Maa6617 Course Notes SPRING 2020
Maa6617 Course Notes SPRING 2020
SPRING 2020
Contents
Let X be a vector space over a field K (in this course we always have either K = R
or K = C).
Definition 20.1. A norm on X is a function k · k : X → R satisfying:
(i) (positivity) kxk ≥ 0 for all x ∈ X , and kxk = 0 if and only if x = 0;
(ii) (homogeneity) kkxk = |k|kxk for all x ∈ X and k ∈ K, and
(iii) (triangle inequality) kx + yk ≤ kxk + kyk for all x, y ∈ X .
/
Proof. The proofs follow readily from the properties of the norm, and are left as exercises.
(To do this, first choose N1 such that kxn − xm k < 2−1 for all n, m ≥ N1 . Next choose
N2 > N1 such that kxn −xm k < 2−2 for all n, m ≥ N2 . Continuing in this way recursively
defines an increasing sequence of integers
P∞(Nk )∞
k=1 such that kxn − xm k < 2
−k
for all
n, m ≥ Nk . Set yk = xNk .) The series k=1 (yk+1 − yk ) is absolutely convergent and
hence, by hypothesis, convergent in X . In other words, the sequence (yk − y1 )k of
partial sums converges in X which means that (xn ) has a convergent subsequence. The
proof is finished by invoking a standard fact about convergence in metric spaces: if
(xn ) is a Cauchy sequence which has a convergent subsequence, then the full sequence
converges.
20.1. Examples.
1/2
(a) Of course, Kn with the usual Euclidean norm k(x1 , . . . xn )k = ( nk=1 |xk |2 ) is a
P
Banach space. The vector space Kn can also be equipped with the `p -norms
n
!1/p
X
k(x1 , . . . xn )kp := |xk |p
k=1
a norm. Note that `1 from the last example is a special case (what is the measure
space?))
Proposition 20.4. L1 (m) is a Banach space.
P∞
Proof. It suffices to verify P
the hypotheses of Proposition 20.3. If n=1 fn is abso-
lutely convergent (so that ∞ n=1 kfn k1 < ∞), then
∞
X
|fn | dm < ∞.
n=1
P∞
Thus the function g := n=1 |fn | belongs to L1 and is thus finite m-a.e. by Tonelli’s
theorem. In particular the sequence of partial sums sN = N
P
n=1 fn is a sequence of
measurable functions with |sN | ≤ g that converges pointwise a.e. to a measurable
function f . Hence by the DCT and its corollary, f ∈ L1 and the partial sums (sN )N
converge to f in L1 .
(d) (Lp spaces) Again let (X, M , m) be a measure space. For 1 ≤ p < ∞ let Lp (m)
denote the set of measurable functions f for which
Z 1/p
p
kf kp := |f | dm <∞
X
(again we identify f and g when f = g a.e.). It turns out that this quantity is a
norm on Lp (m), and Lp (m) is complete, though we will not prove this yet (it is not
immediately obvious that the triangle inequality holds when p > 1). The sequence
space `p is defined analogously: it is the set of f : N → K for which
∞
!1/p
X
kf kp := |f (n)|p <∞
n=1
p
and this quantity is a norm making ` into a Banach space.
When p = ∞, and the measure m is σ-finite, we define L∞ (m) to be the set of all
functions f : X → K with the following property: there exists M > 0 such that
|f (x)| ≤ M for m − a.e. x ∈ X; (1)
p
as for the other L spaces we identify f and g when there are equal a.e. When
f ∈ L∞ , let kf k∞ be the smallest M for which (1) holds. Then k · k∞ is a norm
making L∞ (m) into a Banach space.
(e) (C(X) spaces) Let X be a compact metric space and let C(X) denote the set of
continuous functions f : X → K. It is a standard fact from advanced calculus that
the quantity kf k∞ := supx∈X |f (x)| is a norm on C(X). A sequence is Cauchy in
this norm if and only if it is uniformly Cauchy. It is thus also a standard fact that
C(X) is complete in this norm—completeness just means that a uniformly Cauchy
sequence of continuous functions on X converges uniformly to a continuous function.
This example can be generalized somewhat: let X be a locally compact metric
space. Say a function f : X → K vanishes at infinity if for every > 0, there
6 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
exists a compact set K ⊂ X such that supx∈K / |f (x)| < . Let C0 (X) denote the
set of continuous functions f : X → K that vanish at infinity. Then C0 (X) is a
vector space, the quantity kf k∞ := supx∈X |f (x)| is a norm on C0 (X), and C0 (X) is
complete in this norm. (Note that c0 from above is a special case.)
(f) (Subspaces and direct sums) If (X , k · k) is a normed vector space and Y ⊂ X is a
vector subspace, then the restriction of k · k to Y is clearly a norm on Y. If X is a
Banach space, then (Y, k · k) is a Banach space if and only if Y is closed in the norm
topology of X . (This is just a standard fact about metric spaces—a subspace of a
complete metric space is complete in the restricted metric if and only if it is closed.)
If X , Y are vector spaces then the algebraic direct sum is the vector space of
ordered pairs
X ⊕ Y := {(x, y) : x ∈ X , y ∈ Y}
with entrywise operations. If X , Y are equipped with norms k · kX , k · kY , then each
of the quantities
k(x, y)k∞ := max(kxkX , kykY ),
k(x, y)k1 := kxkX + kykY
is a norm on X ⊕ Y. These two norms are equivalent; indeed it follows from the
definitions that
k(x, y)k∞ ≤ k(x, y)k1 ≤ 2k(x, y)k∞ .
If X and Y are both complete, then X ⊕ Y is complete in both of these norms. The
resulting Banach spaces are denoted X ⊕∞ Y, X ⊕1 Y respectively.
(g) (Quotient spaces) If X is a normed vector space and M is a proper subspace, then
one can form the algebraic quotient X /M, defined as the collection of distinct cosets
{x + M : x ∈ X }. From linear algebra, X /M is a vector space under the standard
operations. If M is a closed subspace of X , then the quantity
kx + Mk := inf kx − yk
y∈M
Remark 20.6. Note that in this definition it would suffice to require that kT xkY ≤
CkxkX just for all x 6= 0, or for all x with kxkX = 1 (why?)
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 7
Proof. Suppose T is bounded so that there exists a C > 0 such that kT xk ≤ Ckxk for
all x ∈ X . Thus, if x, y ∈ X , then, kT x − T yk = kT (x − y)k ≤ Ckx − yk by linearity
of T . Hence (i) implies (ii). The implications (ii) implies (iii) implies (iv) implies (v)
are evident. The proof of (v) implies (i) exploits the homogeneity of the norm and the
linearity of T . By hypothesis, with = 1 there exists δ > 0 such that if kxk < δ, then
kT xk < 1. Fix a nonzero vector x ∈ X and a real number 0 < λ < δ. The vector
λx/kxk has norm less than δ, so
T λx
= λ kT xk < 1.
kxk
kxk
Rearranging this we find kT xk ≤ (1/λ)kxk for all x 6= 0, which shows T is bounded; in
fact we can take C = 1δ .
The rest of the proof is left as an exercise.
The set of all bounded linear operators from X to Y is denoted B(X , Y). It is a
vector space under the operations of pointwise addition and scalar multiplication. The
quantity kT k is called the operator norm of T .
Proposition 20.8. For normed vector spaces X and Y, the operator norm makes
B(X , Y) into a normed vector space that is complete if Y is complete.
8 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Proof. That B(X , Y) is a normed vector space follows readily from the definitions and
is left as an exercise. Suppose now Y is complete, and let Tn be a Cauchy sequence in
B(X , Y). For each x ∈ X , we have
kTn x − Tm xk = k(Tn − Tm )xk ≤ kTn − Tm kkxk (3)
which shows that (Tn x) is a Cauchy sequence in Y. By hypothesis, Tn x converges in Y.
Define T : X → Y by setting T x := y. It is straightforward to check that T is linear.
Let B denote the closed unit ball in X . The sequence (Tn |B ) is uniformly Cauchy
by equation (3) and converges pointwise to T |B . Hence T |B is continuous and (Tn |B )
converges uniformly to T |B . It follows that T is continuous at 0 and therefore T is
continuous. Since kTn − T k = sup{k(Tn − T )xk : x ∈ B} and since (Tn |B ) converges to
T |B uniformly, it follows that (Tn ) converges to T in B(X , Y).
