∠ − 0.927
• ln(5∠ − 0.927) = ln 5 − 0.927𝑖
• 𝐥𝐧(𝟑 − 𝟒𝒊) = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟕𝒊

Example
Evaluate ln(−5)
• −5 = 5∠𝜋
• ln(5∠𝜋) = ln 5 + 𝜋𝑖
• 𝐥𝐧(−𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟗 + 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝒊
TRIG and HYP Functions for Complex Numbers B) The Laplace Transform
Trigonometric Hyperbolic
𝑒 𝑗𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 Laplace Transform Definition
sin 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 =
𝑗2 2 ∞
𝑒 𝑗𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 𝑥 ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)
cos 𝑥 = 2
cosh 𝑥 = 2 0

𝑒 𝑗𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = kernel function of f(t)

tan 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 =
𝑗(𝑒 𝑗𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠)
Calculator Approximation
Trigonometric Functions 9

1. sin(±𝑗𝑦) = ±𝑗 sinh 𝑦 ℒ{𝐹(𝑥)} = ∫ 𝑒 −8𝑥 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =?

0
2. cos(±𝑗𝑦) = cosh 𝑦 Calculate the choices at 𝑠 = 8 and
sin(±𝑗𝑦) choose the choice that is closest to the ?
3. tan(±𝑗𝑦) = = ±𝑗 tanh 𝑦
cos(±𝑗𝑦)

4. sin(𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± 𝑗 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

5. cos(𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ∓ 𝑗 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 𝒇(𝒕) 𝑭(𝒔)

𝟏 1
Hyperbolic Functions 𝑠
1. sinh(±𝑗𝑦) = ±𝑗 sin 𝑦 𝒌 𝑘
2. cosh(±𝑗𝑦) = cos 𝑦 𝑠
sinh(±𝑗𝑦) 𝒕𝒏 𝑛!
3. tanh(±𝑗𝑦) = = ±𝑗 tan 𝑦
cosh(±𝑗𝑦) 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … 𝑠 𝑛+1
4. sinh(𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± 𝑗 cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝒕𝒏 Γ(𝑛 + 1)
5. cosh(𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± 𝑗 sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝑠 𝑛+1
∞
Γ(𝑛 + 1) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡
Note: Use Radian Unit of Angle!!! 0

𝒆𝒂𝒕 1
Example 𝑠−𝑎
𝜋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 𝑠
Evaluate tan2 (𝑗 )
4 𝑠 + 𝜔2
2
𝜋 2
• = (tan (𝑗 4 )) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝜔
2
𝑠 + 𝜔2
2
𝜋
• = (𝑗 tanh ( 4 )) 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝜷𝒕 𝑠
• = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟎𝟏 𝑠 − 𝛽2
2

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝜷𝒕 𝛽
𝑠2 − 𝛽2
𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇(𝒕) 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝐹(𝑠)|𝑠→𝑠−𝑎
𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 𝑠−𝑎
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝜔 2
𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝜔
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝜔 2
 9
𝒇(𝒕) 𝑭(𝒔) • ∫0 𝑒 −8𝑥 cos(3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0.1096
𝑠−𝑎 • Calculate the choices with the same values of 𝑤
𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝜷𝒕 and 𝑠.
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 − 𝛽 2
𝒔
• = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔
𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝜷𝒕 𝛽 𝒔𝟐 +𝒘𝟐

(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 − 𝛽 2
Example
𝒕𝒏 𝒇(𝒕) (−1)𝑛 𝐹 (𝑛) (𝑠)
Evaluate ℒ{𝑒 3𝑡+1 }
𝒕 𝐹(𝑠)
∫ 𝒇(𝝉)𝒅𝝉 • 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 ⋅ 𝑒 3𝑡
𝟎 𝑠
𝒆
• 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔−𝟑
𝒇(𝒕) 𝐹(𝑠)
𝒇′(𝒕) 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑓(0)
Example
𝒇′′(𝒕) 2
𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑓(0) − 𝑓′(0) 1
Evaluate ℒ { }
𝑡 √
𝑠 3 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 2 𝑓(0) − 𝑠𝑓 ′ (0) − 𝑓′′(0)
𝒇(𝟑) (𝒕) 1

∞
• 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 −2
𝒇(𝒕) ∫ 𝐹(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 1
𝒕 𝑠 • 𝑛 = −2
1
Unit Step Function Γ(𝑛+1) Γ( ) √𝜋
• 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠𝑛+1
= 2
1 =
𝑠2 √𝑠
1 −𝑎𝑠
𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) 𝑒
𝑠 𝝅
• 𝑭(𝒔) = √
𝒇(𝒕 − 𝒂)𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝒔

Dirac Delta Function

Example
𝜹(𝒕) 1 3
Evaluate ℒ {𝑡 2 𝑒 −4𝑡 }
𝒇(𝒕)𝜹(𝒕 − 𝒂) 𝑓(𝑎)𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
3

Periodic Function • 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑡 2

3
𝑇 𝛤( +1)
𝒇(𝒕) 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝 𝑻 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 • 𝐹(𝑠) = 2
3 |
+1
𝑠2 𝑠→𝑠+4
1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠
1
Γ( +2)
• 𝐹(𝑠) = 2
5
(𝑠+4)2
Particular Values of the Gamma Function
1 (2⋅2)! 3
𝚪(𝒏) = (𝒏 − 𝟏)! 𝐨𝐫 𝚪(𝒏 + 𝟏) = 𝒏! • Γ (2 + 2) = 4 2 2!
√𝜋 = 4 √𝜋
𝟏 (𝟐𝒏)! 𝟑√𝝅
𝚪 ( + 𝒏) = 𝒏 √𝝅 • 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝟓
𝟐 𝟒 𝒏! 𝟒(𝒔+𝟒)𝟐
𝚪(𝒏 + 𝟏) = 𝒏𝚪(𝒏) • Alternative evaluation of gamma function
𝟏
𝚪 ( ) = √𝝅 o Using Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛Γ(𝑛)
𝟐
3 3 3 3 1
o Γ (2 + 1) = 2 Γ (2) = 2 Γ (2 + 1)
Example 1 1 1 1
o Γ (2 + 1) = 2 Γ (2) = 2 √𝜋
Evaluate ℒ{cos 𝑤𝑡}
3 31 3
𝒔 o Γ (2 + 1) = 2 2 √𝜋 = 4 √𝜋
• 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐+𝒘𝟐
• Pag nabobo ka at nalimutan mo…
• 𝑤=3
• 𝑠=8
Example Example
Evaluate ℒ{𝑡 cos 𝑎𝑡} Evaluate the following:
• 𝑛=1 𝜋
(1) ℒ {cos (𝑡 − ) 𝑢 (𝑡 − )}
𝜋
4 4
• 𝑓(𝑡) = cos 𝑎𝑡
(2) ℒ{𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − 3)}
• 𝑛
ℒ{𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 (𝑛) 𝐹 (𝑠)
𝑑 𝑠
o = − 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠2 +𝑎2)
𝑠2 +𝑎 2 −𝑠(2𝑠) −𝑠2 +𝑎 2 • Solution for (1)
o =− (𝑠2 +𝑎2 )2
= − (𝑠2
+𝑎 2 )2
• 𝑓(𝑡) = cos 𝑡
𝒔𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 𝑠
o = (𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )𝟐 • 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠2 +1
• ℒ{𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
Example 𝒔 𝝅
o = 𝒔𝟐+𝟏 𝒆−𝟒𝒔
𝑡
Evaluate at ℒ {∫0 cos 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢}
• 𝑓(𝑡) = cos 2𝑡 • Solution for (2)
𝑠
• 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠2 +4 • 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑡
•
𝑡
ℒ {∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢} =
𝐹(𝑠) • 𝑓(3) = 32 𝑒 −3
𝑠
𝟏 • ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
o = 𝒔𝟐 +𝟒 o = 𝟗𝒆−(𝟑+𝟑𝒔)

Example
C) Use of Unit Step Function in Solvin
sin 𝑡 Laplace Transform of Piecewise Continuous Function
Evaluate ℒ{ 𝑡 }
• 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 𝑡
1
Rewriting a Piecewise Function in terms of u(t)
• 𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠2 +1 𝑓1 (𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝜏
𝑓(𝑡) = {
•
𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ{ 𝑡 } =
∞
∫0 𝐹(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 𝑓2 (𝑡) 𝑡≥𝜏
∞ 𝑑𝑠 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒇𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝝉)(𝒇𝟐 (𝒕) − 𝒇𝟏 (𝒕))
o = ∫0 𝑠2 +1
𝑠=∞
o = arctan 𝑠 |𝑠=𝑠 Example
1
o = 2
𝜋 − arctan 𝑠 Find the Laplace Transform of:
• Simplifying… 2 0≤𝑡≤3
𝑓(𝑡) = { 𝑡
𝜋 𝑒 𝑡>3
o 𝐴 = 2 − arctan 𝑠
• 𝑡
𝑓(𝑡) = 2 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)(𝑒 − 2)
𝜋
o tan 𝐴 = tan ( 2 − arctan 𝑠) • 𝑓(𝑡) = 2 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)(𝑒 3 𝑒 𝑡−3 − 2)
2 𝑒3 2
o tan 𝐴 = cot(arctan 𝑠) • 𝐹(𝑠) = + ( − ) 𝑒 −3𝑠
𝑠 𝑠−1 𝑠
1 1
o tan 𝐴 = =
tan(arctan 𝑠) 𝑠
1 Example
o 𝐴 = arctan (𝑠 )
Find the Laplace Transform of:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 𝟏
• 𝓛{ 𝒕
} = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( 𝒔 ) π
sin 3𝑡 0≤𝑡<
𝑓(𝑡) = { 2
π
0 𝑡≥
2
• 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 3𝑡 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)(0 − sin 3𝑡)
 • 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 3𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)(sin 3𝑡) o
1
= − 𝑠2 +1 (−𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 − 1)
𝜋 3𝜋
• 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 3𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 3) (sin (3 (𝑡 − ) + )) 1+𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
2 2 o = 𝑠2 +1
𝜋 3𝜋
• 𝐴 = 3 (𝑡 − 2 ) , 𝐵 = 1+𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
2 • 𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠2 +1)(1−𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠 )
• cos(𝐵) = 0
o Since 1 − 𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠 = (1 − 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 )(1 +
• sin(𝐵) = −1 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 )
• sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 •
𝟏
𝑭(𝒔) = (𝒔𝟐+𝟏)(𝟏−𝒆−𝝅𝒔 )
𝜋
• sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = − cos (3 (𝑡 − 2 )) • (Alternative method)
𝜋 • Rewrite 𝑓(𝑡)
• 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 3𝑡 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 3) cos (3 (𝑡 − ))
2
• 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)(sin 𝑡)
𝜋
− 𝑠
• 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠2 +9 +
3 se 2
• sin 𝑡 = sin((𝑡 − 𝜋) + 𝜋)
𝑠2 +9
𝝅
− 𝒔 • 𝐴 = 𝑡 − 𝜋, 𝐵 = 𝜋
𝟑+𝒔𝒆 𝟐
• 𝑭(𝒔) = • cos 𝐵 = −1
𝒔𝟐 +𝟗

• sin 𝐵 = 0
Example • sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 when • sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = − sin(𝑡 − 𝜋) = sin 𝑡
0 < 𝑥 < 3, and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 when 𝑥 ≥ 3.
• 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 𝑡 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜋)(sin(𝑡 − 𝜋))
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)(𝑥 − 2)
𝐹(𝑠) 1 1 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)((𝑥 − 3) + 1) • 1−𝑒 −𝑇𝑠
= 1−𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠 [𝑠2 +1 + 𝑠2 +1]
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 1+𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
• 𝑭(𝒔) = + ( 𝟐 + ) 𝒆−𝟑𝒔 o = (1−𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠 )(𝑠2
+1)
𝒔 𝒔 𝒔
𝟏
o = (𝟏−𝒆−𝝅𝒔 )(𝒔𝟐 +𝟏)
Example
Evaluate the Laplace transform of the half-wave rectified
sine curve represented by: Note:
sin 𝑡 0<𝑡<𝜋 • Laplace transforms can be solved by calculator
𝑓(𝑡) = { approximation.
0 𝜋 < 𝑡 < 2𝜋
• 𝑇 = 2𝜋 9

𝑇 𝜋
ℒ{𝑓(𝑥)} = ∫ 𝑒 −8𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =?
∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑑𝑡 0
• 𝐹(𝑠) = 1−𝑒 −𝑇𝑠
= 1−𝑒 −2𝜋𝑠 (Calculate the choices at 𝑠 = 8 and
• Evaluating the integral: choose the choice that is closest to the ?)

