CHAPTER 1

MINING GEOLOGY
MINERALS, ROCKS AND ROCK STRUCTURES
What is mining? "Mining is the process of excavating minerals of economic value from the earth's
crust for benefit of mankind". Here we can assume that the earth's crust, the outer surface of the earth,
including the oceans, lakes and rivers, extends to depths of 30 to 50 km or so. For mining operations one
should have a working knowledge of geology.
The word Geology means science of the earth and deals with the nature and origin of the rocks that
constitute the earth. A person interested in the extraction of minerals from the earth is, however, concerned
with the thin surface of the rocks which make up the earth's crust for a depth of a maximum of 5 km so that
geology enables him to locate and to decide the sites most economic for mining or quarrying.
In geology the terms mineral and rock have precise but different meanings. A mineral is a
homogeneous and naturally occurring substance having definite physical properties and a composition that
may be expressed by a chemical formula. The chemical composition of a mineral, as found in the earth, may
be the same as that of an artificially prepared chemical compound in the laboratory but the physical
characteristics may differ; e.g. lead sulphide, PbS, is generally available in the laboratory as an amorphous
powder. It has quite different physical properties from galena, Pbs, the name of the naturally occurring
mineral, often in the crystalline form. Some few minerals occur as single elements, e.g. native gold., silver,
graphite, but most minerals are composed of two or more elements in chemical composition, e.g. quartz
(SiO2), hematite (Fe2O3), etc. Most rock-forming minerals are oxides, chlorides, sulphides, carbonates,
sulphates or silicates. A rock may be composed of one mineral only, but is usually a mechanical mixture or
aggregate of two or more minerals. For example, granite is a rock composed essentially of three separate
minerals; quartz, felspar and mica. Whereas minerals can be considered as aggregates of chemical elements,
so rocks are really aggregates of minerals. They contain minerals in varying proportions and they have no
definite chemical composition.
Bed rock is any rock lying in the position in which it was formed; it is therefore not broken up.
Country rock of an ore body is that rock which is predominant in the area and which contains the ore
body. The country rock forms the foot wall and the hanging wall.
A seam is a mineral deposit limited by two, more or less parallel planes, a shape which is typical of
sedimentary rocks. The term is generally used for coal, e.g. a coal seam.
When excavating a useful mineral, the uneconomic rock or mineral associated with it which has to be
excavated and discarded is called rejection, dirt or waste in coal mining practice and gangue in metal mining
practice.
An ore is a rock which contains mineral and which can be used for economical extraction of metal
after processing to separate mineral from gangue. Ores usually occur as veins or lodes.
If an ore, when subjected to metallurgical processes, yields only one metal, it is called a straight ore.
A mineral deposit is .a rock or mineral that is of economic value and repays its extraction from the
earth.
A vein, (or lode) shown in fig. 1.1. is a crack in the earth's crust filled with mineral. This filling can
occur by precipitation of the mineral from the mineral-rich water or by the cooling of the magma filling the
crack or by the separation of the mineral from vapours and gases rising up the crack. Veins, like seams, have
a strike, a dip and a thickness but for the same vein, alt these are usually quite variable.

A number of nearly parallel veins

constitute compound (odes.
Orebody is the part of a vein that carries
the ore. Generally all parts of a vein are not ore.
Note that:
the country rock contains the vein;
the vein contains the ore body;
the orebody contains the ore;
the ore contains the minerals;
the mineral contains a metal (or) metals.
Fig. 1.1

MINERALS
Minerals possess definite physical properties by virtue of which they can be distinguished from one
another. The most important physical properties are as follows:
Colour: Some minerals possess a characteristic colour, e.g; galena, magnetite, olivine, etc; but in
some others the clour is variable, e.g. quartz.
Specific gravity: Most rock-forming minerals have a specific gravity between 2 and 4.
Lustre: The lustre may be metallic (like galena or iron pyrites), pearly (like talc) or silky.
Taste and smell: Rock salt, alum and some other minerals can be recognised by their taste.
Streak: A few minerals, when drawn over paper or over an unglazed procelain plate, leave a coloured
mark known as the streak; for example, graphite gives a black streak; hematite leaves a cherry red streak.
 Crystalline form: A crystal is geometrical solid bounded by smooth plain surfaces called faces and
capable of increasing jn size by the deposit of fresh material on the outside of these surfaces. The faces in a
crystal show a definite geometrical pattern and the angles between th3 faces are constant; for example, quartz
crystallises in the hexagonal system, while mica or muscovite crystallises in what is called the monoclinic
system, and rock salt, in the cubic system. The crystallisation may take place by: (a) deposition from solution
(b.) slow cooling from the molten state, or (c) direct change from; a vapour to a solid.
Cleavage: Many crystals have a tendency to split along one or more direction parallel to an actual or
possible crystal face. This splitting gives plane surfaces known as cleavage planes. For example, mica
cleaves in one direction only; galena (lead sulphide) cleaves in three planes at right angles, forming perfect
cubes.
Fracture: When a crystal breaks independently of the cleavage plane, it is said to fracture. The
property is prominent in minerals with poor cleavage.
Hardness: This term gives the relative ease with which minerals can be scratched. In practice
hardness is measured by reference to a set of minerals given below so arranged that the first member can be
scratched by all the others, the second by all except the first, and so on.
Moh's scale of hardness is as follows:
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
Scratched by finger nail
3. Calcite
4. Fluorspar Scratched by a knife
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase Scracely scratched by a knife.
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum Not scratched by a knife. 10. Diamond
It may be observed that:
A finger nail will scratch up to about 2.5.
A pen knife will scratch up to 6.5.
When testing the hardness of a mineral window glass can be used as a substitute for apatite.