If T ∈ B(X , Y) and S ∈ B(Y, Z), then two applications of the the inequality (2)
gives, for x ∈ X ,
kST xk ≤ kSkkT xk ≤ kSkkT kkxk
and it follows that ST ∈ B(X , Z) and kST k ≤ kSkkT k. In the special case that Y = X
is complete, B(X ) := B(X , X ) is an example of a Banach algebra.
The following proposition is very useful in constructing bounded operators—at least
when the codomain is complete. Namely, it suffices to define the operator (and show
that it is bounded) on a dense subspace.
Proposition 20.9 (Extending bounded operators). Let X , Y be normed vector spaces
with Y complete, and E ⊂ X a dense linear subspace. If T : E → Y is a bounded linear
operator, then there exists a unique bounded linear operator Te : X → Y extending T (so
Te|E = T ). Further kTek = kT k.
(X , k · k2 ) is (boundedly) invertible and witnesses the fact that these two normed vector
spaces are boundedly isomorphic.
An operator T : X → Y such that kT xk = kxk for all x ∈ X is an isometry.
Note that an isometry is automatically injective and if it is also surjective then it is
automatically invertible and T −1 is also an isometry. An isometry need not be surjective,
however. The normed vector spaces are isometrically isomorphic if there is an invertible
isometry T : X → Y.
20.3. Examples.
(a) If X is a finite-dimensional normed space and Y is any normed space, then every
linear transformation T : X → Y is bounded. See Problem 20.14
(b) Let X denote c00 equipped with the k · k1 norm, and Y denote c00 equipped with
the k · k∞ norm. Then the identity map idX ,Y : X → Y is bounded as an operator
(in fact its norm is equal to 1), but its inverse, the identity map ιY,X : Y → X is
unbounded.
(c) Consider c00 with the k · k∞ norm. Let a : N → K be any function and define a
linear transformation Ta : c00 → c00 by
Ta f (n) = a(n)f (n). (4)
The mapping Ta is bounded if and only if M = supn∈N |a(n)| < ∞, in which case
kTa k = M . In this case, Ta extends uniquely to a bounded operator from c0 to c0 ,
and one may check that the formula (4) defines the extension. All of these claims
remain true if we use the k · k1 norm instead of the k · k∞ norm. In this case, we get
a bounded operator from `1 to itself.
(d) Define S : `1 → `1 as follows given the sequence (f (n))n from `1 let Sf (1) = 0 and
Sf (n) = f (n − 1) for n > 1. (Viewing f as a sequence, S shifts the sequence one
place to the right and fills in a 0 in the first position). This S is an isometry, but is
not surjective. In contrast, if X is finite-dimensional, then the rank-nullity theorem
from linear algebra guarantees that every injective linear map T : X → X is also
surjective.
(e) Let C ∞ ([0, 1]) denote the vector space of functions on [0, 1] with continuous deriva-
tives of all orders. The differentiation map D : C ∞ ([0, 1]) → C ∞ ([0, 1]) defined by
df
Df = dx is a linear transformation. Since, for t ∈ R, we have Detx = tetx , it follows
that there is no norm on C ∞ ([0, 1]) such that dxd
is bounded.
20.4. Problems.
Problem 20.1. Prove Proposition 20.2.
Problem 20.2. Prove equivalent norms define the same topology and the same Cauchy
sequences.
10 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Problem 20.3. (a) Prove all norms on a finite dimensional vector P space XPare equiva-
lent. Suggestion: Fix a basis e1 , . . . en for X and define k ak ek k1 := |ak |. It is
routine to check that k · k1 is a norm on X . Now complete the following outline.
(i) Let k · k be the given norm on X . Show there is an M such that kxk ≤ M kxk1 .
Conclude that the mapping ι : (X , k · k1 ) → (X , k · k) defined by ι(x) = x is
continuous;
(ii) Show that the unit sphere S = {x ∈ X : kxk1 = 1} in (X , k · k1 ) is compact in
the k · k1 topology;
(iii) Show that the mapping f : S → (X , k · k) given by f (x) = kxk is continuous
and hence attains its infimum. Show this infimum is not 0 and finish the proof.
(b) Combine the result of part (a) with the result of Problem 20.2 to conclude that every
finite-dimensional normed vector space is complete.
(c) Let X be a normed vector space and M ⊂ X a finite-dimensional subspace. Prove
M is closed in X .
Problem 20.4. Finish the proofs from Example 20.1(b).
Problem 20.5. A function f : [0, 1] → K is called Lipschitz continuous if there exists a
constant C such that
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ C|x − y|
for all x, y ∈ [0, 1]. Define kf kLip to be the best possible constant in this inequality.
That is,
|f (x) − f (y)|
kf kLip := sup
x6=y |x − y|
Let Lip[0, 1] denote the set of all Lipschitz continuous functions on [0, 1]. Prove kf k :=
|f (0)| + kf kLip is a norm on Lip[0, 1], and that Lip[0, 1] is complete in this norm.
Problem 20.6. Let C 1 ([0, 1]) denote the space of all functions f : [0, 1] → R such that
f is differentiable in (0, 1) and f 0 extends continuously to [0, 1]. Prove
kf k := kf k∞ + kf 0 k∞
is a norm on C 1 ([0, 1]) and that C 1 is complete in this norm. Do the same for the norm
kf k := |f (0)| + kf 0 k∞ . (Is kf 0 k∞ a norm on C 1 ?)
Problem 20.7. Let (X, M ) be a measurable space. Let M (X) denote the (real) vector
space of all signed measures on (X, M ). Prove the total variation norm kµk := |µ|(X)
is a norm on M (X), and M (X) is complete in this norm.
Problem 20.8. Prove, if X , Y are normed spaces, then the operator norm is a norm on
B(X , Y).
Problem 20.9. Prove c00 is dense in c0 and `1 . (That is, given f ∈ c0 there is a sequence
fn in c00 such that kfn − f k∞ → 0, and the analogous statement for `1 .) Using these
facts, or otherwise, prove that c00 is not dense in `∞ . (In fact there exists f ∈ `∞ with
kf k∞ = 1 such that kf − gk∞ ≥ 1 for all g ∈ c00 .)
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 11
Problem 20.10. Prove c00 is not complete in the k · k1 or k · k∞ norms. (After we have
studied the Baire Category theorem, you will be asked to prove that there is no norm
on c00 making it complete.)
Problem 20.11. Consider c0 and c00 equipped with the k · k∞ norm. Prove there is no
bounded operator T : c0 → c00 such that T |c00 is the identity map. (Thus the conclusion
of Proposition 20.9 can fail if Y is not complete.)
Problem 20.12. Prove the k · k1 and k · k∞ norms on c00 are not equivalent. Conclude
from your proof that the identity map on c00 is bounded from the k · k1 norm to the
k · k∞ norm, but not the other way around.
Problem 20.13. a) Prove f ∈ C0 (Rn ) if and only if f is continuous and lim|x|→∞ |f (x)| =
0. b) Let Cc (Rn ) denote the set of continuous, compactly supported functions on Rn .
Prove Cc (Rn ) is dense in C0 (Rn ) (where C0 (Rn ) is equipped with sup norm).
Problem 20.14. Prove, if X , Y are normed spaces and X is finite dimensional, then
every linear transformation T : X → Y is bounded. Suggestion: Let d denote the
dimension
P P and let {e1 , . . . , ed } denote a basis. The function k · k1 on X defined by
of X
k xj ej k1 = |xj | is a norm. Apply Problem 20.3.
Problem 20.15. Prove the claims in Example 20.3(c).
Problem 20.16. Let g : R → K be a (Lebesgue) measurable function. The map
M g : f → gf is a linear transformation on the space of measurable functions. Prove,
/ L∞ (R), then there is an f ∈ L1 (R) such that gf ∈
if g ∈ / L1 (R). Conversely, show if
g ∈ L∞ (R), then Mg is bounded from L1 (R) to itself and kMg k = kgk∞ .
Problem 20.17. Prove the claims about direct sums in Example 20.1(f).
Problem 20.18. Let X be a normed vector space and M a proper closed subspace.
Prove for every > 0, there exists x ∈ X such that kxk = 1 and inf y∈M kx − yk > 1 − .
(Hint: take any u ∈ X \ M and let a = inf y∈M ku − yk. Choose δ > 0 small enough so
a u−v
that a+δ > 1 − , and then choose v ∈ M so that ku − vk < a + δ. Finally let x = ku−vk .)