Derive Integrate
𝒆−𝒔𝒕 sin 𝑡
−𝒔𝒆−𝒔𝒕 − cos 𝑡
∫ 𝒔𝟐 𝒆−𝒔𝒕 +
− sin 𝑡

• ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼
• 𝐼 = −𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (cos 𝑡 + 𝑠 sin 𝑡) − 𝑠 2 𝐼
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
• 𝐼 = − 𝑠2 +1 (cos 𝑡 + 𝑠 sin 𝑡)
𝜋
• ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼|𝑡=𝜋
𝑡=0
 Convolution Theorem
D) The Inverse Laplace Transform
𝑭(𝒔) ⋅ 𝑮(𝒔) 𝑡
𝑭(𝒔)𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑮(𝒔) 𝐚𝐫𝐞 ∫ 𝑓(𝜏)𝑔(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏
Inverse Laplace Transform 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 0
−1 {𝐹(𝑠)}
ℒ = 𝑓(𝑡)

Heaviside Expansion Formulas

𝑭(𝒔) 𝒇(𝒕)
𝑵(𝒔)
𝒌 𝑫(𝒔)
𝑘 𝑁(𝑠1 ) 𝑠 𝑡 𝑁(𝑠2 ) 𝑠 𝑡
𝒔 𝑒 1 + 𝑒 2
𝑫(𝒔) = 𝟎 → 𝒔𝟏 , 𝒔𝟐 , … 𝐷′(𝑠1 ) 𝐷′(𝑠2 )
𝟏 𝑡 𝑛−1 +⋯
𝒔𝟏 , 𝒔𝟐 , … must be
𝒔𝒏 (𝑛 − 1)!
real and distinct
𝟏
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑵(𝒔)
𝒔−𝒂
𝑫(𝒔)
𝟏 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 𝑛−1
𝑫(𝒔) = 𝟎 → 𝒔𝟏,𝟐 = 𝒂 ± 𝒋𝝎 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 (2𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
(𝒔 − 𝒂)𝒏 (𝑛 − 1)!
𝒔 𝑵(𝒔𝟏 ) − 2𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡)
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜶 + 𝜷𝒚
𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐
𝟐 𝑫′(𝒔𝟏 )
𝒔
cosh 𝛽𝑡
𝒔 − 𝜷𝟐
𝟐

𝝎
sin 𝜔𝑡 Partial Fraction Expansion or Decomposition
𝒔𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐
𝑁(𝑠) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝟏 1 ℒ −1 { } = ℒ −1 { + + + ⋯ }
sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐷(𝑠) ? ? ?
𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐
𝟐 𝜔
𝜷 Factors in denominator Partial Fraction
sinh 𝛽𝑡
𝒔 − 𝜷𝟐
𝟐
Linear
𝟏 1 𝒂𝒔 + 𝒃 𝐴
sinh 𝛽𝑡
𝒔𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 𝛽 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏
𝑭(𝒔 − 𝒂) 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) Quadratic
𝒔−𝒂 𝒂𝒔𝟐 + 𝒃𝒔 + 𝒄 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
(𝒔 − 𝒂)𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝑎𝑠 2+ 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐
𝝎
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡
(𝒔 − 𝒂)𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 Example
𝟏 1 𝑎𝑡 1
𝑒 sin 𝜔𝑡 Evaluate ℒ −1 {𝑠2 +4}
(𝒔 − 𝒂)𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝜔
𝟏
𝒔 1 • = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕
(𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐 )𝟐
𝟐 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝜔
𝟏 1 Example
(sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡)
(𝒔𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 )𝟐 2𝜔 3 2
Evaluate ℒ −1 {𝑠+3}
• = 𝟐𝒆−𝟑𝒕
Example • 𝛼 = −1
𝑠 1
Evaluate ℒ −1 {(𝑠−2)2 } • 𝛽=−
+9 2

•
(𝑠−2)+2
= ℒ −1 {(𝑠−2)2 +9} • 𝑎=0

𝟐
• 𝜔=1
• = 𝒆𝟐𝒕 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒕 + 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒕) 𝟑𝒔+𝟏
• 𝓛−𝟏 {𝒔𝟑−𝒔𝟐+𝒔−𝟏} = 𝟐𝒆𝒕 − 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕
o = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 (2𝛼 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽 sin 𝜔𝑡)
Example
3 𝑠 1
Evaluate ℒ −1 {𝑠 + 𝑠2 −4 − 𝑠2 +9}
Example
𝟏
• = 𝟑 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟑
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒕 Evaluate
1
𝓛−𝟏 { }
(𝑠 2 + 1)2
𝟏 𝟏
Example • = 𝓛−𝟏 {𝒔𝟐+𝟏 ⋅ 𝒔𝟐+𝟏}
2𝑠2 −4 1
Evaluate ℒ −1 { } • 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠3 −4𝑠2 +𝑠+6 𝑠2 +1

• 𝐷(𝑠) = 0 • 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) = sin 𝑡

𝑡 𝑡
• 𝑠1,2,3 = −1,3,2 • ∫0 𝑓(𝛽)𝑔(𝑡 − 𝛽)𝑑𝛽 = ∫0 sin 𝛽 sin(𝑡 − 𝛽)𝑑𝛽
• 𝑁(𝑠) = 2𝑠 2 − 4 o
𝑡
= ∫0 sin 𝛽 (sin 𝑡 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝑡 sin 𝛽)𝑑𝛽
• 𝐷 ′ (𝑠) = 3𝑠 2 − 8𝑠 + 1 𝑡
o = ∫0 (sin 𝛽 sin 𝑡 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝑡 sin2 𝛽)𝑑𝛽
𝒔 𝑵(𝒔) o = sin 𝑡 𝐼1 − cos 𝑡 𝐼2
𝑫′(𝒔) 𝑡
o 𝐼1 = ∫0 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 𝑑𝛽
−𝟏 1
− ▪ 𝑢 = sin 𝛽
6
▪ 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝛽 𝑑𝛽
𝟑 7
𝑢2 sin2 𝛽
2 ▪ ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = =
2 2
𝟐 4 o
𝑡
𝐼2 = ∫0 sin2 𝛽 𝑑𝛽
−
3 1
▪ sin2 𝛽 = 2 (1 − cos 2𝛽)
𝟐𝒔𝟐 −𝟒 𝟏 𝟕 𝟑𝒕 𝟒 𝟐𝒕
• 𝓛−𝟏 {𝒔𝟑−𝟒𝒔𝟐+𝒔+𝟔} = − 𝟔 𝒆−𝒕 + 𝟐
𝒆 − 𝟑
𝒆
1 1
▪ 𝐼2 = 2 (𝛽 − 2 sin 2𝛽)
1 𝛽=𝑡
Example sin 𝑡 sin2 𝛽 cos 𝑡(𝛽− sin 2𝛽)
2
o = [ 2
− 2
]
3𝑠+1
Evaluate ℒ −1 {𝑠3 −𝑠2 +𝑠−1} 𝛽=0
1
sin 𝑡 sin2 𝑡 cos 𝑡(𝑡− sin 2𝑡)
• 𝐷(𝑠) = 0 o =( − 2
)−0
2 2
• 𝑠1,2,3 = 1, 𝑖, −𝑖
1
o = 2 (sin3 𝑡 − cos 𝑡 (𝑡 − sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡))
• 𝑁(𝑠) = 3𝑠 + 1
1
• 𝐷 ′ (𝑠) = 3𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 + 1 o = (sin3 𝑡 − 𝑡 cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 cos 2 𝑡)
2
1
𝒔 𝑵(𝒔) o = (sin 𝑡 (sin2 𝑡 + cos 2 𝑡) − 𝑡 cos 𝑡)
2
𝑫′(𝒔) o =
𝟏
(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 − 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕)
𝟐
𝟏 2 o Alternatively, if there are choices…
𝒊 1
−1 − 𝑖
2
Inverse Laplace Calculator Approximation • 𝑎=0
• 𝐹(𝑠) will be given… • 𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 1)−1
• Calculate 𝐹(8) in calculator. • 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −2(2𝑥 + 1)−2
• In the choices, there will be 𝑓(𝑡) • 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 4 ⋅ 2(2𝑥 + 1)−3
9
• Calculate ∫0 𝑒 −8𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 • 𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = −24 ⋅ 2(2𝑥 + 1)−4 = −48(2𝑥 + 1)−4
• Answer will be what matched… • 𝑓 (3) (𝑎) = −48
9 𝑓(3) (𝑎)
o 𝐹(8) ≈ ∫0 𝑒 −8𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 • 𝐶= 3!
−48
• 𝐶= 6
E) Power Series
• 𝐶 = −8

Taylor’s Series
Example
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥
− 𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎)
+ From the powers of 𝑥 series for 𝑒 𝑥 , cos 𝑥, and sin 𝑥,
2! which of the following relations can be derived?
(𝑥 − 𝑎)3
𝑓 (3) (𝑎) +⋯ (a) cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1
3!
∞ (b) 1 − cos2 𝑥 = sin2 𝑥
(𝑘)
𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 (c) cos 𝑥 + 𝑗 sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑥
𝑘!
𝑘=0 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑗𝑥
(d) sin 𝑥 = 𝑗2

Maclaurin’s Series • The square of infinite series is not feasible.