Protodyakonov strength number; Hardness of rocks is expressed by Protodyakonov strength number

in Russia. The number indicates the relative ease with which a rock can be broken, e.g. strong lignites and
weak clay shales have Protodyakonov strength number as 1.5 to 2; strong coals and anthracites have strength
number as 2; exceedingly strong quartzites and gabbro-diorites have the number as 20-25, the highest
number. Other rocks have the numbers inbetween.
Electrical and magnetic properties of minerals and the properties dependent on light are also made use
of in distinguishing minerals which react in a distinctive manner to the tests.

Common minerals
There are about 107 elements that have been isolated and recognised in the laboratory. Of this
number, however, there are only 8 that enter into the compdsition of the earth's outer portions in abundance.
In fact these 8 elements make up some 98%of the earth's observable crust. These are (in order of abundance);

O2 - 47% Si - 28%
Al - 8% Fe - 5%
Ca - 3.5% Na - 2.5%
K - 2.5% Mg - 2.0%
Total 98.5%
The combinations of some of these eight common elements among themselves have produced the
most common rock-forming minerals that constitute the bulk of the rocks. These most common rock-forming
minerals are feldspars, quartz, mica, amphiboles, pyroxenes, and olivine.
The other 96 elements are relatively scarce, in that they represent only 1.5% by weight of the earth's
crust e.g. Cu — 0.0045%, Pb - 0.00015%, Au - 0.0000007%,
There are about 2000 catalogued mineral specimens but the real economic targets of mining activity
are 100 minerals including the native minerals, the hydro carbon minerals and a few types of economic rocks
used as house construction materials.
Of the above rock-forming minerals some can be considered as essential minerals while some others
are accessory minerals and secondary minerals.
(a) Essential Minerals: These make up the bulk of the rocks and are always silicates with the
exception of quartz and the carbonates.
(b) Accessory Minerals: These are present only in small quantities in a rock.
(c) Secondary Minerals: These are derived from the break-down of the others.

Classification of economic minerals:

a) Metallic minerals: Minerals that yield metals:
 Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum.
Base metals: Copper, lead, zinc, tin.
Steel industry metals: iron, nickel, chromium, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten,
vanadium, tantalum, etc.
Light metals: aluminium, magnesium, titanium, etc.
Electronic industry metals: Cadmium, bismuth, germanium, mercury, selenium.
Radioactive metals: Uranium, radium, caesium, zirconium, beryllium, rare earths, etc.
b) Non-metallic minerals:
Insulating materials: Mica, asbestos, silimanite.
Refractory materials: Silica, alumina, zircon, graphite, etc.
Abrasives: Corundum, emery.
Gems: garnet, diamond, topaz, emerald, saphire, etc.
General industrial minerals: Phosphate rock, lime stone, rock-salt, baryte, borates, felspars,
magnesite, gypsum, potash, clays, sulphur.
c) Fuel minerals:
Solid fuels: Anthracite, coal, lignite, oilshale.
Liquid fuels: Petroleum oil, natural gas.

The common rocfc-forming minerals are described below in brief.

Silicates
The Felspars: These are all complex silicates of aluminium with potash, soda or lime and are most
abundant in igneous rocks. Potash felspar, also known as orthoclase, is the most common type. It is white,
grey or pink in colour with a glassy lustre. When weathered it leaves a hydrated silicate of aluminium known
as kaolin or china clay. The soda and lime felspars are known as plagioclase. They also decompose and
disintegrate in a similar way. Plagioclase felspars occur in most Igneous rocks especially the darker varieties
rich in lime. (sp. gr = 2.6 to 2.7; H = 6). H means hardness.
Mica: This occurs as white variety known as muscovite (a silicate of aluminium and potassium) and
as black variety known as black mica or biotite (a silicate of aluminium, iron and magnesium). The mica can
be easily scratched by a finger nail and has a well-developed cleavage. It is a common constituent of igneous
rocks and crystalline, schists (Sp. gr = 2.7 to 3.1; H = 2.5).
Hornblende and Augite: These minerals are complex silicates of clacium, magnesium and iron. They
are both greenish black in colour. Hornblende is also called amphibole. It is rather a dull, black mineral,
forms six-sided crystals, is found in most igneous rocks and has Sp. gr. = 3-3.5; H = 5 to 6. Augite (also
called pyroxene) is black but more brilliant than hornblende, forms monoclinic crystals and is found in most
of the basic igneous rocks. It often alters to chlorite. (Sp. gr. = 3 lo 3.5; H = 5 to 6),