Note that the distance to a (closed) subspace need not be attained. Here is an
example. Consider the Banach space C([0, 1]) (with the sup norm of course and either
real or complex valued functions) and the closed subspace
Z 1
T = {f ∈ C([0, 1]) : f (0) = 0 = f dt}.
0
Using machinery in the next section it will be evident that T is a closed subspace of
C([0, 1]). For now, it can be easily verified directly. Let g denote the function g(t) = t.
Verify that, for f ∈ T , that
Z Z
1
= g dt = (g − f ) dt ≤ kg − f k∞ .
2
In particular, the distance from g to T is at least 21 .
Note that the function h = x − 12 , while not in T , satisfies kg − hk∞ = 12 .
12 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
21.1. Examples. For each of the sequence spaces c0 , `1 , `∞ , for each n the map f →
f (n) is a bounded linear functional. If we fix g ∈ `1 , then the functional Lg : c0 → K
defined by
∞
X
Lg (f ) := f (n)g(n)
n=0
is bounded, since
∞
X ∞
X
|Lg (f )| ≤ |f (n)g(n)| ≤ kf k∞ |g(n)| = kgk1 kf k∞ .
n=0 n=0
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 13
This inequality shows that kLg k ≤ kgk1 . In fact, equality holds, and every bounded
linear functional on c0 is of this form:
Proposition 21.1. The map Φ : `1 → c∗0 defined by Φ(g) = Lg is an isometric isomor-
phism from `1 onto the dual space c∗0 .
Proof. We have already seen that each g ∈ `1 gives rise to a bounded linear functional
Lg ∈ c∗0 via
∞
X
Lg (f ) := g(n)f (n)
n=0
and that kLg k ≤ kgk1 . We will prove simultaneously that this map is onto and that
kLg k ≥ kgk1 .
Let L ∈ c∗0 . We will first show that there is unique g ∈ `1 so that L = Lg . Let
en ∈ c0 be the indicator function of n, that is
en (m) = δnm .
Define a function g : N → K by
g(n) = L(en ).
1
We claim that g ∈ ` and L = Lg . To see this, fix an integer N and let h ∈ c00 be the
function (
g(n)/|g(n)| if n ≤ N and g(n) 6= 0
h(n) =
0 otherwise.
By definition h ∈ c00 and khk∞ ≤ 1. Note that h = N
P
n=0 h(n)en . Now
N
X N
X
|g(n)| = h(n)g(n) = L(h) = |L(h)| ≤ kLkkhk ≤ kLk.
n=0 n=0
1
It follows that g ∈ ` and kgk1 ≤ kLk. Moreover, the same calculation shows that
L = Lg when restricted to c00 , so by the uniqueness of extensions of bounded operators,
L = Lg . Thus the map g → Lg is onto and
kgk1 ≤ kLk = kLg k ≤ kgk1 .
Proposition 21.2. (`1 )∗ is isometrically isomorphic to `∞ .
Proof. The proof follows the same lines as the proof of the previous proposition; the
details are left as an exercise.
The same mapping g → Lg also shows that every g ∈ `1 gives a bounded linear
functional on `∞ , but it turns out these do not exhaust (`∞ )∗ (see Problem 21.12).
If f ∈ L1 (m) and g is a bounded measurable function with supx∈X |g(x)| = M , then
the map Z
Lg (f ) := f g dm
X
14 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
is a bounded linear functional of norm at most M . We will prove in Section ?? that the
norm is in fact equal to M , and every bounded linear functional on L1 (m) is of this type
(at least when m is σ-finite).
If X is a compact metric space and µ is a finite, signed Borel measure on X, then
Z
Lµ (f ) := f dµ
X
is a bounded linear functional on CC (X) with norm kµk = |µ|(X) (see Problem 21.8).
A version of the Riesz Markov Theorem says the converse is true too.
Theorem 21.3 (Riesz-Markov). Suppose X is a compact Hausdorff space. If λ ∈
C(X)∗ , then there exists a unique regular Borel measure σ such that, for f ∈ C(X),
Z
λ(f ) = f dσ.
X
The result is true with both real and complex scalars. Focusing on the case of real
scalars, the strategy is to write λ as the difference of positive linear functionals on C(X)
and apply the Riesz-Markov Theorem (twice). (For complex scalars, write λ in terms of
its real and imaginary parts and apply the result in the real case (twice)).
A function f ∈ C(X) is positive (really nonnegative) if f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ X, writ-
ten f ≥ 0. Let C(X)+ denote the positive elements of C(X). Given linear functionals
λ, ρ ∈ C(X)∗ , the inequality λ ≤ ρ means that λ(f ) ≤ ρ(f ) for all f ∈ C(X)+ .
21.2. The Hahn-Banach Extension Theorem. To state and prove the Hahn-Banach
Extension Theorem, we first work in the setting K = R, then extend the results to the
complex case.
Definition 21.4. Let X be a real vector space. A Minkowski functional is a function
p : X → R such that p(x + y) ≤ p(x) + p(y) and p(λx) = λp(x) for all x, y ∈ X and
nonnegative λ ∈ R. /
The proof will invoke Zorns Lemma, a result that is equivalent to the axiom of
choice (as well as the well ordering principle and the Hausdorff maximality principle).
A partial order on a set is a relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive; that
is, for all x, y, z ∈ S
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 15
(i) x x,
(ii) if x y and y x, then x = y, and
(iii) if x y and y z, then x z.
We call S, or more precisely, (S, ) a partially ordered set or poset. A subset T of S
is totally ordered, if for each x, y ∈ T either x y or y x. A totally ordered subset T
is often called a chain. An upper bound z for a chain T is an element z ∈ S such that
t z for all t ∈ T . A maximal element for S is w ∈ S that has no successor; that is
there does not exist an s ∈ S such that s 6= w and w s.
Theorem 21.6 (Zorn’s Lemma). Suppose S is a partially ordered set. If every chain in
S has an upper bound, then S has a maximal element.
Proof of Theorem 21.5. The idea is to show that the extension can be done one dimen-
sion at a time and then infer the existence of an extension to the whole space by appeal
to Zorn’s lemma. We may of course assume M = 6 X . So, fix a vector x ∈ X \ M and
consider the subspace M + Rx ⊂ X . For any m1 , m2 ∈ M, by hypothesis,
L(m1 ) + L(m2 ) = L(m1 + m2 ) ≤ p(m1 + m2 ) ≤ p(m1 − x) + p(m2 + x).
Rearranging gives, for m1 , m2 ∈ M,
L(m1 ) − p(m1 − x) ≤ p(m2 + x) − L(m2 )
and thus
sup {L(m) − p(m − x)} ≤ inf {p(m + x) − L(m)}.
m∈M m∈M
In particular, for m ∈ M,
L(m)−λ ≤ p(m − x)
(5)
L(m)+λ ≤ p(m + x).
Let N = M + Rx and define L0 : N → R by L0 (m + tx) = L(m) + tλ for m ∈ M
and t ∈ R. Thus L0 is linear and agrees with L on M by definition. We now check
that L0 (y) ≤ p(y) for all y ∈ M + Rx. Accordingly, suppose m ∈ M, t ∈ R and let
y = m + tx. If t = 0 there is nothing to prove. If t > 0, then, in view of equation (5),
m m
L0 (y) = L0 (m + tx) = t L( ) + λ ≤ t p( + x) = p(m + tx) = p(y)
t t
0
and a similar estimate shows that L (m + tx) ≤ p(m + tx) for t < 0.
We have thus successfully extended L to M + Rx. To finish the proof, let L denote
the set of pairs (L0 , N ) where N is a subspace of X containing M, and L0 is an extension
of L to N obeying L0 (y) ≤ p(y) on N . Declare (L01 , N1 ) (L02 , N2 ) if N1 ⊂ N2 and
L02 |N1 = L01 . This relation is a partial order on L. An exercise shows, given S any
increasing chain (L0α , Nα ) in L, it has as an upper bound (L0 , N ) in L, where N := α Nα
and L(nα ) := L0α (nα ) for nα ∈ Nα . By Zorn’s lemma the collection L has a maximal
16 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
element (L0 , N ) with respect to the order . Since it always possible to extend to
a strictly larger subspace, the maximal element must have N = X , and the proof is
finished.