Therefore, scratch choices “a” and “c”.
𝑎=0
• Trying c…
′ (𝑎)𝑥 ′′ (𝑎)
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 +𝑓 + 𝑓 (3) (𝑎) + ⋯ (𝑗𝑥)0 (𝑗𝑥)1 (𝑗𝑥)2 (𝑗𝑥)3 (𝑗𝑥)4
2! 3! • 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 = 0!
+ 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+
∞ (𝑗𝑥)5
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎) 𝑘 …
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥 5!
𝑘! 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑘=0
• 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 = 0!
+ 𝑗 1! − 2!
− 𝑗 3! + 4!
+ 𝑗 5! + ⋯
𝑥0 𝑥2 𝑥4
Common Maclaurin’s Series • 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 = ( 0! − 2!
+ 4!
− ⋯)
𝑥 0 𝑥1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 𝑥1 𝑥 3 𝑥 5
𝑒𝑥 = + + + + +⋯ +𝑗 ( − + − ⋯ )
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 1! 3! 5!
𝑥0 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
cos 𝑥 = − + − +⋯ • (c) 𝒆𝒋𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
0! 2! 4! 6!
𝑥1 𝑥 3 𝑥 5 𝑥 7
sin 𝑥 = − + − +⋯ Example
1! 3! 5! 7!
𝑥1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 Which of the following is equal to the derivative of 𝑥 −
ln(1 + 𝑥) = − + − +⋯ 𝑥3 𝑥5
1 2 3 4 + − ⋯?
3! 5!
1 3 5
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥7 (a) sin 𝑥
arctan 𝑥 = − + − +⋯
1 3 5 7 (b) cos 𝑥
1
= 𝑥 0 − 𝑥1 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯ (c) arctan 𝑥
1+𝑥
(d) 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥4
Example • 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
−⋯
What is the coefficient of 𝑥 3 in the Taylor’s Series • 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 (b)
1
polynomial for 1+2𝑥 about 𝑥 = 0
Example • 3 Conditions for 𝒇(𝒙) intended for Fourier
Find the equivalent powers of x series for arctan 𝑥 . 2 Series with a period of 𝟐𝑻:
𝑥1 𝑥3 𝑥5 o 𝑓(𝑥) must be defined in the interval:
• arctan 𝑥 = − + −⋯
1 3 5 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 2𝑇
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎
• 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝟏
− 𝟑
+ 𝟓
−⋯ o 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓′(𝑥) are sectionally
continuous in the interval:
𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 2𝑇
Example
o 𝑓(𝑥 + 2𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑒𝑥
Find the first 3 terms in the power series of 1−𝑥.
𝑒𝑥 Fourier Series for a Period of 𝟐𝝅
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥 → 𝑓(0) = 1
∞
𝑒 𝑥 (1−𝑥−(−1)) 𝑒 𝑥 (2−𝑥) 𝑎0
• 𝑓′(𝑥) = (1−𝑥)2
= (1−𝑥)2
→𝑓 ′ (0)
=2 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑(𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑥) + 𝑏𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑥))
2
𝑛=1
𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 (2−𝑥)
• 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 𝑑𝑥 ( (1−𝑥)2 )| =5 1 𝜋
𝑥=0 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑘) (𝑎) 𝑘 𝜋 −𝜋
• 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑥
𝑘! 1 𝜋
1𝑥 0 2𝑥 1 5𝑥 3 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos(𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 0!
+ 1!
+ 2!
+ ⋯ 𝜋 −𝜋
1 𝜋
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 2𝑥 + 2.5𝑥 3
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin(𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋
• Alternatively, if there are choices…
o Solve for 𝑓(𝑥0 ) using the given function
𝑓(𝑥) and the power series 𝑓(𝑥) in the Half Range Fourier Cosine and Sine Series
choices and see which will match. Half Range Fourier Cosine Series
o 𝑥0 can be chosen randomly. if 𝑓(𝑥) is even
∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥
F) The Fourier Series 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos ( ))
2 𝑇
𝑛=1
2 𝑇
Fourier Series 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∞
𝑇 0
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )) 2 𝑇 𝑛𝜋𝑥
2 𝑇 𝑇 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1 𝑇 0 𝑇
1 𝑇 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑇 𝑛𝜋𝑥 Half Range Fourier Sine Series
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇 if 𝑓(𝑥) is odd
𝑇
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥 ∞
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ (𝑏𝑛 sin ( ))
𝑇
• Sum of cosine and sine functions used to 𝑛=1

represent a function 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎0 = 0

• Similar to a Taylor series 𝑎𝑛 = 0

•
𝑎0
is the average value of the function over its 2 𝑇 𝑛𝜋𝑥
2 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 0 𝑇
period.
 • Integral of: G) Matrices and Determinants
o even × even ≠ 0
o odd × odd ≠ 0 Matrix
o even × odd = 0 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
o odd × even = 0 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
• A rectangular array of numbers called elements
Example which are arrange in rows (m) and in columns (n)
Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 over the interval • Its dimension is 𝑚 × 𝑛
−𝜋 to 𝜋 • Ex:
• 𝑓(𝑥) is even ∴ o[1 2 3] is 1 × 3
use half range fourier cosine series.
1 2
• 𝑇=𝜋 o ( ) is 2 × 2
3 4
2 𝜋 2 2𝜋2 •
• 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝜋 𝜋 3 = 3
Square Matrix
2 𝜋 o Matrix with the same number of rows
• 𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 2 cos(𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … and columns
𝜋
o Substitute na sa calcu… o 𝑚=𝑛
• 𝑎1 = −4 • Identity Matrix
• 𝑎2 = 1 o Square matrix comprising of ones in the
4 main diagonal and zeroes for the rest.
• 𝑎3 = −
9 o Ex:
• 𝑏𝑛 = 0 1 0 0
𝝅𝟐 𝟒 ▪
[ 0 1 0]
• 𝒇(𝒙) = − 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 + ⋯
𝟑 𝟗 0 0 1
𝑎0
o First term is • Equal Matrices
2
o Same dimensions
Example o Same elements on respective positions
Find 𝑏3 for the Fourier sine series of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 over the ▪ If 𝐴 = 𝐵, the 𝑎𝑚𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚𝑛
interval 0 < 𝑥 < 1 • Transposed Matrix, 𝑨𝑻
2 𝑇 𝑛𝜋𝑥
• 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin ( 𝑇
) 𝑑𝑥 o The resulting matrix when elements in
rows were made in column by using
2 1 3𝜋𝑥
• 𝑏3 = ∫0 𝑥 2 sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥 elements in the main diagonal as pivot
1 1 elements.
• 𝒃𝟑 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟕 o When transposing, main diagonal is
o From calculator unchanged.
o When transposing, determinant is
unchanged.
• Determinant of a Matrix, 𝒅𝒆𝒕 𝑨 𝐨𝐫 |𝑨|
o A constant associated with a given square
matrix.
• Minor of an Element, 𝑴𝒎𝒏
o The resulting determinant after removing
the elements on its row and column
• Cofactor of an Element, 𝑪𝒎𝒏
o Signed minor for the same element
o Sign is (−𝑖)𝑚+𝑛
 o Sign can also be taken from the matrix of Example
alternating signs
1 2 3
+ − + − ⋯ Given is matrix ( 0 −2 4). Find the minor of the
− + − + ⋯ −1 0 2
+ − + − ⋯ element 𝑎22 .
− + − + ⋯ 1 3
• 𝑀22 = | |
( ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱) −1 2
• Upper Triangular Matrix • 𝑀22 = 1 × 2 − 3 × (−1) = 2 + 3
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14 • 𝑴𝟐𝟐 = 𝟓
0 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24
[ 0 0 𝑎33 𝑎34 ]
0 0 0 𝑎44 Example
o The elements below the main diagonal 1 2 3
are all zeroes. Given is matrix [ 0 −2 1], find the cofactor of 𝑎23 .
o Its determinant is the product of the main −1 0 2
diagonal. 1 2
• 𝐶23 = (−1)2+3 | | = −(0 − (−2))
▪ If minor-cofactor method is used, −1 0
the same result will arise. • 𝑪𝟐𝟑 = −𝟐
• Eigenvalues, 𝝀
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 Example
o The value of a variable determined by 0 5
Find the eigenvalues for the matrix ( ).
subtracting the variable from the 2 3
elements of the main diagonal of a square • |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
matrix and then equating the determinant
0 5 𝜆 0
to zero • |( )−( )| = 0
2 3 0 𝜆
• Eigenvector, 𝒗
−𝜆 5
𝐴𝑣 = 𝜆𝑣 • | |=0
2 3−𝜆
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑣 = 𝑍 • (−𝜆)(3 − 𝜆) − (5)(2) = 0
o The column matrix that when multiplied • 𝜆2 − 3𝜆 − 10 = 0
to a given matrix with the eigen value
subtracted from the main diagonal equals • (𝜆 − 5)(𝜆 + 2) = 0
or results to a zero matrix (Z). • 𝜆1,2 = 5, −2
o The column matrix that if multiplied to
the scalar eigenvalue or the matrix yields
the same matrix. Example
0 1
Given is matrix ( ), find the eigen vectors.
−2 3
Example
−𝜆 1
1 2 • | |=0
If 𝐴 = ( ), then the transposed matrix is: −2 3 − 𝜆
3 4
• 𝜆2 − 3𝜆 + 2 = 0
1 3
• 𝐴𝑇 = ( ) • (𝜆 − 2)(𝜆 − 1) = 0
2 4
• 𝜆1,2 = 2,1
Example 0 1 𝑥 𝑥
• ( ) (𝑦) = 2 (𝑦)
Find the determinant of the matrix 𝐴 in the previous −2 3
example. • 𝑦 = 2𝑥
• |𝐴| = 1 × 4 − 3 × 2 = 4 − 6 • −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑦 → 𝑦 = 2𝑥
• |𝑨| = −𝟐 • Non-trivial solution.
𝑥
• 𝑣1 = ( )
2𝑥
 𝟏
o𝒗𝟏 = ( )
𝟐
0 1 𝑥 𝑥
• ( ) (𝑦) = 1 (𝑦)
−2 3
• 𝑦=𝑥
• −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 𝑦 → 𝑦 = 𝑥
• Non-trivial solution.
𝑥
• 𝑣2 = ( )
𝑥
𝟏
o 𝒗𝟐 = ( )
𝟏

Expansion of Determinants
• Solutions:
o Minor-Cofactor Method
o Laplace Expansion Method

Example
Expand the 4th order (4 × 4) matrix determinant.
1 2 3 4
4 3 2 1
[ ]
0 −1 2 3
1 6 4 −2

+ − + −
− + − +
[ ]
+ − + −
− + − +
3 2 1 2 3 4 2 3 4
• |−1 2 3 | − 4 |−1 2 3 | − | 3 2 1|
6 4 −2 6 4 −2 −1 2 3
• Store the matrices in matrix A, B, and C in
calculator.
• 𝐷𝑒𝑡(𝐴) − 4𝐷𝑒𝑡(𝐵) − 𝐷𝑒𝑡(𝐶)
• = 𝟏𝟓𝟎

Example
Expand the 5th order determinant.
1 2 3 4 5
0 2 3 4 5
0 0 3 4 5
0 0 0 −4 0
[0 0 0 0 1]
• Just multiply the main diagonal
• = (1)(2)(3)(−4)(1)
• = −𝟐𝟒
 Vector Analysis
I) Definition of Terms Example
Given is a vector that starts from the point (3, −2,1) and
terminates at the point (2,4, −2). Find:
Position Vector, 𝒓
(a) The equivalent position vector
• Vector that starts from origin and ends at a point
(b) The magnitude
(c) The unit vector
• 𝑟⃗ = [2,4, −2] − [3, −2,1]
o End point minus starting point
• ̂
⃗⃗ = [−𝟏, 𝟔, −𝟑] = −𝒊̂ + 𝟔𝒋̂ − 𝟑𝒌
(a) 𝒓
• |𝑟⃗| = √12 + 62 + 32
• (b) |𝒓
⃗⃗| = √𝟒𝟔
𝑟⃗ ̂
−𝑖̂+6𝑗̂ −3𝑘
• 𝑟̂ = |𝑟⃗| = 46
√
𝟏 𝟔 𝟑
• (c) 𝒓̂ = − 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − ̂
𝒌
√𝟒𝟔 √𝟒𝟔 √𝟒𝟔

Forms
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ Algebraic Form
𝑟⃗ = [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] Analytical / Matrix Form
𝑟⃗ = 〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 Analytical / Matrix Form

Magnitude
(length of given vector)
|𝑟⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

Unit Vector
(vector with magnitude of one
in the direction of a given vector)
𝑟⃗ 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
𝑟̂ = =
|𝑟⃗| √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

Note: All points and vectors in space can be represented

by a position vector.
 II) Vectors Cross (Vector) Product

Operations on Vectors
𝐴⃗ = 𝑥𝑎 𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑎 𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑎 𝑘̂
⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑏 𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑏 𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑏 𝑘̂
𝐵
𝐶⃗ = 𝑥𝑐 𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑐 𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑐 𝑘̂

Addition / Subtraction
⃗⃗ = (𝑥𝑎 ± 𝑥𝑏 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦𝑎 ± 𝑦𝑏 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧𝑎 ± 𝑧𝑏 )𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ ± 𝐵

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
Dot (Scalar) Product 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝑥𝑎 𝑦𝑎 𝑧𝑎 |
𝑥𝑏 𝑦𝑏 𝑧𝑏
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (|𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗| sin 𝜃)𝑛̂
Note:
Cross product is a vector perpendicular
to both vectors multiplied.