Olivine (also called peridot): It is a silicate of magnesium and iron found in basic igneous rocks such
as dolerite, basalt and peridote. It is greenish and looks like quartz (Sp. gr. = 3.2 to 4; H — 6. to 7).
The above minerals which contain iron and magnesium are known as ferro-magnesian minerals and
are generally found in abundance in the more basic igneous rocks (basalt, dolerite, etc.).

Oxides
Quartz (Silica, SiO2): It is an important constituent of the granite and other acid igneous rocks, and a
chief constituent of sandstones where it occurs in the broken form (Sp. gr. = 2.6; H = 7).
Magnetite (Magnetic oxide of iron, Fe3O4): It is black in colour and (eaves a black streak (Sp. gr. =
4.9 to 5.2; H = 6).
Hematite (Ferric oxide of iron, Fe2O3): It is bluish black in colour. Earthy varieties are known as red
ochre. The streak is always cherry red (Sp. gr. = 4.5 to 5.3; H = 6).
Limonite (Hydrated ferric oxide, 2Fe3O3, 3H2O): It amorphous, brown or nearly black in colour and
the streak yellowish brown (Sp. gr. = 3.6 to 4; H — 5).
Bauxite: It is essentially a hydrated aluminium oxide l-kO), dirty white in colour. It results from the
decay and weathering of aluminium rocks, often igneous, under tropical conditions. (Sp. gr. = 3.5; H = 2.5).

Carbonates
The common carbonates are of calcium and iron. All carbonates effervesce when treated with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Calcite (CaCO3): It is an essential constituent of marble* chalk or* limestone; it is white or colourless
and gives a white streak (Sp. gr. •• 2.9; H = 3).
Siderite (FeCO3): Col -mr is brown in various shades and the streak is white (Sp. gr. = J.7 to 3.9;
H = 4).
Dolomite: This is a carbonate of calcium and magnesium, Ca, Mg (CO3)2. Calcite and dolomite
constitute the hirgcr bulk of the limestones, but are sometimes found as secondary minerals in the igneous
rocks. (Sp. gr. = 3; H = 4).

Sulphides
The common sulphides are the sulphides of iron, lead, zinc and copper.
 Iron pyrite (FeS2): Brass yellow in colour, this mineral is sometimes found interspersed in a coal
seam. e.g. in the Pench Valley Coalfield. The streak is greenish or brownish black. Coal containing iron
pyrites is observed to be more liable to spontaneous heating than other coal (Sp. gr. = 4.8 - 5.1; H = 6 to 6.5).
Galena (PbS): It is grey in colour and has a grey streak. (Sp. gr. = 7.2 to 7.7; H = 2.5).
Sphalerite, Blende (ZnS): It is also known as black jack. It is usually brown or black, the streak being
reddish brown (Sp. gr. = 3.9 - 4.2; H = 3.5 - 4).
Chalcopyrite, Copper Pyrite (Cu2S, Fe2 S3,): It is golden yellow in colour; streak is greenish black
(Sp. gr. = 4.1 — 4.3; H = 3.4 — 4).

Sulphates
Gypsum (Hydrated calcium sulphate, CaSO4, 2H2O): It forms colourless crystals, but some varieties
may be white or grey. Plaster of paris is made from gypsum by heating it to expel some of its water of
crystallisation and then grinding it to a fine powder (Sp. gr. = 2.3; H = 2).

Chlorides
Rock Salt (known as common salt, NaCl): It is colourless or white when pure (Sp. gr. = 2.2; H = 2).

Other rock-forming minerals are:

Kaolin (also called china clay, Al2 03, 2SiO3, 2H2O): It may be described as hydrated silicate of
aluminium. It is a soft, white, calyey material crumbling to powder when pressed between fingers. Felspars
when decomposed yield china clay.
Fireclay: Any clay or shale that does not fuse below 1580°C is called fireclay. The predominant
constituent of these clays is the mineral kaolinite with the formula AI2 O3, 2SiO2, 2H2O. Besides alumina and
silica the fireclay also contains oxides of iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium.
fluorspar: (CaF2): It may De colourless, purple, green or yellow; lustre is vitreous but often
transparent. It occurs in veins of metalliferous ores with galena (Sp. gr. = 3; H = 4).
Baryte (BaSO4): It may be white, yellow, red or blue with a vitreous lustre and is commonly found in
mineral veins associated with the ores of lead and zinc. (Sp. gr. = 4.5; H == 3).
Uranium oxides: Uranium is the metal used for production of nuclear energy. Two uranium isotopes
U-235 and U-233 are fissionable materials. Uranium ore contains 0.03 to 0.1%of uranium. The mined ore is
processed to give a marketable concentrate containing 75%
Rare Earth Metals: This is a group of metals which includes metals like cerium (Ce), lanthanum,
erbium, yttrium and others. Thorium is closely associated jn nature with, this group. Thorium is a metal
related to titanium and has a sp. gr. of 11. Monazite is a phosphate of cerium metals, but is industrially
important as a source of thorium compounds as it contains a small percentage of thorium oxide or thorium
silicate. Monazite: (Sp. gr. = 5.27; H = 5.5).