The proof is a typical application of Zorn’s lemma - one knows how to carry out a
construction one step a time, but there is no clear way to do it all at once.
In the special case that p is a seminorm, since L(−x) = −L(x) and p(−x) = p(x)
the inequality L ≤ p is equivalent to |L| ≤ p.
Corollary 21.7. Suppose X is a normed vector space over R, M is a subspace, and L
is a bounded linear functional on M. If C ≥ 0 and |L(x)| ≤ Ckxk for all x ∈ M, then
there exists a bounded linear functional L0 on X extending L such that kL0 k ≤ C.
Proof. Apply the Hahn-Banach theorem with the Minkowski functional p(x) = Ckxk.
Before obtaining further corollaries, we extend these results to the complex case.
First, if X is a vector space over C, then trivially it is also a vector space over R, and
there is a simple relationship between the R- and C-linear functionals.
Proposition 21.8. Let X be a vector space over C. If L : X → C is a C-linear
functional, then u(x) = ReL(x) defines an R-linear functional on X and L(x) = u(x) −
iu(ix). Conversely, if u : X → R is R-linear then L(x) := u(x) − iu(ix) is C-linear. If
in addition p : X → R is a seminorm, then |u(x)| ≤ p(x) for all x ∈ X if and only if
|L(x)| ≤ p(x) for all x ∈ X .
Proof. The proof consists of applying the real Hahn-Banach theorem to extend the R-
linear functional u = ReL to a functional u0 : X → R and then defining L0 from u0 as in
Proposition 21.8. The details are left as an exercise.
The following corollaries are quite important, and when the Hahn-Banach theorem
is applied it is usually in one of the following forms:
Corollary 21.10. Let X be a normed vector space.
(i) If M ⊂ X is a subspace and L : M → K is a bounded linear functional, then there
exists a bounded linear functional L0 : X → K such that L0 |M = L and kL0 k = kLk.
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 17
Proof. (i): Consider the (semi)norm p(x) = kLk kxk. By construction, |L(x)| ≤ p(x)
for x ∈ M. Hence, there is a linear functional L0 on X such that L0 |M = L and
|L0 (x)| ≤ p(x) for all x ∈ X . In particular, kL0 k ≤ kLk. On the other hand, kL0 k ≥ kLk
since L0 agrees with L on M.
(ii): Let M be the one-dimensional subspace of X spanned by x. Define a functional
x
L : M → K by L(t kxk ) = t. In particular, |L(y)| = kyk for y ∈ M and thus kLk = 1. By
(i), the functional L extends to a functional (still denoted L) on X such that kLk = 1.
(iii): Apply (ii) to the vector x − y.
(iv): Let δ = dist(x, M). Since M is closed, δ > 0. Define a functional L :
M + Kx → K by L(y + tx) = tδ. Since for t 6= 0 and y ∈ M,
ky + txk = |t|kt−1 y + xk ≥ |t|δ = |L(y + tx)|,
by Hahn-Banach we can extend L to a functional L ∈ X ∗ with kLk ≤ 1.
then for this x and L, we have |x̂(L)| = |L(x)| = kxk so kx̂k ≥ kxk, and the proof is
complete.
Definition 21.12. A Banach space X is called reflexive if the map ˆ : X → X ∗∗ is
surjective. /
Proof. Embed X into X ∗∗ via the map x → x̂ and let X be the closure of the image of
X in X ∗∗ . Since X is a closed subspace of a complete space, it is complete.
21.3. Dual spaces and adjoint operators. Let X , Y be normed spaces with duals
X ∗ , Y ∗ . If T : X → Y is a linear transformation and f : Y → K is a linear functional,
then T ∗ f : X → K defined by
(T ∗ f )(x) = f (T x) (6)
is a linear functional on X . If T and f are both continuous (that is, bounded) then the
composition T ∗ f is bounded, and more is true:
Theorem 21.14. Let T : X → Y be a bounded linear transformation. For f ∈ Y ∗ ,
define T ∗ f by the formula (6). Then:
i) T ∗ f belongs to X ∗ , and T ∗ is a linear map from Y ∗ into X ∗ .
ii) T ∗ : Y ∗ → X ∗ is bounded and kT ∗ k = kT k.
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 19
21.4. Duality for Sub and Quotient Spaces. The Hahn-Banach Theorem allows for
the identification of the duals of subspaces and quotients of Banach spaces. Informally,
the dual of a subspace is a quotient and the dual of a quotient is a subspace. The precise
results are stated below for complex scalars, but they hold also for real scalars.
Given a (closed) subspace M of the Banach space X , let π denote the map from X
to the quotient X /M. Recall (see Problem 20.20), the quotient is a Banach space with
the norm,
kzk = inf{kyk : π(y) = z}.
In particular, if x ∈ X , then
kπ(x)k = inf{kx − mk : m ∈ M}.
It is evident from the construction that π is continuous and kπk ≤ 1. Further, by
Problem 20.18 (or see Proposition 21.15 below) if M is a proper (closed) subspace, then
kπk = 1. In particular, π ∗ : (X /M)∗ → X ∗ (defined by π ∗ λ = λ ◦ π) is also continuous.
Moreover, if x ∈ M, then
π ∗ λ(x) = 0.
Let
M⊥ = {f ∈ X ∗ : f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ M}.
(M⊥ is called the annihilator of M in X ∗ .) Recall, given x ∈ X , the element x̂ ∈ X ∗∗
is defined by x̂(τ ) = τ (x), for τ ∈ X ∗ . In particular,
M⊥ = ∩x∈M ker(x̂)
and thus M⊥ is a closed subspace of X ∗ . Further, if λ ∈ (X /M)∗ , then π ∗ λ ∈ M⊥ .
20 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Proof. The linearity of ψ follows from Theorem 21.14 as does kψk = kπk ≤ 1. To prove
that ψ is isometric, let λ ∈ (X /M)∗ be given. Automatically, kψ(λ)k ≤ kλk. To prove
the reverse inequality, fix r > 1. Let q ∈ X /M with kqk = 1 be given. There exists an
x ∈ X such that kxk < r and π(x) = q. Hence,
|λ(q)| = |λ(π(x))k = kψ(λ)(x)k ≤ kψ(λ)k kxk < rkψ(λ)k.
Taking the supremum over such q shows kλk ≤ rkψ(λ)k. Finally, since 1 < r is arbitrary,
kλk ≤ kψ(λ)k.
To prove that ψ is onto, and complete the proof, let τ ∈ M⊥ be given. Fix q ∈ X /M.
If x, y ∈ X and π(x) = q = π(y), then τ (x) = τ (y). Hence, the mapping λ : X /M → C
defined by λ(q) = τ (x) is well defined. That λ is linear is left as an exercise. To see that
λ is continuous, observe that
|λ(q)| = |τ (x)| ≤ kτ k kxk,
for each x ∈ X such that π(x) = q. Taking the infimum over such x gives shows
|λ(q)| ≤ kτ k kqk.
Finally, by construction ψ(λ) = τ.
Proof. It remains to show that ϕ is an isometry, a fact that is an easy consequence of the
Hahn-Banach Theorem. Fix λ ∈ M∗ and let q = ϕ(λ). If f is any bounded extension
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 21
A special case of the following useful fact was used in the proofs above. If X , Y are
vector spaces and T : X → Y is linear and M is a subspace of the kernel of T , then T
induces a linear map T̃ : X /M → Y. A canonical choice is M = ker(T ) in which case
T̃ is one-one. If X is a Banach space, Y is a normed vector space and M is closed, then
X /M is a Banach space.
Lemma 21.17. If X is a Banach space, M is a (closed) subspace, Y is a normed vector
space and T : X → Y is continuous, then the mapping T̃ is bounded and kT̃ k = kT k.
Proof. Let π : X → X /M denote the quotient map and observe that T̃ π = T . Since the
quotient map π has norm 1 (see Problem 20.20), we see that kT̃ k ≤ kT k. For the opposite
inequality, let 0 < < 1 and choose x ∈ X such that kxk = 1 and kT xk > (1 − )kT k.
Then kπ(x)k ≤ 1 and
kT̃ k ≥ kT̃ π(x)k = kT xk > (1 − )kT k.
Letting go to zero finishes the proof.