Unit Normal Vector

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑎 𝑥𝑏 + 𝑦𝑎 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑎 𝑧𝑏 to Plane of Two Vectors

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝑛̂ = =
|𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗| |𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

Acute Angle Between Vectors

Cross Product of Unit Vectors
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 | | 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂
|𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗|
𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂
Perpendicular Vectors 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 0 if 𝐴⃗ ⊥ B
⃗⃗
Area of Parallelogram / Triangle with
Work Done in Moving a Body 2 Sides Represented by 𝑨⃗⃗ and 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗

𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗
𝐹 = force vector
𝑑 = displacement vector

𝐴𝑃 = |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗| Parallelogram
1
𝐴 𝑇 = 2 |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗| Triangle
 Torque or Moment of a Force Acceleration and Velocity
in a Space Curve

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
τ⃗⃗ = 𝑀

Tangential Velocity 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = 𝑟⃗ ′ =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑2 𝑟⃗
𝑎⃗ = 𝑣⃗′ = 𝑟⃗ ′′ = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Note: Velocity v
⃗⃗ is tangential velocity

Tangential and Normal Acceleration

𝑣⃗ = 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗

Scalar Triple Product

𝑥𝑎 𝑦𝑎 𝑧𝑎
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 × 𝐶 = |𝑥𝑏 𝑦𝑏 𝑧𝑐 |
𝑥𝑐 𝑦𝑐 𝑧𝑐
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑣⃗
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑣̂ =
Volume of Parallelepiped with |𝑣⃗|
⃗⃗ , 𝑩
3 Edges represented by vectors 𝑨 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗, and 𝑪
𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑡2

𝑎𝑛 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎⃗

𝑉 = 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗
 Del (Differential) Operator Jacobian Matrix
Has no specific use in itself. Used for gradient of a
scalar, and divergence and curl of a vector
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Gradient
Vector quantity which is outward and normal to the
surface defined by scalar field 𝜙 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
grad𝜙 = ∇𝜙 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Maximum Slope on Surface of 𝝓

′
𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |∇𝜙|
Example
Given are 3 forces 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂, 𝐵 = 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂,
Directional Derivative
and 𝐶 = −𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘. Find:
On the direction of 𝑢
⃗⃗
(a) The resultant force vector
𝑢
⃗⃗ (b) The magnitude of the resultant force
𝐷𝑢 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∇𝜙 ⋅ 𝑢̂ = ∇𝜙 ⋅
|𝑢
⃗⃗|

• 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
Divergence and Curl
⃗⃗ = 𝑓1 𝑖̂ + 𝑓2 𝑗̂ + 𝑓3 𝑘̂ • (a) ⃗𝑹 ̂
⃗⃗ = 𝟒𝒊̂ + 𝟓𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝑉
• |𝑅⃗⃗ | = √42 + 52 + 12

𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓2 𝜕𝑓3 • ⃗⃗⃗| = √𝟒𝟐

(b) |𝑹
⃗⃗ = ∇ ⋅ 𝑉
div𝑉 ⃗⃗ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Example
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ If 𝐴 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 2𝑘, find:
⃗⃗ = || 𝜕
curl𝑉 = ∇ × 𝑉
𝜕 𝜕
|| (a) 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 (b) The acute angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3

• 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 = 3 ⋅ 2 + (−2) ⋅ 4 + 1 ⋅ (−2)
𝜕𝑓3 𝜕𝑓2 𝜕𝑓3 𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓2 𝜕𝑓1
⃗⃗ = (
curl𝑉 − ) 𝑖̂ − ( − ) 𝑗̂ + ( − ) 𝑘̂ • (a) 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 = −𝟒
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐴⋅𝐵
• 𝜃 = arccos ||𝐴||𝐵||
Note: −4
• 𝜃 = arccos | |
• Divergence of a vector is a scalar (field). √32 +22 +12 √22 +4 2 +22
• (b) 𝜽 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟎°
• Curl of a vector is a vector (field).
Example Example
Find the values of 𝑥 so that 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑖 − 5𝑗 + 2𝑘 and 𝐵 = Find the area of that part of the plane
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑥𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 + 3𝑘 are perpendicular vectors. + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 in the first octant.
𝑎
• 𝐴⋅𝐵 =0 • We have three points (the intercepts)
• 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 o (𝑎, 0,0)
• (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 o (0, 𝑏, 0)
• 𝒙 = 𝟑, 𝟐 o (0,0, 𝑐)
• We can get two vectors with the same starting
Example point
Find the work done in moving a particle from (3, −2,1) o 𝐴⃗ = (0, 𝑏, 0) − (𝑎, 0,0) = (−𝑎, 𝑏, 0)
to (2,4, −2) by the force 𝐹 = −𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘. Unit of ⃗⃗ = (0,0, 𝑐) − (𝑎, 0,0) = (−𝑎, 0, 𝑐)
distance is in meter (m) and unit of force is in Newton o 𝐵
(N). • We can get the cross product.
• 𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗ 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
o ⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |−𝑎 𝑏 0|
• 𝑑⃗ = (2,4, −2) − (3, −2,1)
−𝑎 0 𝑐
• 𝑑⃗ = (−1,6, −3) ⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑐𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑐𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑏𝑘̂
o 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
• 𝑊 = (−1,3,2) ⋅ (−1,6, −3) • We can get the area
• 𝑊 = 1 + 18 − 6 1
o 𝐴 𝑇 = |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗|
2
• 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟑 𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎
1
o 𝐴 𝑇 = |√(𝑏𝑐)2 + (𝑎𝑐)2 + (𝑎𝑏)2 |
2
Example
If 𝐴 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 2𝑘. Find: Example
(a) Unit vector orthogonal to both 𝐴 and 𝐵 Find the volume of the parallelepiped with 3 edges
represented by vectors
(b) The area of the triangle with 2 sides represented
by 𝐴 and 𝐵 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘
⃗⃗ = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 2𝑘
𝐵
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ 𝐶⃗ = −𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘
• 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |3 −2 1 |
2 4 −2
• ⃗⃗ = (4 − 4)𝑖̂ − (−6 − 2)𝑗̂ + (12 − (−4))𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 • 𝑉 = 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗
3 −2 1
• ⃗⃗ = 8𝑗̂ + 16𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
• 𝑉=| 2 4 −2|
𝐴⃗×𝐵
⃗⃗ ̂
8𝑗̂ +16𝑘
• 𝑛̂ = = −1 3 2
⃗
|𝐴×𝐵⃗⃗| √82 +162
• 𝑽 = 𝟓𝟔 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐
• ̂=
(a) 𝒏 𝒋̂ + ̂
𝒌
√𝟓 √𝟓
1 Example
• 𝐴𝑇 = 2
|𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗|
1 A force given by 𝐹 = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 4𝑘 is applied at the point
• 𝐴𝑇 = √82 + 162 (1, −1,2). Find the magnitude of the moment of 𝐹 about
2
1 the point (2, −1,3).
• 𝐴𝑇 = (8√5)
2
• ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
𝑀
• (b) 𝑨𝑻 = 𝟒√𝟓
• 𝑟⃗ = (1, −1,2) − (2, −1,3) = (−1,0, −1)
o End point minus starting point
o End point is the point where force is
applied
 o Starting point is center of the moment Example
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ A particle moves along the curve 𝑟 = (𝑡 3 − 4𝑡)𝑖 +
• ⃗⃗⃗
𝑀 = |−1 0 −1| (𝑡 2 + 4𝑡)𝑗 + (8𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 3 )𝑘, where 𝑡 is the time. Find the
3 2 −4 magnitude of the tangential and normal components of
the acceleration when 𝑡 = 2.
• ⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 7𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂
𝑀
• 𝑟⃗ = 〈𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 8𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 3 〉
• ⃗⃗⃗| = √22 + 72 + 22 = √57
|𝑀
• 𝑣⃗ = 𝑟⃗ ′ = 〈3𝑡 2 − 4 2𝑡 + 4 16𝑡 − 9𝑡 2 〉
• ⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟓
|𝑴 • 𝑎⃗ = 𝑣⃗ ′ = 〈6𝑡 2 16 − 18𝑡〉
• At 𝑡 = 2
Example
• 𝑣⃗ = 〈8 8 −4〉
The angular velocity of a rotating rigid body about an
axis of revolution is given by 𝜔 = 4𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘. Find the • 𝑎⃗ = 〈12 2 −20〉
linear velocity of a point on the body whose position 𝑎⃗⃗⋅𝑣⃗⃗ 12⋅8+2⋅8+(−20)⋅(−4)
• 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑣̂ = =
vector relative to a point on the axis of rotation is 𝑟 = |𝑣⃗⃗| √82 +82 +4 2
2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘. • 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟔
• 𝑣⃗ = 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗
• 𝑎 = |𝑎⃗| = √122 + 22 + 202 = 23.41
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
• 𝑣⃗ = |4 1 −2| • 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑡2 = √548 − 162
2 −3 1 • 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐√𝟕𝟑 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟗
• ̂
⃗⃗ = −𝟓𝒊̂ − 𝟖𝒋̂ − 𝟏𝟒𝒌
𝒗
Extra: Find the magnitude of the linear velocity. Example
• |𝑣⃗| = √52 + 82 + 142 Find the magnitude of the gradient of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 +
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 at the point (3,2,1).
• |𝒗
⃗⃗| = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟖𝟖
• ∇𝑓 = 〈2𝑥 2𝑦 2𝑧〉

Example • At point (3,2,1)…

Find the magnitude of the tangential velocity and total • ∇𝑓 = 〈6 4 2〉
acceleration of a particle moving on the curved defined • |∇𝑓| = √62 + 42 + 22
by 𝑥 = 2 sin 3𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 cos 3𝑡, 𝑧 = 8𝑡 at anytime 𝑡 > 0.
• |∇𝑓| = 7.48
• 𝑟⃗ = 〈𝑥 𝑦 𝑧〉
• 𝑟⃗ = 〈2 sin 3𝑡 2 cos 3𝑡 8𝑡〉
Example
• 𝑣⃗ = 𝑟⃗′
The electric potential at any point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is given by
• 𝑣⃗ = 〈6 cos 3𝑡 −6 sin 3𝑡 8〉 𝑉 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 9𝑧 2 . Find the rate of change of potential
• 𝑎⃗ = 𝑣⃗′ at point (2, −1,3) towards the origin.
• 𝑎⃗ = 〈−18 sin 3𝑡 −18 cos 3𝑡 0〉 • We can get the direction 𝑢.