ROCKS
Rocks are divided as follows into three great groups based on the origin acd mode 'of formation.
1. Igneous Rocks: Those that have consolidated at or relatively near the surface of the earth from
molten material called magma originating from within the earth.
2. Sedimentary Rocks: Those produced chiefly by the breaking up of pre-existing rocks and
deposition of the broken material in the form of layers.
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Those produced from pre-existing rocks by the action of high temperatures
and pressures.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten material (called magma) at or relatively near the
surface of the earth. Magma is a naturally formed mixture of molten rocks and minerals deep down the earth.
The constituents of magma are mostly complex silicates and oxides of iron, aluminium, magnesium, calcium,
sodium and potassium. Silica is always present in 35 to 75%. Most of the constituents of magma are non-
volatile with fusion temperature above 1000° C while some others, small in amount, are of a highly volatile
character. Under the pressure of the earth's rocks the magma travels to zones of lesser pressure and along
weaker planes and fissures in the existing rocks. When it erupts at the surface it is called lava as in the case of
a volcano.
Rocks formed from the same magma have different names depending upon the crystalline texture
which depends upon the rate of cooling which, in turn, depends upon the place of cooling, i.e, whether at
depth or at surface. The rocks which have cooled at depths had very slow rate of cooling resulting in large
coarse crystals and are called plutonic, those that cooled at intermediate depths had a comparatively faster
rate of cooling yielding smaller size crystals and are called hypabyssal; those that cooled at of very near the
surface had a fast rate of cooling yielding no crystals but nearly glassy texture and are called volcanic.
The igneous rocks are found in batholiths, lopoliths, laccoliths, dykes, sills and lava flows near
volcanoes.
Batholith: It is a large igneous rock mass of irregular outline widening downwards, and without
known floor (Fig 1.2).
 Lopolith; It is a large igneous rock mass which differs from the batholith in that the former has a
basin-like shape and a gradually decreasing width with increasing depth.
Laccolith: It is an igneous rock formed from cooling magma which caused the previous beds to arch
in the from of a dome. It is much smaller than batholith, has a known floor and a domed top.

Fig 1-2. Modes of occurrence of igneous rocks.

B—Batholith; Lp—Lopolith; Lc—Laccolith

Dyke: It is a more or less parallel-sided vertical wall of igneous rock formed due to upward intrusion
of molten magma generally through fissures or cracks existing in the previous rocks, (fig. 1.2). It may be
only a few metres or hundreds of metres thick, and is a common occurrence in the coal fields, e.g. the
dolerite dykes and mica peridotite dykes in most of the coalfields. The coal around the dyke is usually semi-
burnt, hard and useless. In some cases, however, coal near the dyke is converted into better quality like
anthracite, or into naturally occurring coke which is useful. Dykes stand out as prominent ridges extending
over long distances when the comparatively softer surface is eroded. An example of such dyke, seen on the
surface, is Salma dyke in the Ranigunj field which extends from Damra to the West of Kalipahari and
beyond. In the Jharia field, a prominent dyke runs along Telmucha, Pipratand, Phularitand and Tundu Metal
Works, and another runs more or less parallel to the above, but west of Madhuban village across Jamunia
stream.

Sill: A Sill is a more or less horizontal sheet of igneous rock extends laterally into the strata, usually
intruding between the bedding planes. The thickness may range from a few metres to hundreds of metres. A
sill is generally fed by a dyke and is rarely exposed at the surface by erosion of rocks above it.
Lava flows: The molten magma erupting to the surface is known as lava. The rock formed after
cooling of lava is termed simply lava. The rocks to the south of the Satpura range in India, known by the
name Deccan Trap, are lavas nearly 300 m thick covering about; 3,00,000 sq. kilometres.
The lava flows, as they erupt to the surface, are also called extrusive igneous rocks, and batholith,
laccolith, lopolith, dyke, sill, etc. are called intrusive rocks.