21.5. Problems.
Problem 21.1. Prove, if X is any normed vector space, {x1 , . . . xn } is a linearly indepen-
dent set in X , and α1 , . . . αn are scalars, then there exists a bounded linear functional f
on X such that f (xj ) = αj for j = 1, . . . n. (Recall linear maps from a finite dimensional
normed vector space to a normed vector space are bounded.)
Problem 21.2. Let X , Y be normed spaces and T : X → Y a linear transformation.
Prove T is bounded if and only if there exists a constant C such that for all x ∈ X and
f ∈ Y ∗,
|f (T x)| ≤ Ckf kkxk; (8)
in which case kT k is equal to the best possible C in (8).
Problem 21.3. Let X be a normed vector space. Show that if M is a closed subspace
of X and x ∈ / M, then M + Kx is closed. Use this result to give another proof that
every finite-dimensional subspace of X is closed.
Problem 21.4. Prove, if M is a finite-dimensional subspace of a Banach space X , then
there exists a closed subspace N ⊂ X such that M ∩ N = {0} and M + N = X . (In
other words, every x ∈ X can be written uniquely as x = y + z with y ∈ M, z ∈ N .)
22 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Hint: Choose a basis x1 , . . . xn for M and construct, using Problem 21.1 and the Hahn-
Banach Theorem, bounded linear functionals f1 , . . . fn on X such that fi (xj ) = δij . Now
let N = ∩ni=1 ker fi . (Warning: this conclusion can fail badly if M is not assumed finite
dimensional, even if M is still assumed closed. Perhaps the first known example is that
c0 is not complemented in `∞ , though it is nontrivial to prove.)
Problem 21.5. Prove Proposition 21.8.
Problem 21.6. Prove every finite-dimensional Banach space is reflexive.
Problem 21.7. Let B denote the subset of `∞ consisting of sequences which take values
in {−1, 1}. Show that any two (distinct) points of B are a distance 2 apart. Show, if
C is a countable subset of `∞ , then there exists a b ∈ B such that kb − ck ≥ 1 for
all c ∈ C. Conclude `∞ is not separable. Prove there is no isometric isomorphism
Λ : c0 → `∞ . As a corollary, conclude that c0 is not reflexive. (Of course, saying c0 6= `∞
via the canonical embedding of Corollary 21.11 is much weaker than saying there is no
isometric isomorphism between c0 and `∞ .)
Problem 21.8. Prove, if µ is a finite regular (signed) Borel measure on a compact
Hausdorff space, then the linear function Lµ : C(X) → R defined by
Z
Lµ (f ) = f dµ
X
is bounded (continuous) and kLµ k = kµk := |µ|(X). (See the Riesz-Markov Theorem
for positive linear functionals.)
Problem 21.9. Let X and Y be normed vector spaces and T ∈ L(X , Y).
a) Consider T ∗∗ : X ∗∗ → Y ∗∗ . Identifying X , Y with their images in X ∗∗ and Y ∗∗ ,
show that T ∗∗ |X = T .
b) Prove T ∗ is injective if and only if the range of T is dense in Y.
c) Prove that if the range of T ∗ is dense in X ∗ , then T is injective; if X is reflexive
then the converse is true.
d) Prove that T : X → Y is invertible if and only if T ∗ is invertible, in which case
(T ∗ )−1 = (T −1 )∗ .
Problem 21.10. a) Prove that if X is reflexive, then X ∗ is reflexive. (Hint: let
∗∗
ι : X → X be the canonical inclusion; by assumption ι is invertible. Compute
(ι−1 )∗ .)
b) Prove that if X is reflexive and M ⊂ X is a closed subspace, then M is reflexive.
c) Prove that a Banach space X is reflexive if and only if X ∗ is reflexive.
d) Prove that if X is reflexive and Y is another Banach space with Y ∗ isometrically
isomorphic to X ∗ , then Y is isometrically isomorphic to X . (This conclusion can
fail if X is not reflexive; see Problem 21.15.)
Problem 21.11. Prove, if X is a Banach space and X ∗ is separable, then X is separable.
[Hint: let {fn } be a countable dense subset of X ∗ . For each n choose xn such that
kxn k = 1 and |fn (xn )| ≥ 21 kfn k. Show that the set of Q-linear combinations of {xn } is
dense in X .]
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 23
Problem 21.12. a) Prove there exists a bounded linear functional L ∈ (`∞ )∗ with
the following property: whenever f ∈ `∞ and limn→∞ f (n) exists, then L(f ) is
equal to this limit. (Hint: first show that the set of such f forms a subspace
M ⊂ `∞ ).
b) Show that such a functional L is not equal to Lg for any g ∈ `1 ; thus the map
T : `1 → (`∞ )∗ given by T (g) = Lg is not surjective.
c) Give another proof that T is not surjective, using Problem 21.11.
Problem 21.13. Let X be a normed space and let K ⊂ X be a convex set. (Recall,
this means that whenever x, y ∈ K, then 12 (x + y) ∈ K; equivalently, tx + (1 − t)y ∈ K
for all 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.) A point x ∈ K is called an extreme point of K whenever y, z ∈ K,
0 < t < 1, and x = ty + (1 − t)z, then y = z = x. (That is, the only way to write x as a
convex combination of elements of K is the trivial way.)
a) Let X be a normed space and let B = ball(X ) denote the (closed) unit ball of
X . Prove that x ∈ B is not an extreme point of B if and only if there exists a
nonzero y ∈ B such that kx ± yk ≤ 1.
b) Prove that if X and Y are normed spaces, and T : X → Y is a surjective
linear isometry, (so that X and Y are isometrically isomorphic) then T induces
a bijection between the extreme points of ball(X ) and ball(Y).
c) Let `pn denote the (real) Banach space Rn equipped with the `p norm, 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞.
Prove that `12 and `∞2 are isometrically isomorphic, but that there is no isometry
1 ∞
between `3 and `3 .
Problem 21.14. a) Show that the extreme points of the unit ball of `1 are precisely
the points of the form λen where |λ| = 1 and en is the sequence which is 1 in the
nth entry and 0 elsewhere. (See Problem 21.13).
b) Determine the extreme points of the unit ball of `∞ .
c) Show that the unit ball of c0 has no extreme points.
Problem 21.15. Let
c= f : N → K lim f (n) exists ,
n→∞
Theorem 22.1 is true if X is a locally compact Hausdorff space and there are con-
nections between the Baire Category Theorem and the axiom of choice.
A subset E ⊂ X is nowhere dense if its closure has empty interior. Equivalently,
c
E is open and dense. A set F in a metric space X is first category (or meager) if it can
be expressed as the countable union of nowhere dense sets. In particular, a countable
union of first category sets is first category. A set G is second category if it is not first
category. For applications, the following corollary often suffices.
Corollary 22.2. If X is a complete metric space, then X is not a countable union of
nowhere dense sets; i.e., X is of second category in itself.
Thus, the Baire property is used as a kind of pigeonhole principle: the “thick” Baire
space X cannot be expressed as a countable
S union of the “thin” nowhere dense sets En .
Equivalently, if X is Baire and X = n En , then at least one of the En is somewhere
dense.
The following lemma should be familiar from advanced calculus.
Lemma 22.3. Let X be a complete metric space and suppose (Cn ) is a sequence of
subsets of X. If
(i) each Cn is nonempty;
(ii) (Cn ) is nested decreasing;
(iii) each Cn is closed; and
(iv) (diam(Cn )) converges to 0,
then there is an x ∈ X such that
{x} = ∩Cn .
Moreover, if xn ∈ Cn , then (xn ) converges to some x.
Proof of Theorem 22.1. Let (Un )∞ n=1 be a sequence of open dense sets in X and let I =
∩Un . To prove I is dense, it suffices to show that I has nontrivial intersection with every
nonempty open set W . Fix such a W . Since U1 is dense, there is a point x1 ∈ W ∩ U1 .
Since U1 and W are open, there is a radius 0 < r1 < 1 such that the B(x1 , r1 ) is contained
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 25
If B is of the second category (thus not a countable union of nowhere dense sets) in X,
then
sup kTα k < ∞.
α
In particular, if X is complete and if the collection {Tα : α ∈ A} is pointwise bounded,
then it is uniformly bounded.
Proof. For each integer n ≥ 1 consider the set
Vn := {x ∈ X : M (x) > n}.