• |𝑣⃗| = √36 cos2 3𝑡 + 36 sin2 3𝑡 + 64 • End point is origin (0,0,0)

• Starting point is (2, −1,3)
• |𝑣⃗| = √36 + 64
• ⃗⃗ = (0,0,0) − (2, −1,3) = (−2,1, −3)
𝑢
• |𝒗
⃗⃗| = 𝟏𝟎
⃗⃗
𝑢 (−2,1,−3) 2 1 3
• |𝑎⃗| = √182 sin2 3𝑡 + 182 cos 2 3𝑡 • 𝑢̂ = |𝑢⃗⃗| = = (− , , − 14)
√22 +12 +32 √14 √14 √
• |𝒂
⃗⃗| = 𝟏𝟖 • ∇𝑉 = (2𝑥, 8𝑦, 18𝑧) = (4, −8,54)
−8−8−162
• 𝐷𝑢 𝑉(2, −1,3) = ∇𝑉 ⋅ 𝑢̂ =
√14
−𝟏𝟕𝟖
• 𝑫𝒖 𝑽(𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟑) =
√𝟏𝟒
Example
The electrical potential at any point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is given by
𝑉 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 9𝑧 2 . Find the maximum rate of change
of the potential at the point (2, −1,3).
• ′
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |∇𝑉|
• ∇𝑉 = 〈2𝑥 8𝑦 18𝑧〉 = 〈4 −8 54〉
• ′
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √42 + 82 + 542
• 𝑽′𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟕𝟒

Example
Find the divergence and magnitude of curl on the vector
field:
𝑉 = (𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑖 + (−𝑥𝑦)𝑗 + (𝑥𝑦𝑧)𝑘
At the point (3,2,1)
• Constructing Jacobian Matrix…
2𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦𝑧 12 −2 2
• 𝐽 = [ 𝑥2 −𝑥 𝑥𝑧 ] = [ 9 −3 3]
0 0 𝑥𝑦 0 0 6
• ⃗⃗ = 12 − 3 + 6
div 𝑉
• ⃗⃗ = 𝟏𝟓
𝐝𝐢𝐯 𝑽
• ⃗⃗ = (3 − 0)𝑖̂ + (0 − 2)𝑗̂ + (−2 − 9)𝑘̂
curl 𝑉
• ⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ − 11𝑘̂
curl 𝑉
• ⃗⃗ | = √32 + 22 + 112
|curl 𝑉
• ⃗⃗| = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟖
|𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐥 𝑽
 Statistics & Probability
I) The Fundamental Principle of Counting
• The succeeding letter are less one way because
the previous letter used cannot be used.
Fundamental Principle of Counting • The first number (hundreds place) should be non-
If: zero in order for it to be a “3-digit number”.
Thus, only 9 digits can be used.
1st event can happen in 𝑚 ways
• The second number can now use the number “0”
2nd event can happen in 𝑛 ways but cannot use the previous numeral used. Thus,
They happen together OR in succession the second number (tens place) can use 9 digits
also.
Then:
• The third number can use 8 digits since it cannot
They will happen in 𝑚 × 𝑛 ways. use the previous numeral.
• 𝑊 = 26 × 25 × 24 × 9 × 9 × 8
For more than two events: 𝑚 × 𝑛 × ⋯ • 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬

Example Example
A building has 6 doors. In how many ways can a man A code is composed of 2 letters, the first being a vowel
enter and leave the building: and 3-digits. In how many ways can it be made without
(a) By any door. repetition?
(b) By a different door. L1 L2 N1 N2 N3
𝟓 25 10 9 8
• For a, a man can enter any of the 6 doors and can
leave at any of the 6 doors. Thus, the man can 5 vowel 26 less 1 10 10 less 1 9 less 1
enter in 6 ways and leave in 6 ways. 𝑊 = 6 × 6 letters numerals
(“0” can
• (a) 𝑾 = 𝟑𝟔 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 be used)
• For b, a man can enter any of the 6 doors, and • 𝑊 = 5 × 25 × 10 × 9 × 8
then can only leave at any of the 6 doors except
the one he entered. Thus, the man can enter in 6 • 𝑾 = 𝟗𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
ways and leave in 5 ways. 𝑊 = 6 × 5 = 30
• (b) 𝑾 = 𝟑𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 Example
In how many ways can 4 boys and 5 girls be seated in a
Example bench alternately?
The license plate of a car contains 3 letters and a 3-digit • If you start with boys, there will be two girls at
number. How many license plates can be made without the end of the bench.
repetition?
• A girl should be seated first.
• There are 26 letters in the alphabet (A to Z) and
10 numerals (0 to 9). 𝑮𝟏 𝑩𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝑮𝟑 𝑩𝟑 𝑮𝟒 𝑩𝟒 𝑮𝟓
• The number of ways each letter and numerical 5 4 3 2 1
digit can be chosen is: 4 3 2 1
L1 L2 L3 N1 N2 N3 • We subtract one for the next boy or girl since a
(100’s) (10’s) (1’s) boy or a girl cannot be seated at the same seat at
the same time.
26 25 24 9 9 8
• 𝑊 = 5! × 4!
• 𝑾 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
Example II) The Permutation
How many 4-digit even numbers can be formed from 0 to
9 if each digit is to be used only once in each number?
Permutation
• For it to even, ones place should be 0, 2, 4, 6, or
8. • It deals with the arrangement of elements with
order.
• For it to be a 4-digit number, the thousands place
should be non-zero. • Denoted as
o 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟)
• Two cases should be considered.
o 𝑛𝑃𝑟
o Ones place = 0 & Thousands place ≠0
o 𝑃𝑟𝑛
o Ones place ≠ 0 & Thousands place ≠ 0
o 𝑃𝑛,𝑘
1000’s 100’s 10’s 1’s
• Means
Case 1 9 8 7 1 o 𝑛 permute 𝑟.
No “0” “0” • Permutation of 𝑛 different elements taken 𝒓 at a
Case 2 8 8 7 4 time
𝒏!
No “0” With “0” “2,4,6,8” o 𝒏𝑷𝒓 = (𝒏−𝒓)!
and no but
o 𝑛𝑃𝑟 = 𝑛 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ (𝑛 − 2) ⋯ 𝑟 factors
numeral without
used in numeral • Permutation of 𝑛 different elements in a row or in
1’s used in line taken all (𝒏) at a time
(10 - 2) 1000’s o 𝑷 = 𝒏𝑷𝒏 = 𝒏!
(8+1–1)
• Permutation of 𝑛 elements with same elements
• 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 9 × 8 × 7 × 1 + 8 × 8 × 7 × 4 and taken all at a time
• 𝑾 = 𝟐 𝟐𝟗𝟔 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 o 𝑃 = (𝑟
𝑛!
1 !)(𝑟2 !)(𝑟3 !)⋯
• (Alternative method)
▪ 𝑟’s are multiplicity of similar
• 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊′ elements
o All 4-digit numbers less all odd numbers
equals all even numbers.
Example
1000’s 100’s 10’s 1’s In how many ways can 5 starting positions on a
basketball team be filled from 8 men who can play any of
All Nos. 9 9 8 7 the positions?
No “0” With “0” (9-1) (8-1) • 8𝑃5 = 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4
(10–1) but
without o 5 factors
numeral • 𝟖𝑷𝟓 = 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
used in
1000’s
(10+1–1) Example
All Odd 8 8 7 5 In how many ways can 6 people be lined up on a bus?
No “0” With “0” (8–1) “1,3,5,7, • 6𝑃6 = 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
and no but 9”
numeral without o 6 factors
used in numeral • 𝟔𝑷𝟔 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
1’s used in
(10 - 2) 1000’s
(8+1–1)
• 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊 ′ = 9 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 − 8 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 5
• 𝑾 = 𝟐 𝟐𝟗𝟔 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
Example • (b)
In how many ways can 6 people be seated in a round o One should be reference element.
table. Consider one boy as reference element.
• With one seat as a reference point, 5 people can o 𝑃(3 boys) = 3!
be picked to sit at the remaining five seats.
o 𝑃(4 girls) = 4!
o This is because in a given permutation, if
the seating arrangement is rotated, it is o A girl is always picked first to sit beside
counted as one permutation as it is still the reference element that is a boy. A boy
the same order that the people is seated. will never be picked first.

• 5𝑃5 = 5! o 𝑾 = 𝟑! ⋅ 𝟒! = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬

• 𝟓𝑷𝟓 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬

Example
• Formula for number of ways that 𝑛 people can be
seated in a round table In how many ways can 3 boys and 4 girls be seated in a
bench with the boys always together?
o 𝑃 = (𝑛 − 1)!
• 𝑃(3 boys) = 3!
• 𝑃(1 grp of three boys and 4 girls) = 5!
Example
How many distinct permutations can be made from the • 𝑊 = 5! ⋅ 3!
letters of the word infinity? • 𝑾 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
• The set of letters to be used are {i, n, f, i, n, i, t, y}
having 8 elements.
Example
o 𝑛=8
Six people are lined up on a bus. In how many ways can
• Element “i” has a multiplicity of 3. the people be arranged if two of them do not want to
follow each other?
o 𝑟1 = 3
• 𝑃(2 people) = 2!
• Element “n” has a multiplicity of 2.
o 𝑟2 = 2 • 𝑃(4 people and 1 grp of two people) = 5!
𝑛! • 𝑊′ = 2! 5!
• 𝑃 = (𝑟
1 !)(𝑟2 !) o Ways that six people can be lined up with
8! two people always following each other.
• 𝑃= 3!2!
• 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊′
• 𝑷 = 𝟑 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
• 𝑊 = 6! − 2! ⋅ 5!
• 𝑾 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
Example
In how many ways can 4 boys and 4 girls be seated in:
(a) A row of 8 chairs alternately?
(b) A round table alternately
• (a)
o 𝑃(4 boys) = 4!
o 𝑃(4 girls) = 4!
o 𝑃(𝑏𝑜𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑙) = 2!
▪ Boy can go first or girl can go
first.
o 𝑊 = 4! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 2!
o 𝑾 = 𝟏 𝟏𝟓𝟐 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
 III) The Combination Example
In how many ways can a majority be formed from 5
judges?
Combination
• Majority will be formed when 3,4, or 5 of the
• It deals with the arrangements of different judges is in favor.
elements without order.
• 𝐶 = 5𝐶3 + 5𝐶4 + 5𝐶5
• Denoted as
o 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) • 5
𝐶 = Σ𝑥=3 5𝐶𝑥

o 𝑛𝐶𝑟 • 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟔 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬

o 𝐶𝑟𝑛
o 𝐶𝑛,𝑘 Example
From a group of 12 players, in how many ways can the
• Means first five be selected if one of them is the captain ball.
o 𝑛 choose 𝑟 • Captain ball is given to be in the first five.
• Combination of 𝑛 different elements taken 𝒓 at • So we need to choose only 4 from 11 players.
a time
𝒏! o 12 – captain ball = 11
o 𝒏𝑪𝒓 = 𝒓!(𝒏−𝒓)!
o 5 – captain ball = 4
𝑛⋅(𝑛−1)⋅(𝑛−2)⋯𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 11⋅10⋅9⋅8
o 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟! • 11𝐶4 = 4⋅3⋅2⋅1
• Combination of 𝑛 different elements taken 1 or 2 • 𝟏𝟏𝑪𝟒 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
or 3 or … n at a time.
o 𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶1 + 𝑛𝐶2 + 𝑛𝐶3 + ⋯ 𝑛𝐶𝑛
Example
▪ Can be calculated in calculator
as: In how many ways can a committee of 5 be selected from
4 lawyers and 5 engineers if 2 are lawyers and the rest are
• 𝑛 (𝑛𝐶𝑥)
Σ𝑥=1 engineers.
o 𝑪 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 • From 4 lawyers, 2 is chosen.
• Combination of 𝑛 different elements in a row or • From 5 engineers, 3 is chosen
in line taken all (𝒏) at a time
• 𝐶 = 4𝐶2 ⋅ 5𝐶3
o 𝑪 = 𝒏𝑪𝒏 = 𝟏
• 𝑪 = 𝟔𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬

Example
Example
In how many ways are there to select 3 candidates from 8
equally qualified applicants for the employment opening A shipment of 12 TV sets contains 3 defective sets. In
in a company? how many ways can you purchase 5 of these TV sets and
8⋅7⋅6
receive at least 2 of the defective sets?
• 8𝐶3 = 3⋅2⋅1
• There are:
• 𝟖𝑪𝟑 = 𝟓𝟔 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 o 3 defective sets.
o 9 non-defective sets.
Example • Condition is “purchase 5 TV sets” and “receive at
In how many ways can a poster be colored if there are 5 least 2 of the defective sets”. So there can be 2 or
different colors which are available? 3 defective sets.
• 5 different colors can be chosen 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 at Defective Sets Non-defective
a time.
Sets
• 𝐶 = 25 − 1
Case 1: 2 3𝐶2 9𝐶3
• 𝑪 = 𝟑𝟏 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 Defective Sets
Case 2: 3 3𝐶3 9𝐶2
Defective Sets
 • In case 1, combination of 2 defective sets is taken because the six are on the first to third
from the three defective set. And a combination partition.
of 3 non-defective sets is taken from the nine o Adding these outputs the same number.
defective sets. There are 5 sets in total.
10!
• In case 2, same concept is used but with 3 o = 10𝐶1 ⋅ 10𝐶2 ⋅ 10𝐶3 ⋅ 10𝐶4
1!⋅2!⋅3!⋅4!
defective sets.
• 𝐶 = 3𝐶2 ⋅ 9𝐶3 + 3𝐶3 ⋅ 9𝐶2 Example
• 𝑪 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 In how many ways can a hotel accommodate 7 guests if
the rooms available are one triple and two double rooms?
IV) The Partition Principle • Use
o 𝑊 = 7𝐶3 ⋅ 4𝐶2 ⋅ 2𝐶2 OR
7!
The Partition Principle o 𝑊 = 3!⋅2!⋅2!
• 𝑾 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬

Example
In how many ways can 9 people cross a river riding 3
boats whose maximum capacity is 2, 4, and 5
respectively:
(a) If all boats must travel?
(b) If all boats must have passengers

• List of Cases of Passengers/Capacity

o (Passengers must add up to 9 people)
9!
o 2/2, 4/4, 3/5 → = 1 260
2!⋅4!⋅3!
9!
o 2/2, 3/4, 4/5 → 2!⋅3!⋅4!
= 1 260
9!
o 2/2, 2/4, 5/5 → 2!⋅2!⋅5!
= 756
9!
o 1/2, 4/4, 4/5 → 1!⋅4!⋅4!
= 630
𝑛!
• 𝑊= 9!
(𝑟1 !)(𝑟2 !)(𝑟3 !)⋯ o 1/2, 3/4, 5/5 → 1!⋅3!⋅5!
= 504
• Understanding the concept 9!
o 0/2, 4/4, 5/5 → 0!⋅4!⋅5!
= 126
o The question is how many combination
in each partition can be made. • For a, we just add it all up.
o In the example above, 10 circles is • (a) 𝑾 = 𝟒 𝟓𝟑𝟔 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
partitioned into 1 circle, 2 circles, 3
circles, and 4 circles. • For b, we exclude the one with 0 Passengers
(0/2). We can just subtract 126 from (a)
o The first partition has 10𝐶1
combinations. • (b) 𝑾 = 𝟒 𝟒𝟏𝟎 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
o The second partition has 9𝐶2
combinations. Only 9 can be used
because one is already in first partition.
o The third partition has 7𝐶3 combinations.
Only 7 can be used because three are on
the first and second partition.
o The fourth partition has 4𝐶4
combinations. Only 4 can be used
 V) Common Models of Probability • By listing:
o List goes
Probability, 𝒑 ▪ AA
• The ratio of successful outcomes (s) to all ▪ AN - 1
possible outcomes or events (n) which is
▪ AD - 1
represented as a fraction, decimal or percentage.
▪ NA - 1
▪ NN
Simple Event
▪ ND
• Can be solved easily by listings
▪ DA - 1
• Formulas
𝑠 ▪ DN
o 𝑝=
𝑛 ▪ DD
▪ Successful outcomes o 𝑠=4
𝑓
o 𝑞= 𝑛
= 1−𝑝 o 𝑛=9
𝑠
▪ Failed outcomes o 𝑝=𝑛
▪ 𝑝<1 𝟒
o 𝒑=𝟗
▪ 𝑝+𝑞 = 1
𝑠 𝑝
o Odds in favor = 𝑓 = 𝑞
Example
𝑓 𝑞
o Odds against = = A pair of dice is tossed together or in succession. Find the
𝑠 𝑝
probability of making 8.
• By principle of counting, 𝑛 = 6 ⋅ 6 = 36
Example
• Listing successes
A die is tossed once, what is the probability of getting 5?
o 2+6
• List of outcomes:
o 6+2
o 1
o 3+5
o 2
o 5+3
o 3
o 4+4
o 4
• 𝑠=5
o 5
𝒔 𝟓
▪ Only this one is a successful • 𝒑 = 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟔
outcome, 𝑠 = 1 • Successes can also be counted by getting the total
o 6 of the permutation of each combination adding up
to 9
• There are 6 outcomes. 𝑛 = 6
𝟏
o 2, 6 = 2! = 2
• 𝑷=𝟔
o 3, 5 = 2! = 2
2!
o 4, 4 = 2! = 1
Example
▪ Multiplicity of 2 for “4”
A political analyst asked a group of people how they felt
about two political policy statements. Each person was to o 𝑠 =2+2+1=5
respond A (agree), N (neutral), and D (disagree).
Assuming each response combination is equally likely,
what is the probability that a person interviewed agrees
w/ exactly one of the two policy statements?
• By fundamental principle of counting
1⋅2+2⋅1 4
o 𝑝= 3⋅3
=9
Example • Another method:
Three dice are tossed. Find the probability of making 9. o 𝑥 = chance of odd no.
• By principle of counting, 𝑛 = 6 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 6 = 216 o 2𝑥 = chance of even no.
• Getting the permutation of each combination o Listing:
adding up to 9
▪ 1 = x “success”
o 1,2,6 = 3! = 6 ▪ 2 = 2x “success”
o 1,3,5 = 3! = 6 ▪ 3 = x “success”
3!
o 1,4,4 = 2!
=3 ▪ 4 = 2x
▪ Multiplicity of 2 for “4” ▪ 5=x
o 2,2,5 =
3!
=3 ▪ 6 = 2x
2! 𝑠 𝑥+2𝑥+𝑥 4𝑥
▪ Multiplicity of 2 o 𝑝 = 𝑛 = 𝑥+2𝑥+𝑥+2𝑥+𝑥+2𝑥 = 9𝑥
𝟒
o 2,3,4= 3! = 6 o 𝒑=𝟗
3!
o 3,3,3 = 3! = 1
• In making combination, list the elements in Compound Events Probability
increasing order to make sure there will be no
repetition of combination.
Let A and B be events.
• 𝑠 = 6 + 6 + 3 + 3 + 6 + 1 = 25
𝑠
• 𝑝=𝑛
A or B probability “Additive Rule”
𝟐𝟓
• 𝒑= 𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒑(𝐀 𝐨𝐫 𝐁) = 𝒑(𝑨) + 𝒑(𝑩) − 𝒑(𝑨 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑩)
𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐴) + 𝑝(𝐵) − 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Example (In set notations)
A die is loaded in such a way that an even number is
twice to occur as an odd number. Find the probability of A and B probability “Multiplicative Rule”
getting less than 4.
“Events A and B happens together or in succession”
• Listing
𝒑(𝑨 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑩) = 𝒑(𝑨) × 𝒑(𝑩) w/ order
o 1-1
𝑝(𝐴 and 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐴) × 𝑝(𝐵) × 2 w/o order
o 2-1
Note: 𝑝(𝐴 and 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐵 and 𝐴)
o 2-1
o 3-1
Not A “Complementary Rule”
o 4
o 4 𝒑(𝑨) = 𝟏 − 𝒑(𝑨)

o 5 𝑝(𝐴) + 𝑝(𝐴) = 1
o 6
o 6 A given B “Conditional Probability”
• 𝑠=4 𝒑(𝑨 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑩)
𝒑(𝑨|𝑩) =
• 𝑛=9 𝑷(𝑩)
𝑠
• 𝑝=
𝑛
𝟒
• 𝒑= 𝟗
Binomial Distribution Probability Hypergeometric Distribution Probability
“Answers how many successes in a “For probability of combinations or permutations
certain number of trials.” of grouped elements”
𝒑(𝒓) = 𝒏𝑪𝒓(𝒑)𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝒑)𝒏−𝒓 “Formula similar to Partition Rule”
“n is fixed or constant” Without Order, No Replacement
• Where: Π𝑛𝐶𝑟
𝑝=
o 𝑝(𝑟) = probability of 𝑟 successes in 𝑛 𝑛 𝑇 𝐶𝑟𝑇
trials 𝑛1 𝐶𝑟1 ⋅ 𝑛2 𝐶𝑟2 ⋅ 𝑛3 𝐶𝑟3 ⋅ ⋯
𝑝=
o 𝑝 = probability of an event in one trial 𝑛 𝑇 𝐶𝑟𝑇
▪ For a coin to be heads or tails, With Order, No Replacement
1 1
𝑝 = 2,𝑞 = 2 Π𝑛𝑃𝑟
𝑝=
▪ For a die to be rolled to a certain 𝑛 𝑇 𝑃𝑟𝑇
1 5
number, 𝑝 = 6 , 𝑞 = 6 𝑛1 𝑃𝑟1 ⋅ 𝑛2 𝑃𝑟2 ⋅ 𝑛3 𝑃𝑟3 ⋅ ⋯
𝑝=
𝒒=𝟏−𝒑 𝑛 𝑇 𝑃𝑟𝑇

Mean • Where:

𝜇 = 𝑛𝑝 o 𝑛 𝑇 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 + ⋯

Standard deviation o 𝑟𝑇 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + ⋯

𝜎 = √𝑛𝑝𝑞
Poisson’s Distribution Probability
Variance
“For probability of elements with
𝜎 2 = 𝑛𝑝𝑞 known rate of occurrence”
“For probability that a number of discrete or
Negative Binomial Distribution Probability individual events will happen in a given period of time”
“Answers how many trials to get a Commonly applied to:
certain number of successes.” Communication and traffic
Printing errors
𝒑(𝒏) = (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝑪(𝒓 − 𝟏)(𝒑)𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝒑)𝒏−𝒓 Waiting Lines
“r is fixed or constant” Can approximate:
• Where: People arriving in an hour
Phone calls in a day
o 𝑝(𝑛) = probability that in 𝑛 trials, there Print jobs in a minute
will be 𝑟 successes
𝒆−𝝀 𝝀𝒙
▪ Or probability that n-th trial will 𝒑=
be r-th success 𝒙!
• Where:
o 𝑝 = probability of an event in one trial
o 𝜆 = 𝑟𝑡
▪ 𝜆 = shape parameter which
Multinomial Distribution Probability
indicates the average number of
“Like partition formula where not each hole or events in the given time interval
spot has the same probability of being filled”
▪ 𝑟 = rate which is the number of
𝒏! 𝒓 𝒓 𝒓 events per time period
𝒑= (𝒑 𝟏 ⋅ 𝒑𝟐𝟐 ⋅ 𝒑𝟑𝟑 ⋅ ⋯ )
𝒓𝟏 ! ⋅ 𝒓𝟐 ! ⋅ 𝒓𝟑 ! ⋅ ⋯ 𝟏 ▪ 𝑡 = time
• 𝑛 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + ⋯ o 𝑥 = no. of desired elements
• 𝑝𝑘 = probability that event k will happen Mean
• 𝑝 = probability that event 1 occurs 𝑟1 times AND 𝜇=𝜆
probability that event 2 occurs 𝑟2 times AND Standard deviation and Variance
AND so on… 𝜎 = √𝜆 , 𝜎2 = 𝜆
Negative Exponential Distribution Probability Standard Normal Distribution
“In terms of unit standard
“Reliability”
random variable or score 𝑧 or 𝑡”
• It is usually applied to reliability of an equipment 𝑥−𝜇
between failures. 𝑧=
𝜎
𝒑 = 𝒆−𝒕/𝝁
• Where:
o 𝑡 = operating time
o 𝜇 = mean time between failures

Normal Distribution Probability 𝑃(𝑧𝑎 ) = 𝑝(𝑧 < 𝑧𝑎 )

𝑄(𝑧𝑎 ) = 𝑝(𝑧𝑎 < 𝑧 < 0)
𝑄(𝑧𝑏 ) = 𝑝(0 < 𝑧 < 𝑧𝑏 )
𝑍(𝑧𝑏 ) = 𝑝(𝑧 > 𝑧𝑏 )
𝑄 = 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵

Probability with Uncountable Uniform Spaces

𝐴𝑠
𝑝=
𝐴𝑛
• Successful area over total area

Example
A card is drawn from a deck of playing cards. What is the
probability that:
(a) It is a heart or a king?
𝑏
𝑝(𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏) = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 (b) It is a king or an ace?
𝑎
• The probability is the area under normal curve: Recall:
1 𝑥−𝜇 2
(
−2 𝜎
)
• A deck of playing cards has 52 cards.
o 𝑦=𝑒 𝜎√2𝜋
• 4 suits:
o (Introduced by Gauss)
o Diamond, D (red, R)
o Heart, H (red, R)
o Club, C (black, B)
o Spade, S (black, B)
• A suit has 13 cards
• Face cards
o Jack (J)
o Queen (Q)
o King (K)
• Numbered cards
o 1 to 10
o 1 is also Ace (A)
Solving… •
𝑠
𝑃(𝐶1 ) = 𝑛 = 52
16

• Use “Additive Rule” 𝑠 15

13
• 𝑃(𝐶2 ) = =
𝑛 51
• 𝑝(H) = 52
o If C1 has a successful draw, and the cards
4 drawn are not replaced, then there are
• 𝑝(K) =
52 only 15 successful outcomes and 51 total
1 outcomes for the 𝐶2 .
• 𝑝(H and K) =
52
16 15
• 𝑝(K or K) = 𝑝(H) + 𝑝(K) − 𝑝(H and K) • 𝑃(𝐶1 and 𝐶2 ) = 𝑃(𝐶1 ) × 𝑃(𝐶2 ) = 52 ⋅ 51
13+4−1 20
• 𝑝(H or K) = • 𝑃(𝐶1 and 𝐶2 ) = 221
52
𝟒
• (a) 𝒑(𝐇 𝐨𝐫 𝐊) =
𝟏𝟑
4
Example
• 𝑝(A) =
52 Three cards are drawn without replacement from a deck
• 𝑝(K and A) = 0 of playing cards. Find the probability that the 1st card is a
red ace, the 2nd card is 10 or Jack and the 3rd card is
• 𝑝(K or A) = 𝑝(K) + 𝑝(A) − 𝑝(K and A) greater than 3 and less than 7.
4+4−0
• p(K or A) = • Use “Multiplicative Rule”
52
2
• (b) 𝒑(𝐊 𝐨𝐫
𝟐
𝐀) = 𝟏𝟑 • 𝑃(𝐶1 ) = 52
o Two suits are red, so there are two red
aces.
Example 4+4−0 8
• 𝑃(𝐶2 ) = =
The probability that a student passes Mathematics is 2/3 51 51
and the probability that he passes English is 4/9. If the o 𝑃(𝐶2 ) = 𝑃(10) + 𝑃(𝐽) − 𝑃(10 and J)
probability of passing at least one subject is 4/5, what is
the probability that he will pass both subjects? o 𝑛 = 51 since there is no replacement and
one card is already drawn
• Use “Additive Rule” 12
• 𝑃(𝐶3 ) = 50
• “passing at least one subject” means either one is
passed or both, 𝑃(M or E) = 4/5 o 4, 5, 6 satisfies condition.
• 𝑃(E) = 4/9 o There are fours suits of these three
number cards. There are 12 successful
• 𝑃(M) = 2/3 outcomes in total.
• 𝑃(M or E) = 𝑝(M) + 𝑝(E) − 𝑝(M and E) o 𝑠 = 12
• 4/5 = 2/3 + 4/9 − 𝑝(M and E) o 𝑛 = 50 since there is no replacement and
• 𝒑(𝐌 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐄) = 𝟏𝟒/𝟒𝟓 two cards are already drawn
• 𝑃(𝐶1 and 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 ) = 𝑃(𝐶1 ) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐶2 ) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐶3 )
2 8 12
Example • 𝑃(𝐶1 and 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 ) = 52 ⋅ 51 ⋅ 50
Two cards are drawn in succession from a deck without 𝟖
replacement. What is the probability that both cards are • 𝑷(𝑪𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑪𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑪𝟑 ) = 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟓
greater than 3 but less than 8?
• Use “Multiplicative Rule” Example
• Cards with 4, 5, 6, 7 satisfy the condition. There A bag contains 4 red balls, 5 white balls, and 3 green
are four suits of these four number cards. There balls. Find the probability of drawing a non-red ball.
are 16 cards in total satisfying the condition.
• Use “Complementary Rule”
• Let: 𝑠 4 4
o 𝐶1 : Event that drawn first card satisfies • 𝑃(𝑅) = 𝑛 = 4+5+3 = 12
condition 4
• 𝑃(𝑅) = 1 − 12
o 𝐶2 : Event that drawn second card
𝟐
satisfies condition • 𝑷(𝑹) =
𝟑
 • ̅ ) + 𝑝(𝐾
𝑝 = 𝑝(𝐾 and 𝐷) + 𝑝(𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 ̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷)
Example • ̅ ) ⋅ 𝑝(𝐷)
𝑝 = 𝑝(𝐾) + 𝑝(𝐾
A real estate agent has 8 master keys to open several new 1𝐶1⋅7𝐶2 3
• 𝑝(𝐾) = =8
homes. Only one master key will open any given homes. 8𝐶3
If 40% of these homes are usually left unlocked, what is 3 5
• ̅) =
𝑝(𝐾 1− =
the probability that the real estate agent can get into a 8 8
specific home if the agent selects 3 master keys at random • 𝑝(𝐷) = 0.4
before leaving the office?
• ̅ ) = 1 − 0.4 = 0.6
𝑝(𝐷
• Use “Complementary Rule”
3 5
• 𝑃(can get to a home) = 1 − • 𝑝 = + (0.4)
8 8
𝑃(cannot get to home) 𝟓
• 𝒑=
𝟖
• 𝑃(can get to a home) = 1 −
𝑃(took the wrong keys and door is locked)
• 𝑃(can get to a home) = 1 − Example
𝑃(took the wrong keys) ⋅ P(door is locked) The probability that a married man watches a certain TV
• 𝑃(took the wrong keys) = 1 − show is 0.4 and the probability that a married woman
𝑃(took the right keys) watches the show is 0.5. If the probability that a man
watches the show given that his wife does is 0.7, find the
1𝐶1⋅7𝐶2 5
• 𝑃(took the wrong keys) = 1 − 8𝐶3
=8 probability that:

o 1 choose 1 (a) A married couple watches the show?

▪ 1 key is appropriate key and that (b) The wife watches the show given that her
1 key is chosen husband does?

o 7 choose 2
▪ 7 key is remaining and 2 more • Use “Conditional Probability”
keys is chosen so that 3 keys are • 𝑀: married man watches the show
taken in total
• 𝑊: married woman watches the show
o 8 choose 3
• 𝑃(𝑀|𝑊) = 0.7
▪ In 8 total keys a, a combination
of 3 is chosen. • 𝑃(𝑀) = 0.4
• 𝑃(door is locked) = 1 − 𝑃(door is unlocked) • 𝑃(𝑊) = 0.5
• 𝑃(door is locked) = 1 − 0.4 = 0.6 • 𝑃(𝑀|𝑊) =
𝑃(𝑀 and W)
𝑃(𝑊)
5
• 𝑃(can get to a home) = 1 − 8 (0.6) 𝑃(𝑀 and 𝑊)
• 0.7 = 0.5
5
• 𝑃(can get to a home) = 1 − 8 (0.6) • (a) 𝑷(𝑴 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑾) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓
𝟓
• 𝑷(𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐠𝐞𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐚 𝐡𝐨𝐦𝐞) = 𝟖 • 𝑃(𝑊|𝑀) =
𝑃(𝑊 and 𝑀)
=
0.35
𝑃(𝑀) 0.4