Composition and Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks arc commonly classified on the basis of their chemical composition. The essential
minerals that form the igneous rocks are quartz, mica (muscovite and biotite), felspars (orthoclase and
plagioclase), and the ferromagnesian minerals (augite, hornblende and olivine).
On the basis of the silica content, the igneous rocks are classified as acid rocks or basic rocks as
follows:
Silica more than 65% — Acid rock, e.g. granite,
Silica 55% to 65% — Intermediate rock, e.g. diorite
Silica 45% to 55% — Basic rock e.g. basalt.
Silica less than 45% — Ultra-basic rock,e.g. Peridotite
The following table shows the classification of common types of igneous rocks based on texture and
chemical composition.
Acid Intermediate Basic Ultrabasic
Plutonic Granite Syenite Diorite Gabbro
Peridotite
Hypabyssal Granite Syenite Diorite Dolerite
porphyry porphyry porphyry
Volcanic Obsidian Trachyte Andesite Basalt
Granite, granite porphyry and obsidian have the same composition but the crystalline texture
varies.
 The common igneous rocks are:

Granite: It consists of large sized crystals of quartz and orthoclase felspar with some biotite (black
mica). Greenish crystals of hornblende also may occur. Granite is the most common rock of the plutonic
igneous type.
Very coarse granites are called pegmatites and are characterised by large crystals, sometimes 0.3 m
across, e.g. at the mica mines near Kodarma (Bihar).
Syenite and Diorite: These are not deep-seated but hypabyssal rocks. These are darker than granite
but have no quartz and contain felspar and biotite or hornblende.
Gabbro: This is much darker and heavier than granite containing a large propotion of ferromagnesian
minerals, such as olivine, magnetite, etc. Dolerite is very widely distributed in dykes and sills and has the
same composition as that of gabbro.
Peridotite: It is a common example of ultra-basic rocks and consists of ferromagnesian minerals,
chiefly olivine with some augite and hornblende. Peridotites are crystalline, of very dark colour and with a
Sp. gr. of 3 or over. The rock weathers easily. Mica-peridotite dykes and sills are common in Jharia, Raniganj
and Karanpura coalfields.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks include all rocks formed by deposition in beds or layers (strata) of the material
derived from older rocks and also cover rocks formed by chemical or organic agencies. The materials may be
carried by water, wind or glacier, e.g., in the case of sandstone, shale, etc. Majority .of the sedimentary rocks
are formed by deposition on riverbed, or seabed and into basins or depressions on earth's surface. The
consolidation of loose sediments into hard rocks is effected by pressure resulting from gradual accumulation
and also by deposition of cementing materials into spaces between particles of the sedments. The chief
cementing materials are calcite, quartz and iron compounds. The colour of the sedimentary rocks is usually
determined by the nature of the cementing material or by some mineral finely spread throughout the rock.
The colour of the rock often changes on account of alteration of the original constituents due to atmospheric
agencies, chiefly water. The sedimentary rocks were formed practically in the horizontal position but due to
earth movements associated with earthquakes or other causes they were tilted from the horizontal position.
Alluvium is a loose or unconsolidated deposit resulting from the breaking up of the bed rock. The
broken particles either remain in position or are moved by surface water and are redeposited elsewhere as a
more or less loose deposit which may convert into unconsolidated rock. The Indo-Gangetic plain has a thick
layer of alluvium, several thousand metres thick.
Some sedimentary rocks are formed from plant or animal remains e.g., coal and some form of
limestone. There are some sedimentary rocks which are formed by deposition of material which was once in
solution in water but later on separated from it, e.g., some deposits of limestone, ironstone (hematite),
gypsum, etc. Where the water carrying carbonates in solution escape drop by drop from the rock in cavities
or fissures, the carbonates may deposit in the form of rods or columns of rock. If the deposit is on the floor it
is known as stalagmite and it" it is hanging from the roof ii is known as stalactite.
Placers are friable sandy-clay, sandy-gravel or similar formations containing some rare metal or
mineral such as gold, platinum, tinstone, etc.
The rocks adjoining a seam but below it are called flour of the seam and those above it are called roof
of the seam. In the metal mining practice the rocks adjoining an ore body are called its wall rocks, the
hanging wall being above the ore body and the foot wall being below it.
Bedding Plane: In a sedimentary rock, a bedding plane is the junction plane of one bed of rock with
another. Bedding planes are therefore the surfaces which divide the different layers of water-deposited or
wind-deposited sediments and are planes of weakness in the rock as the coherence between different beds is
usually less than that within a bed. Splitting is therefore usually easy along a bedding plane. Bedding planes
are a feature common to all sedimentary rocks and to some metamorphic rocks which were derived from
them.
Dip and Strike: The strike of a bed is a level line on its
surface. In effect it is a contour line in the plane of the bed. The
line of true dip in a bed or surface is the steepest line in the
inclined surface and is always at right angles to the strike. (Fig,
1.3). The dip of a bed along any direction between the strike
and the true dip is called its apparent dip.

Unconformity: When rocks are deposited ona above the

other in uninterrupted succession, they are said to be
conformable. When they are laid down upon the eroded surface
of older strata, the two series of strata are said to be
unconformable and the plane of contact between them is called
unconformity. Unconformity is evident chiefly by the
difference of dips between underlying and overlying series of
rocks and also by denuded and eroded surfaces of older series
and presence of conglomerate at the base of upper series. (Fig 1.4)
 The common sedimentary rocks are:
Conglomerate: It consists of rounded pebbles embeded in a finer grained material forming the rock.
Conglomerates occur in lens-shaped masses and not in the form of regular beds. If the pebbles are not
rounded but angular, the rock is called breccia.