Since each Tα is bounded, the sets Vn are open. (Indeed, for each α the map x → kTα xk
is continuous from X to R, so if kTα xk > n for some α then also kTα yk > n for
all y sufficiently close to x.) Let En denote the complement of Vn and observe that
B = ∪∞ n=1 En . Since B is assumed to be of the second category, there is an N such that
¯ ◦
(EN ) is not empty. Since EN is closed, it follows that EN has nonempty interior; i.e.,
there is an x0 ∈ EN and r > 0 so that x0 − x ∈ EN for all kxk < r. Thus, for every α
and every kxk < r,
kTα xk ≤ kTα (x − x0 )k + kTα x0 k ≤ N + N.
That is, if kxk < r, then M (x) ≤ 2N . By rescaling we conclude that if kxk < 1, then
kTα xk ≤ 2N/r for all α and thus supα kTα k ≤ 2N/r < ∞.
26 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Proof. This result is more or less immediate from the fact, for fixed z0 and r ∈ K,
that the translation map z → z + z0 and the dilation map z → rz are continuous in
a normed vector space. The implication (i) implies (ii) is immediate. The fact that
T (sB) = sT (B) for s > 0 readily shows (ii), (iii) and (iv) are equivalent.
To finish the proof it suffice to show (iv) implies (i). Accordingly, suppose (iv) holds
and let U ⊂ X be a given open set. To prove that T (U ) is open, let y ∈ T (U ) be given.
There is an x ∈ U such that T (x) = y. There is an s > 0 such that the ball B(x, s) lies
in U ; that is B(x, s) ⊂ U . The ball sB = B(0, s) = B(x, r) − x is an open ball centered
to 0. By hypothesis there is an r > 0 such that B Y (0, r) ⊂ T (B(0, s)). (Here we use B Y
to emphasize this ball is a subset of Y.) By linearity of T ,
B Y (y, r) =B Y (0, r) + y ⊂ T (B(0, s)) + y
=T (B(0, s)) + T (x) = T (B(0, s) + x) = T (B(x, s)) ⊂ T (U ).
Thus T (U ) is open.
Theorem 22.6 (Open Mapping). Suppose that X is a Banach space, Y is a normed
vector space and T : X → Y is bounded. If the range of T is of second category, then
(i) T (X ) = Y;
(ii) Y is complete (so a Banach space); and
(iii) T is open.
In particular, if X , Y are Banach spaces, and T : X → Y is bounded and onto, then
T is an open map.
Proof. Observe that (i) follows immediately from (iii). To prove (iii),
S∞ let B(x, r) denote
the open ball of radius r centered at x in X . Trivially X = n=1 B(0, n) and thus
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 27
T (X) = ∞
S
n=1 T (B(0, n)). Since the range of T is assumed second category, there is
an N such that T (B(0, N )) is second category and hence not nowhere dense. In other
words, T (B(0, N )) has nonempty interior. By scaling (see Lemma 22.5), T (B(0, 1)) has
nonempty interior. Hence, there exists p ∈ Y and r > 0 such that T (B(0, 1)) contains
the open ball B Y (p, r). (Here the superscript Y is used to emphasize this ball is in Y.)
It follows that for all kyk < r,
y = −p + (y + p) ∈ T (B(0, 2)).
In other words,
B Y (0, r) ⊂ T (B(0, 2)).
By scaling, it follows that, for n ∈ N,
r 1
B Y (0, ) ⊂ T (B(0, )).
2n+1 2n
We will use the hypothesis that X is complete to prove B Y (0, 4r ) ⊂ T (B(0, 1)).
Accordingly let y such that kyk < 4r be given. Since y is in the closure of T (B(0, 12 )),
there is a y1 ∈ T (B(0, 12 )) such that ky − y1 k < 8r . Since y − y1 ∈ B Y (0, 8r ) it is is in the
closure of T (B(0, 14 )). Thus there is a y2 ∈ T (B(0, 41 )) such that k(y − y1 ) − y2 k < 16 r
.
∞
Continuing in this fashion produces a sequence (yj )j=1 from Y such that,
(a) ky − nj=1 yj k ≤ 2n+2 r
P
; and
1
(b) yn ∈ T (B(0, 2n )
for all n. It follows that ∞
P
j=1 yj converges to y. Further, for each j there is an xj ∈
1
B(0, 2j ) such that yj = T xj . Since
∞
X ∞
X
kxk ≤ kxj k < 2−k = 1,
j=1 k=1
P∞
the series j=1 xj converges to some x ∈ B(0, 1). It follows that y = T x by continuity
of T . Consequently y ∈ T (B(0, 1)) and the proof of (iii) is complete.
To prove (ii), let M denote the kernel of T and T̃ the mapping T̃ : X /M → Y
determined by T̃ π = T . By Lemma 21.17, T̃ is continuous and one-one. Further its range
is the same as the range of T , namely Y, and is thus second category. Hence, by what
has already been proved, T̃ is an open map. and consequently T̃ −1 is continuous. Hence
X /M and Y are isomorphic (though of course not necessarily isometrically isomorphic)
as normed vector spaces. Therefore, since X /M is complete, so is Y.
Note that the proof of item (ii) in the Open Mapping Theorem shows, in the case
that in the case that T is one-one and its range is of second category, that T is onto and
its inverse is continuous. In particular, if T : X → Y is a continuous bijection and Y is
a Banach space (so the range of T is second category), then T −1 is continuous.
28 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Corollary 22.7 (The Banach Isomorphism Theorem). If X , Y are Banach spaces and
T : X → Y is a bounded bijection, then T −1 is also bounded (hence, T is an isomor-
phism).
To state the final result of this section, we need a few more definitions. Let X , Y
be normed spaces. The Cartesian product X × Y is a topological space in the product
topology. A set is open in the product topology if and only if it can be written as a
union of products of open sets. Alternately, a set O is open if and only if for each
z = (x, y) ∈ O there exists open sets U ⊂ X and V ⊂ Y such that z ∈ U × V ⊂ O. It
is not too hard to show that X × Y is metrizable (in fact the product topology can be
realized by norming X × Y, e.g. with the norm k(x, y)k := max(kxk, kyk)). It is easy
to see that a sequence zn = (xn , yn ) converges in the product topology if and only if
both (xn ) and (yn ) converge. Further, if X , Y are both Banach spaces (complete), then
X × Y is also complete and hence a Banach space. The space X × Y is equipped with
the coordinate projections πX (x, y) = x, πY (x, y) = y. It is clear from the definition of
the product topology that these maps are continuous. (In fact the product topology is
the coarsest topology such that the coordinate projections are continuous.)
Given a linear map T : X → Y, its graph is the set
G(T ) := {(x, y) ∈ X × Y : y = T x}
Observe that since T is a linear map, G(T ) is a linear subspace of X × Y. The transfor-
mation T is closed if G(T ) is a closed subset of X × Y. It is an easy exercise to show that
G(T ) is closed if and only if whenever (xn , T xn ) converges to (x, y), we have y = T x.
Problem 22.2 gives an example where G(T ) is closed, but T is not continuous. On the
other hand, if X , Y are complete (Banach spaces), then G(T ) is closed if and only if T
is continuous.
Theorem 22.8 (The Closed Graph Theorem). If X , Y are Banach spaces and T : X →
Y is closed, then T is bounded.
Proof. Let π1 , π2 be the coordinate projections πX , πY restricted to G(T ); explicitly
π1 (x, T x) = x and π2 (x, T x) = T x. Note that π1 is a bijection between G(T ) and X and
in particular π1−1 (x) = (x, T x). By hypothesis G(T ) is a closed subset of a Banach space
and hence a Banach space. Thus π1 is a bounded linear bijection between Banach spaces
and therefore, by Corollary 22.7, π1−1 : X → G(T ) is bounded. Since π2 is bounded,
π2 ◦ π1−1 : X → Y is continuous. To finish the proof, observe π2 ◦ π1−1 (x) = π2 (x, T x) =
T x.
22.1. Problems.
ProblemT 22.1. Show that there exists a sequence of open, dense subsets Un ⊂ R such
that m( ∞
n=1 Un ) = 0.
Problem 22.2. Consider the linear subspace D ⊂ c0 defined by
D = {f ∈ c0 : lim |nf (n)| = 0}
n→∞
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 29
Proof. Fix x, y ∈ X. For t ∈ R, let λ = thx, yi and compute, using the nonnegativity
assumption
0 ≤hx − λy, x − λyi
=hx, xi − 2t|hx, yi|2 + t2 |hx, yi|2 hy, yi
=:P (t).