• (b) 𝑷(𝑾|𝑴) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓

(Alternative solution)
• Use “Additive Rule” Example
• 𝐾: took right keys A card is drawn from ordinary deck of cards and we are
• ̅ : took wrong keys
𝐾 told that it is red. What is the probability that the card is
greater than 2 but less than 9?
• 𝐷: door is open
• Use “Conditional Probability”
• ̅ : door is locked
𝐷
o Given that card is red
• Agent can enter the home if:
• 𝐶: 2 < C < 9
o 𝐾 and 𝐷 OR…
• 𝑅: card is red
o ̅ OR…
𝐾 and 𝐷
• 2 < 𝐶 < 9 = {3,4,5,6,7,9}
o ̅ and 𝐷
𝐾
 • 12 cards are red and are also greater than 2 but • For b
less than 9.
o 𝑛 = 20
o 2 suits are red.
o 𝑟 = 3 or 4 or 5 or … 20
o 6 × 2 = 12
▪ “At least 3 will not hear”
• 26 cards are red. ▪ 3 or more
o Half of a deck is red.
o 𝑝 = 10% = 0.1
• “We are told that it is red” means event 𝑅 is ▪ Probability that will not hear
given
20
𝑃(𝐶 and 𝑅) 12/52 o 𝑝 = Σ𝑟=3 𝑝(𝑟)
• 𝑃(𝐶|𝑅) = = 26/52 20 [20𝐶𝑟(0.1)𝑟 (1
𝑃(𝑅) o 𝑝 = 𝛴𝑟=3 − 0.1)20−𝑟 ]
𝟔
• 𝑷(𝑪|𝑹) = 𝟏𝟑 o 𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟑𝟏
• For c
Example o Use 𝑝 of original problem or as given in
the question.
A coin is tossed 10 times. Find the probability of getting
3 heads. ▪ 𝑝 = 0.9
• Use “Binomial Distribution” ▪ 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝 = 0.1
• 𝑛 = 10 o 𝜇 = 𝑛𝑝 = 20 × 0.9 = 18
• 𝑟=3 o 𝜎 = √𝑛𝑝𝑞 = √20(0.9)(0.1) = 1.34
1
• 𝑝= 2
o 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟖 and 𝝈 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒

• 𝑝(𝑟) = 𝑛𝐶𝑟(𝑝)𝑟 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑟

1 3 1 10−3
Example
• 𝑝(3) = 10𝐶3 (2) (1 − 2)
The probability that a person leaving in a city owns a dog
𝟏𝟓 is estimated to be 0.3. Find the probability that the 10th
• 𝒑(𝟑) = 𝟏𝟐𝟖
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟐 person randomly interviewed in the city is the 5th one to
own a dog.
Example • Use “Negative Binomial Distribution”
The probability that a baby hearing his mother’s voice on • 𝑝 = 0.3
the 1st month is 90%. If 20 children are randomly picked: • 𝑛 = 10
(a) What is the probability that exactly 20 children • 𝑟=5
hear their mother’s voice?
• 𝑝(𝑛) = (𝑛 − 1)𝐶(𝑟 − 1)(𝑝)𝑟 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑟
(b) What is the probability that at least 3 will not
hear their mother’s voice? • 𝑝(10) = 9𝐶4(0.3)5 (1 − 0.3)10−5
(c) What is the mean and standard deviation? • 𝒑(𝟏𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟓

• Use “Binomial Distribution” Example

• For a According to the theory of genetics, a certain cross of
guinea pig will result in red, black, and white offspring in
o 𝑛 = 20 the ratio 8: 4: 4. Find the probability that among 8
o 𝑟 = 20 offspring, 5 will be red, 2 will be black, and 1 will be
white.
o 𝑝 = 90%
• Use “Multinomial Distribution”
▪ Probability that a baby will hear
o 𝑝(𝑟) = 𝑛𝐶𝑟(𝑝)𝑟 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑟 • 𝑟1 = 5

o 𝑝(20) = 20𝐶20(0.9)20 (1 − 0.9)20−20 • 𝑟2 = 2

o 𝒑(𝟐𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟔 • 𝑟3 = 1
• 𝑛 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 = 8
 8 1 𝟗𝟒
• 𝑝1 = 8+4+4 = 2 o 𝒑= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕
𝟓𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓

•
4
𝑝2 = 8+4+4 = 4
1
• For b
4 1 o Groups are heart cards (1) and club cards
• 𝑝3 = 8+4+4 = 4 (2) and non-heart and non-club cards (3)
𝑛! 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 o 𝑛 𝑇 = 52, 𝑟𝑇 = 5
• 𝑝 = 𝑟 !⋅𝑟 (𝑝11 ⋅ 𝑝22 ⋅ 𝑝33 )
1 2 !⋅𝑟3 !
o 𝑛1 = 13, 𝑟1 = 4
8! 1 5 1 2 1
• 𝑝= ( ) ( ) ( ) o 𝑛2 = 13, 𝑟2 = 1
5!⋅2!⋅1! 2 4 4
𝟐𝟏 o 𝑛3 = 26, 𝑟3 = 0
• 𝒑= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟓𝟔
𝛱𝑛𝐶𝑟 13𝐶4⋅13𝐶1⋅26𝐶0
o 𝑝= =
𝑛𝐶𝑟 52𝐶5
Example 𝟏𝟒𝟑
o 𝒑= 𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟖𝟒
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟔
A homeowner plants 6 bulbs selected at random from a
box containing 5 tulip and 4 daffodil bulbs. What is the
probability that he planted 2 daffodil bulbs and 4 tulip Example
bulbs?
On the average, a certain intersection results 3 traffic
• Use “Hypergeometric Distribution” accidents per month. What is the probability that in any
given month at this intersection, exactly 5 accidents will
• 1: tulip bulbs occur?
• 2: daffodil bulbs • Use Poisson’s distribution probability since there
• 𝑛1 = 5 is a known rate 𝑟 = 3
• 𝑛2 = 4 • 𝑡=1
• 𝑛 𝑇 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 9 • 𝜆 = 𝑟𝑡 = 3
• 𝑟1 = 4 • 𝑥=5
• 𝑟2 = 2 • 𝑝=
𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆𝑥
𝑥!
• 𝑟𝑇 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 6 𝑒 −𝑟𝑡 (𝑟𝑡)𝑥 𝑒 −3 (3)5
Π𝑛𝐶𝑟 5𝐶4+4𝐶2 • 𝑝= =
• 𝑝= = 𝑥! 5!
𝑛𝑇 𝐶𝑟𝑇 9𝐶6
• 𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟖
𝟓
• 𝒑 = 𝟏𝟒
Example
Example Suppose that you are watching people arriving at a
doctor’s office and they are arriving at an average of 3 per
In a pocker hand consisting of 5 cards, find the
hr. What is the probability that in a certain hour no one
probability of holding: will arrive?
(a) 3 aces
• Use Poisson’ distribution probability since there
(b) 4 hearts and 1 club is a known rate 𝑟 = 3
• 𝑡=1
• Use “Hypergeometric Distribution” • 𝜆 = 𝑟𝑡 = 3
• For a • 𝑥=0
o Groups are ace cards (1) and non-ace 𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆𝑥 𝑒 −3 (3)0
cards (2) • 𝑝= 𝑥!
= 0!

o 𝑛 𝑇 = 52, 𝑟𝑇 = 5 • 𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟖
o 𝑛1 = 4, 𝑟1 = 3
o 𝑛2 = 48, 𝑟2 = 2
Π𝑛𝐶𝑟 4𝐶3⋅48𝐶2
o 𝑝= 𝑛𝐶𝑟
= 52𝐶5
Example Example
Suppose 300 misprints are distributed randomly An electrical firm manufactures light bulbs that have a
throughout a book of 500 pages. Find the probability that length of life that is normally distributed with mean equal
a given page contains exactly 2 misprints. to 800 hrs. and a standard deviation of 40 hrs. Find the
probability that the bulb burns between 778 and 834
• Use Poisson’s distribution probability since a hours.
rate 𝑟 misprints per page can be computed.
300 3 • Use normal distribution as given in problem.
• 𝑟 = 500 = 5 misprint per page
• 𝜇 = 800
• 𝑡 = 1 page
• 𝜎 = 40
3
• 𝜆= 5 • 𝑝(778 < 𝑥 < 834) =?
• 𝑥=2 • 𝑧=
𝑥−𝜇
𝜎
𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆𝑥 𝑒 −3⁄5 (3⁄5)2
• 𝑝= 𝑥!
= 2! •
778−800
𝑧1 = 40 = −0.55
• 𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟖𝟖 •
834−800
𝑧2 = 40 = 0.85
• 𝑝(778 < 𝑥 < 834) = 𝑝(−0.55 < 𝑧 < 0.85)
Example
• 𝑝(778 < 𝑥 < 834) = 𝑄(−0.55) + 𝑄(0.85)
Heavy equipment exhibits a negative exponential failure
distribution w/ a mean time to failure of 1000 hrs. Find • 𝑝(778 < 𝑥 < 834)
the maximum operating time such that the reliability 778−800 834−800
remains 99%. o = 𝑄( 40
)+ 𝑄( 40
)
• Use Negative Exponential Distribution • 𝒑(𝟕𝟕𝟖 < 𝒙 < 𝟖𝟑𝟒) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖
Probability
• 𝜇 = 1000 hrs
Example
• 𝑡 =? The mean duration of television commercials on a given
• 𝑝 = 99% = 0.99 network is 75 seconds, with standard deviation of 20
seconds. Assume that duration times are normally
• 𝑝 = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜇 = distributed, what is the probability that a commercial will
• 0.99 = 𝑒 −𝑡⁄1000 last less than 35 seconds?

• 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝐡𝐫𝐬 • Use normal distribution as given in problem.

• 𝜇 = 75
Example • 𝜎 = 20
A certain type of storage battery last on the average 3.0 • 𝑝(𝑥 < 35) =?
years with standard deviation of 0.5 years. Assuming that 𝑥−𝜇 35−75
the battery lives are normally distributed, find the • 𝑧= 𝜎
= 20
= −2
probability that a given battery will last less than 2.3 • 𝑝(𝑥 < 35) = 𝑝(𝑧 < −2) = 𝑃(−2)
years.
• 𝒑(𝒙 < 𝟑𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟓
• Use normal distribution as given in problem.
• 𝜇=3
• 𝜎 = 0.5
• 𝑝(𝑥 < 2.3) =?
𝑥−𝜇 2.3−3
• 𝑧= 𝜎
= 0.5
= −1.4
• 𝑝(𝑥 < 2.3) = 𝑝(𝑧 < −1.4) = 𝑃(−1.4)
• 𝒑(𝒙 < 𝟐. 𝟑) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟕
Example • When coin is pushed to the edge of the square,
A point is selected at random inside a circle with diameter the center of the coin is on the boundary of the
8 cm. Find the probability that the point is at least 1.5 cm winning area.
away from the center. • Closer to the center of the square, it is a win.
• Use “Probability with Uncountable Uniform • Farther from the center of the square, it is a lose
Spaces” because the coin will cross the side of the square
• “At least 1.5 cm away from center” means it can already.
1.5 cm away or more, or the point is at or farther • Probability of losing is the required.
than the 1.5 cm radius circle.
• S: side of big square
• Sketching…
• s: side of small square
0.75
• 𝑠 = 2(0.5 − 𝑟) = 2 (0.5 − 2
) = 0.25
• 𝑆=1
𝐴𝑠 𝑆 2 −𝑠2 12 −0.252
• 𝑝= = =
𝐴𝑛 𝑆2 12
𝟏𝟓
𝐴𝑠 𝜋(42 −1.52 ) • 𝒑 = 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓
• 𝑝= =
𝐴𝑛 𝜋(4 2 )

o Diameter was divided by 2 to get radius

of 4 cm.
𝟓𝟓
𝒑= = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟒
𝟔𝟒

Example
A coin is thrown inside a 1 inch by 1 inch square and
wins if exactly inside the square and lose if the coin
crosses the side of the square. What is the probability of
losing if the diameter of coin is ¾ inch?
• Use “Probability with Uncountable Uniform
Spaces”
• Sketching…