Sandstone: This consists of

particles of quartz cemented together,
usually by silica, and sometimes by
calcite or other cementing materials.
.The colour of the sandstone depends
upon the cementing materials.
Sandstones are porous in nature and
permit water or other fluids like gases to
flow through the pores. The rocks are of
common occurrence in the coalfields.
Shale: This consists chiefly of
clay and has fine texture. It can he split
along the bedding planes and also into
thin leaves of one millimetre or so.
Fireclay: It is a variety of clay described earlier. It is a refractory material, i.e. one capable of resisting
very high temperatures without becoming soft or plastic.
Laterite: Laterite is a red ferruginous porous clay, formed by weathering of such rocks as basalt, mica
schist and gneisses and composed chiefly of alumina and iron oxide. It is found up to a depth of nearly 3 m in
the eastern part of Raniganj and Talchir coalfields. Laterite is the common surface rock in iron ore localities.
Limestone: It consists chiefly of CaCO3 (Carbonate of lime) with small impurities. Some limestones
are made up of shells from organic origin; others are formed due to deposition of calcite from solutions.
Chalk is a soft porous variety of limestone.
One of the occurrences of limestone is in the form of sea sand and near Dwarka (Gujarat) such sea
sand is dredged out from the sea bed and used for the manufacture of cement. It is soft compared to the sand
formed out of quartz.
Dolomite: It is a compound of CaCO3 and MgCO3 in various proportions.

Fossils
Fossils are the remains or traces of former living creatures or plants now preserved in rocks. Although
the earth is estimated to be at least 4000 million years old, man's footprints and bones do not appear in the
fossil record until about one million years ago. The remains of plants or creatures are mostly in decayed or
decomposed state. Bones, teeth or shells of animals, the wood or leaves of trees, and sometimes even the
footprints or tracks of animals, are preserved as fossils. Such fossils are generally found in fine grained
sedimentary rocks such as limestone, shale, etc. They are not found in igneous rocks, though bedded volcanic
tuffs (fragmentary materials ejected by volcanoes) may occasionally contain some fossils. To the geologist
fossils are useful as their study gives a clue to:
1. The climate of the period during which the enclosing rock was laid down.
2. The nature of the rock, whether it is a deposit m fresh water, sea or on land.
3. The relative age of the rocks as rocks belonging to a particular period extending over
thousands of years are characterised by the same fossils over a wide area.
4. The geography of past ages, i.e., the situation of ancient continents, seas, etc.
5. The evolution of life throughout geological time.

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are altered forms of pre-existing rocks which might have been igneous or
sedimentary. The alteration may be due to either heat or pressure or by both acting together. Under the effect
of pressure and temperature certain of the original minerals are no longer stable and give place to new
minerals. Quartz, felspar, mica and hornblende are stable under both igneous and metamorphic conditions. In
addition to new minerals, new textures arise during the process of alteration or metamorphism. Rocks not
altered beyond recognition include quartzite (from sandstone) and slate (from clay). Rocks altered beyond
recognition include rocks known as gneisses and schists.
The original rock-forming material and the names of original rocks and metamorphic rocks produced
by it are given below:
Mineral Original rock Metamorphic rock
Sand Sandstone Quartzite
Clay Shale Slate, Mica-schist
Calcium Carbonate Limestone Marble
Mudstone Argillite
Granite Gneiss
Slate Schist
Basalt Amphibolite
 FORMATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS

The term mineral deposit has been explained in the opening page of this chapter. A mineral deposit is
simply a deposit of minerals, not necessarily commercially workable; the viability will vary with the price
which fluctuates with time. Thus a mineral deposit, considered unprofitable at one time, may be
economically ex tractable from a mine with increase in its market price.
Magma is the original source of most of the minerals. The magma which is chemically very reactive
due to its pressure, temperature and composition of various minerals dissolves adjacent rocks through which
it travels, giving rise to new minerals. The constituent minerals, mostly rock-forming silicates and oxides are
deposited at various stages as the magma cools down during its passage. Minerals having nearly similar
fusion points segregate and concentrate together resulting in magmatic segregation. Important deposits of
metallic oxides such as magnetite and ilmentite, and sulphides such as pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite are formed
in this way. Magmatic segregation may take place at different depths during the travel of the magma and at
different temperatures. Most of the ferromagnesium silicates and other oxides are formed at depth by
magmatic segregation.
After deposition of minerals by the process of magmatic segregation the magma is fluid and has a
concentration of volatile constituents, i.e. various gases and vapours. Cooling of the liquid portion results in
the formation of pegmatites. Such pegmatites often contain a concentration of minerals which occur only as
accessory minerals in the main body of the igneous rock. The fluid magma that forms pegmatites intrudes in
the pre-existing rocks forming dykes and veins. Economic deposits of minerals like felspar, quartz, mica,
beryl and apatite are formed in this way e.g. in Giridih, Hazaribag (Bihar), Bhilwara (Rajasthan), etc.
The magmatic segregation and formation of pegmatites leaves the residual magma very fluid and it
contains heated gases of great chemical activity. These gases penetrate the adjacent country rock and by their
reaction with the latter form mineral deposits. Such deposits are known as pneumatolytic ore deposits.
Examples are cassiterite deposits.
During the final stage of consolidation of magma, its aqueous solutions which consist of heated
waters of great chemical activity deposit their mineral load. These aqueous solutions, because of their
fluidity, are capable of travelling long distances from their parent source. The ore deposits formed by such
aqueous but highly fluid solutions of magma are known as hydrothermal ore deposits. The term also covers
deposits formed by descending surface waters which sometimes leach away valuable constituents of existing
rocks and precipitate their load of minerals in the cracks, fissures and cavities in the earth's crust.
Surface waters passing down into the fissures and cracks in the earth sometimes carry minerals in
solution or suspension derived during their passage over a variety of rocks. The heat beneath the earth's
surface renders such descending circulating waters chemically active and sometimes the minerals of
prexisting rocks are replaced, partially or completely, by minerals of the circulating waters, particle by
patricle. The structure of the pre-existing rock may remain unaltered. The ore deposits so formed are called
metasomatic ore deposits. The term metasomatism includes the alterations arising in rocks by the passage
through them of heated waters from igneous sources. Some deposits of chlorite, serpentine, and chalcopyrite
have been formed in this way.
The process of metamorphism which results in the formation of metamorphic rocks may generate
enough heat and pressure to alter existing mineral deposits of impure or low-grade ores into comparatively
more pure and valuable minerals. Some banded hematite formations have changed to banded magnetite-
quartzite rocks in Salem and Tiruchirapalli districts by metamorphism, Another example of heat changing
pre-existing mineral into a more pure mineral is offered by the conversion of bituminous coal into anthracite
in the vicinity of dykes and sills in some cases, Sillimanite (Al2O3, SiO2) in Assam and eastern Maharashtra
(Bhandara district) and kyanite (Al2O3, SiO2) are formed by metamorphism. Talc, hydrated magnesium
silicate, is also a product of metamorphism of magnesium bearing rocks like dolomite, e.g. near Jaipur in
Rajasthan.
Some mineral depostis are of sedimentary origin and the deposits of sediment may be formed
organically as in the case of coal deposits, or chemically, as in the case of some limestone or chalk deposits.
Such deposits are always bedded and stratified.
Alluvial, detrital or placer deposits are formed by breaking up of the parent rock and subsequent
transportation of the mineral particles by stream or wave action. The minerals are found in sizeable
concentration where the velocity, and hence the carrying power of the currents, is decreased. In such deposits
the minerals are concentrated into fractions according to their specific gravities and two or more minerals of
similar sp. gr. may be found together. Examples of such placer deposits are gold placers, with the gold being
associated magnetite, chromite, etc. Alluvial, gem deposits, platinum, tin and wolfram are some other
examples of alluvial or placer deposits.
Laterite deposits are formed by the leaching away of soluble minerals leaving behind in the laterite a
valuable ore such as nickel or bauxite. Thus these are normally surface deposits.
Ore deposits which outcrop at the surface undergo weathering in the outcrop zone and may
decompose. The weathered upper part of the deposits is known as gossan. The gossan is usally an oxidised
zone which may sometimes change into carbonates. Thus a vein of galena at depth may consist of cerussite
(PbCO3) in the gossan. Copper sulphide of chalcopyrite (Cu2S, Fe2S3,) which may occur in a vein at depth
changes into malachite, CuCO3, Cu(OH)2 in the gossan, e.g. at Khetri in Rajasthan. Concentration of
minerals takes place in the gossan as the lighter or less stable minerals arc washed away by percolating
waters during weathering. Rich mineral deposits of economic value, therefore, occur as a cap over low-grade
ore.
Evaporation of water from solutions containing minerals is a familiar example of one process of
mineral formation, e.g. common salt produced by evaporation of enclosed sea water.
Formation of the mineral coal is explained in the next chapter.

ROCK STRUCTURES AND FAULTS

Outcrop: The outcrop of any stratum or rock is that part of it which is exposed at the surface. In most
of the cases an outcrop is not visible at the surface, being covered by soil or alluvium.
Anticline and Syncline: Rocks are not always dipping at a uniform gradient, but are sometimes
undulating or folding. The folding results from pressure or force which may be local, and vertical or
horizontal over a wide stretch. The shape of the land surface may be quite different from the rock structure
below.
The crest of a fold where the strata are bent up to form an arch is called an anticline and the beds dip
away from the axis of the fold (Fig. 1.6, Left). If the folding is such that the beds dip towards a common axis
or plane the structure is known as a syncline (Fig. 1.6, B). In a syncline the beds form a trough and dip
towards the axis on both sides. In a dome-shaped structure the beds dip away from a common point whereas
in a basin-shaped structure they dip towards a common point. The coal seams and associated rocks at
Amlabad colliery (Dhanbad district) have a dome-shaped structure.