Since P (t) is a nonnegative quadratic, its discriminant is nonpositive; i.e.,
|hx, yi|4 ≤ hx, xi hy, yi |hx, yi|2
and the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality follows.
If hz, zi = 0 and x ∈ X, then (i) immediately implies hx, zi = 0, which proves (ii).
In particular, if both x, y ∈ M and c ∈ C, then
hx + cy, x + cyi = hx, xi + chy, xi + chx, yi + |c|2 hy, yi = 0
and so M is a subpace.
Item (iv) is an exercise in definition chasing.
23.2. Examples.
Kn : It is easy to check that the standard scalar product on Rn is an inner product;
it is defined as usual by
n
X
hx, yi = xj y j (11)
j=1
(Note that it is necessary to take complex conjugates of the w’s to obtain positive
definiteness.)
`2 (N) : Let
∞
X
2
` (N) = {(a1 , a2 , . . . an , . . . ) | an ∈ K, |an |2 < ∞}.
j=1
We may view ` as a subset of the vector space S of all sequences (with domain
2
closed under the vector space operations of S and is Phence a vector space; and
further that (13) defines an inner product, ha, bi = an bn , called the standard
inner product on `2 .
L2 (µ): Generalizing the previous example, let (X, M , µ) be a measure space. Consider
the set of all measurable functions f : X → K such that
Z
|f |2 dµ < ∞
X
The space L2 (µ) is defined to be this set, modulo the equivalence relation which
declares f equivalent to g if f = g almost everywhere. From the inequality
2|f g| ≤ |f |2 + |g|2 it follows that L2 (µ) is a vector space and that we can define
the inner product on L2 (µ) by
Z
hf, gi = f g dµ. (14)
X
23.3. Norms. Given a vector space X over K and a semi-inner product h·, ·i, define for
each x ∈ X p
kxk := hx, xi. (15)
This quantity should act something like a “length” of the vector x. Clearly kxk ≥ 0 for
all x, and moreover we have:
Theorem 23.4. Let X be a semi-inner product space over K, with k · k defined by
equation (15). Then for all x, y ∈ X and α ∈ K,
(a) kx + yk ≤ kxk + kyk
(b) kαxk = |α|kxk.
Thus k · k is a seminorm on X.
If h·, ·i is an inner product, then also
(c) kxk = 0 if and only if x = 0,
and thus k · k is a norm on X.
When X is an inner product space, the quantity kxk will be called the norm of x.
Item (a) will be referred to as the triangle inequality. On Rn ,
kxk = (x21 + · · · + x2n )1/2 ,
is the usual Euclidean norm.
Lemma 23.5. Let H be an inner product space equipped with the norm topology. If (xn )
converges to x and (yn ) converges to y in H, then (hxn , yn i) converges to hx, yi.
Proof. By Cauchy-Schwarz,
|hxn , yn i − hx, yi| ≤ |hxn , yn − yi| + |hxn − x, yi| ≤ kxn kkyn − yk + kxn − xkkyk → 0,
since kxn − xk, kyn − yk → 0 and the sequence kxn k is bounded.
23.4. Orthogonality. In this section we show that many of the basic features of the
Euclidean geometry of Kn extend naturally to the setting of an inner product space.
Definition 23.6. Let H be an inner product space.
(i) Two vectors x, y ∈ H are orthogonal if hx, yi = 0, written x ⊥ y.
(ii) Two subsets A, B of H are orthogonal if x ⊥ y for all x ∈ A and y ∈ B, written
A ⊥ B.
(iii) A subset A of H is orthogonal if x ⊥ y for each x, y ∈ A with x 6= y and is
orthonormal if also hx, xi = 1 for all x ∈ A.
(iv) The orthogonal complement of a subset E of H is
E ⊥ = {x ∈ H : hx, ei = 0 for all e ∈ E}.
/
The proof of the following lemma is an easy exercise. Indeed, the first item follows
immediately from Lemma 23.5 and the second from the positive definiteness of a norm.
Lemma 23.7. If E is a subset of an inner product space H, then
(i) E ⊥ is a closed subspace of H;
(ii) E ∩ E ⊥ ⊂ (0); and
(iii) E ⊂ (E ⊥ )⊥ = E ⊥⊥ .
Theorem 23.8 (The Pythagorean Theorem). If H is an inner product space and
f1 , . . . fn are mutually orthogonal vectors in H, then
kf1 + · · · + fn k2 = kf1 k2 + · · · + kfn k2 .
Proof. From the definition of the norm coming from the inner product,
kf ± gk2 = kf k2 + kgk2 ± 2Re hf, gi.
Now add.
Subtracting, instead of adding, in the proof of the Parallelogram Law gives the
polarization identity
kf + gk2 − kf − gk2 = 4Re hf, gi
in the case K = R.
Theorem 23.10 (The Polarization identity). If H is an inner product space over R,
then
1
kf + gk2 − kf − gk2 .
hf, gi = (18)
4
If H is a complex inner product space, then
1
hf, gi = [kf + gk2 − kf − gk2 + kf − igk2 − kf + igk2 ] (19)
4
Remark: An elementary (but slightly tricky) theorem of von Neumann says that if H
is any vector space equipped with a norm k · k such that the parallelogram law (17) holds
for all f, g ∈ H, then H is an inner product space with inner product given by formula
(18) in the case of real scalars and formula (19) in the case of complex scalars. (The
proof is simply to define the inner product by equation (18) or (19), and check that it
is indeed an inner product.)
23.5. Completeness.
Definition 23.11. A Hilbert space over K is an inner product space X over K that is
complete in the metric d(x, y) = kx − yk. (Here, as usual, K is either C or R.) /
That the inner product spaces Kn are complete (and hence Hilbert spaces) is known
from elementary analysis. (Note that the complex case follows from the real case, since
the Euclidean norms are equal under the natural isomorphism Cn ∼ = R2n .)
Theorem 23.12. L2 (µ) is complete.
2
Proof.
P∞ We use Proposition 20.3. Accordingly suppose (fk ) is a sequence in L (µ) and
k=1 kfk k = B < ∞. Define
n
X ∞
X
Gn = |fk | and G= |fk |.
k=1 k=1
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 35
By the triangle inequality, kGn k ≤ nk=1 kfk k ≤ B for all n. Thus, by the Monotone
P
Convergence Theorem and the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
Z Z
2
G dµ = lim G2n dµ ≤ B 2 . (20)
X n→∞ X
Thus G belongs to L2 (µ) and in particular G(x) < ∞ for almost every x. Hence, by the
definition of G, the sum
X∞
fk (x)
k=1
converges absolutely for almost every x. Hence there is a measurable function f such
that this sum converges a.e. to f . By construction, |f | ≤ G and thus f ∈ L2 (µ).
Moreover, for all n we have
2
Xn
f − fk ≤ (2G)2 .
k=1
2
Equation (20) says that G is integrable, so we can apply the Dominated Convergence
Theorem to obtain
2 Z 2
n
X
n
X
lim
f − fk
= lim f − fk dµ = 0.
n→∞
n→∞ X
k=1 k=1
23.6. Best approximation. The results of the preceding subsection used only the inner
product, but to go further we will need to invoke completeness. From now on, then, we
work only with Hilbert spaces. We begin with a fundamental approximation theorem.
Recall that if X is a vector space over K, a subset K ⊆ X is called convex if whenever
a, b ∈ K and 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, we have (1 − t)a + tb ∈ K as well. (Geometrically, this means
that when a, b lie in K, so does the line segment joining them.)
Theorem 23.13. Suppose H is a Hilbert space. If K ⊆ H is a closed, convex, nonempty
set, and h ∈ H, then there exists a unique vector k0 ∈ K such that
kh − k0 k = dist(h, K) := inf{kh − kk : k ∈ K}.
Proof. Let d = dist(h, K) = inf k∈K kh−kk. First observe, if x, y ∈ K, then, by convexity,
so is v = x+y
2
and in particular, kh − vk2 ≥ d2 . Hence, by the parallelogram law,
x − y
2 1
2
= kx − hk2 + ky − hk2 −
x + y − h
2
2
2
(21)
1
≤ kx − hk2 + ky − hk2 − d2 .
2
By assumption, there exists a sequence (kn ) in K so that (kkn − hk) converges to d.