Fig 1.5 In a mineral bed A—Washout, B—Roll, C—Swilley

Washout: A washout is an irregularity where the bed thins out, generally due to erosion by a river or
stream and the roof of the bed is filled up with sand or other material .(fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.6. AP - axial plane aa — axis of fold

C shows outcrops of eroded beds in a pitching anticline

Roll: This may be considered exactly opposite of washout in that the floor on which a mineral bed is
deposited shows an upward extension towards the roof of the mineral bed which thins down in -the area of
roll (Fig. 1.5). ^u^
Swilley: A swilley is a trough or depression in which the seam, with its otherwise undisturbed roof
and floor, sags several metres below the general seam level, the seam generally being thicker in the swilley
area. (fig. 1.5).
 Outlier and Inlier: An outlier is an outcrop of rocks surrounded by older rocks and, therefore, entirely
separated from the main mass by denudation. It is a mere patch surrounded by older strata on all sides.
An inlier is an outcrop of rocks in the form of a patch of strata surrounded by newer beds on all sides
(Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7

Fault
A fault is a fracture in rocks usually associated with lateral or vertical displacement of the fractured
beds (Fig. 1.8). Faults occur when the strength of the rocks is insufficient to withstand the stress due to earth
movement.
The vertical displacement CD of the
fractured bed is called the throw of the fault
and is measured from floor to floor of the
seam. It may be from a few metres lo hundreds
of metres. The horizontal displacement DE is
called the lateral shift or heave and it
represents the width of the ground in which the
coal seam is missing. The area in which coal
seam is thus missing is called want or barren
ground. The plane of fracture FF is called
Fault plane. The angle DCE is called the Angle
of hade or underlies of the fault and is always
measured from the vertical. It is usually from
10° to"40°.
A fault is called down throw or up
throw according to the side from which one
travels towards the fault plane. A man
travelling over bed M towards the fault would
meet a down-throw fault, whereas a man
travelling over bed N towards the fault plane
would meet an up throw fault. Throw of a
particular fault is not always the same at all
places.

A Normal fault is one in which the ends

of the broken strata do not overlap and the fault
plane hades forward towards the displaced bed.
The two parallel faults M and N form a step
fault, (fig 1.9) and the intersecting faults N and S
form a trough fault. Normal faults occur in areas
of tension and cause an extension of the surface
of the faulted region. A reverse fault is one in
which the older rocks are thrust over new ones
by lateral compression as at T in fig. 1.9 so that
the ends of the broken strata overlap each other.
In such a case a vertical borehole would pierce
the same bed twice. Reverse faults occur when
the strata are compressed into a space less than
their original horizontal extension and are
common where strata are intensively folded. In
general most of the faults are normal faults and
reverse faults are uncommon in coalfields.

The strike of a fault, or its true bearing is

the direction of a level line in the fault plane. The
direction of the fault, as shown on a mine plan, is
not necessarily its true bearing because the line
of the fault shown on a mine plan represents the
line of intersection of the fault and the mineral
bed.
 A dip fault is one whose
general direction or trend is
parallel to the dip of the beds. It is
also called, a transverse fault.

A strike fault is one whose

general direction or trend is
parallel to the strike of the strata. It
is also called longitudinal fault. A
truly dip fault or a truly strike fault
is rare. A fault that runs at some
angle between the dip and strike of
the beds is called an oblique fault.

Fig 1.11. Lateral displacement of outcrops by faults. Right side figures show faults on a level ground
after denudation, ff is fault plane

Effect of fault on outcrops

Sometimes a fault may -be traced at the surface by a line of hollows or depressions that are denuded
out as the fault zone consists of broken and shattered rocks which easily weather out. More often, however, a
fault has little or no effect on the surface contours.
A strike fault has the effect of causing repetition of the outcrop of some of the beds (Fig. 1.10)
A dip fault causes lateral displacement of the strata.
In F g. l.11 (i) ff is the fault plane, a the up throw side, b the down through side, and the t vertical
throw. After denudation the surface of up throw side a has come in level with the surface of down throw side
b. The outcrops then appear as in (Fig. ii) showing lateral displacement.

QUESTIONS
1. What are the different types of rocks? How have they been formed? Give two names of each type
of rocks.
1. What is a fault? How does it affect an outcrop of a seam ? Explain the various terms used in
connection with a fault.
3. What is a fossil? How does it help a geologist?
4. Describe briefly the processes which result in the formation of mineral deposits.
5. Write notes on:
magma, dyke, sill, unconformity, syncline, outlier.