Given > 0 choose N such that for all n ≥ N , kkn − hk2 < d2 + 41 2 . By (21), if
36 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
m, n ≥ N then
km − kn
2 1 2 1 2
< (2d + ) − d2 = 1 2 .
2
2 2 4
Consequently kkm − kn k < for m, n ≥ N and (kn ) is a Cauchy sequence. Since H is
complete, (kn ) converges to a limit k0 , and since K is closed, k0 ∈ K. Since (kn − h)
converges to (k0 − h) and kkn − hk converges to d it follows, by continuity of the norm,
that kk0 − hk = d.
It remains to show that k0 is the unique element of K with this property. If k 0 ∈ K
and kk 0 − hk = d, then another application of v = (k0 + k 0 )/2 belongs to K, and
kv − hk ≥ d. By the parallelogram law again, equation (21) gives
k0 − k 0
2 1
2 0 2 1
− d2 = (d2 + d2 ) − d2 = 0.
0≤
2
≤ kk0 − hk + kk − hk
2 2
Hence k0 = k 0 .
If E is a subset of the Banach space X, and E is the collection of all closed subspaces
N of X such that E ⊂ N , then
M = ∩N ∈E N
is the smallest closed subspace containing E.
Corollary 23.16. If E is a subset of H, then (E ⊥ )⊥ is equal to the smallest closed
subspace of H containing E.
23.7. The Riesz Representation Theorem. In this section we investigate the dual
H ∗ of a Hilbert space H. One way to construct bounded linear functionals on Hilbert
space is as follows. Given a vector g ∈ H define,
Lg (h) = hh, gi.
38 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Indeed, linearity of L is just the linearity of the inner product in the first entry, and the
boundedness of L follows from the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
|Lg (h)| = |hh, gi| ≤ kgkkhk.
So kLg k ≤ kgk, but in fact it is easy to see that kLg k = kgk; just apply Lg to the unit
vector g/kgk. Hence, L : H → H ∗ defined by g 7→ Lg is a conjugate linear isometry
(thus linear in the case of real scalars).
In fact, it is clear from linear algebra that every linear functional on Kn takes the
form Lg . More generally, every bounded linear functional on a Hilbert space has the form
just described.
Theorem 23.20 (The Riesz RepresentationTheorem). If H is a Hilbert space and λ :
H → K is a bounded linear functional, then there exists a unique vector g ∈ H such that
λ = Lg . Thus the conjugate linear mapping L is isometric and onto.
Proof. It has already been established that L is isometric and in particular one-one.
Thus it only remains to show L is onto. Accordingly, let λ ∈ H ∗ be given. If λ = 0, then
λ = L0 . So, assume λ 6= 0. Since λ is continuous by Proposition 20.7, ker λ = λ−1 ({0})
is a proper, closed subspace of H. Thus, by Theorem 23.14 (or Corollary 23.19) there
exists a nonzero vector f ∈ (ker λ)⊥ and by rescaling we may assume λ(f ) = 1.
Given h ∈ H, observe
λ(h − λ(h)f ) = λ(h) − λ(h)λ(f ) = 0.
Thus h − λ(h)f ∈ ker λ and consequently,
0 = hh − λ(h)f, f i
= hh, gi − λ(h)hf, f i.
f
Thus λ = Lg , where g = kf k2
and the proof is complete.
23.8. Duality for Hilbert space. In the case K = R the Riesz representation theorem
identifies H ∗ with H. In the case K = C, the mapping sending λ ∈ H ∗ to the vector
h0 is conjugate linear and thus H ∗ is not exactly H (under this map). However, it
is customary when working in complex Hilbert space not to make this distinction. In
particular, it is a simple matter to identify the adjoint of a bounded operator T : H → H
as an operator T ∗ : H → H. (See Theorem 21.14.) Namely, for h ∈ H, define T ∗ h as
follows. Observe that the mapping λ : H → C defined by λ(f ) = hT f, hi is (linear and)
continuous. Hence, there is a vector T ∗ h such that
hT f, hi = λ(f ) = hf, T ∗ hi.
Conversely, if S : H → H is linear and
hT f, hi = hf, Shi
for all f, h ∈ H, then S = T ∗ . In particular T ∗ is completely determined by hT f, hi =
hf, T ∗ hi for all f, h ∈ H. Further properties of the adjoints on Hilbert space appear in
Problem 23.2.
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 39
23.10. Basis expansions. Our ultimate goal in this section is to show that vectors in
Hilbert space admit expansions as (possibly infinite) linear combinations of basis vectors.
Theorem 23.27. Let {e1 , . . . en } be an orthonormal set in H, and let M = span{e1 , . . . en }.
The orthogonal projection P = PM onto M is given by, for h ∈ H,
n
X
Ph = hh, ej iej . (26)
j=1
Pn
Proof. Given h ∈ H, let g = j=1 hh, ej iej . Since g ∈ M, it suffices to show (h−g) ⊥ M .
For 1 ≤ m ≤ n,
* n +
X
hh − g, em i =hh, em i − hh, ej iej , em
j=1
Xn
= hh, em i − hh, ej ihej , em i
j=1
= hh, em i − hh, em i = 0.
It follows that h − g is orthogonal to {e1 , . . . , en } and hence to M .
42 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Proof. Put e1 = f1 /kf1 k. Assuming P e1 , . . . en have been constructed satisfying the condi-
tions of the theorem, let gn+1 = nj=1 hfn+1 , ej iej , the orthogonal projection of fn+1 onto
gn
Mn = span{e1 , . . . , en }. Thus gn+1 is orthogonal to Mn and not 0. Let en+1 = kgn+1 k
.
Proof. For N ∈ N+ , let PN denote the projection onto MN = span({e1 , . . . , eN }). Given
h ∈ H, Theorem 23.27 and orthogonality gives,
khk2 = kPN h + (I − PN )hk2
=kPn hk2 + k(I − PN )hk2
≥kPN hk2
N
X
= |hh, ej i|2 .
j=1
Corollary 23.31. Suppose E ⊂ H is an orthonormal set and let F denote the collection
of finite subsets of E. If h ∈ H, then
X
sup{ |hh, ei|2 : F ∈ F} ≤ khk2 . (28)
e∈F
It remains to show g 0 = g.
Given > 0, choose N so that (30) holds. Now choose M ≥ N so that
{1, 2, . . . N } ⊆ {ϕ(1), ϕ(2), . . . ϕ(M )}.
For n ≥ M , let Gn be the symmetric difference of the sets {1, . . . n} and {ϕ(1), . . . ϕ(n)}
(that is, their union minus their intersection). Since n ≥ M , the set Gn ⊂ {N + 1, N +
2, . . . }. It follows that
X
ksn − s0n k2 = k ±ak ek k2 (31)
k∈Gn
X
= |ak |2 (32)
k∈Gn
∞
X
≤ |aj |2 (33)
N +1
< . (34)
Thus g 0 = g. Hence item (ii) implies item (iii) and the proof of the first part of the
theorem is complete.
|hh, ej i|2 and thus, by
P
For h ∈ H Bessel’s inequality impliesPthe convergence of
what has already been proved, the series hh, ej i ej converges unconditionally to some
g ∈ H. To complete the proof, given > 0, choose N so that if n ≥ N , then
n
X
kg − hh, ej iej k < .
j=1
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 45
There is another notion of convergence in Hilbert space. Let I be an index set and
let F denote the collection of finite subsets of I. Given {hi : i ∈ I}, a collection of
elements of H, the series X
hi
i∈I
converges as a net if there exists h ∈ H such that for every > 0 there exists an F ∈ F
such that for every F ⊂ G ∈ F,
X
k hi − hk < .
i∈G
converges unconditionally to h.
converges unconditionally to some g ∈ H and moreover hg, ej i = hh, ej i for all j. Given
> 0, there is an N so that if n ≥ N , then
X n
|g − hh, ej iej | <
j=1
converges (as a net) to some g ∈ H and moreover hg, ei = hh, ei for all e ∈ E. Suppose
g−h
g 6= h and let f = kg−hk so that f is a unit vector. If e ∈ E, then
1
hf, ei = hg − h, ei = 0,
kg − hk
and thus E is not maximal. Hence (a) implies (b).
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 47
Now suppose (b) holds and let h, g ∈ H be given. Given , choose a finite subset F
of E such that if F ⊂ G ⊂ E, then
X X √
kh − hh, eiek, kg − hg, eiek <
e∈G e∈G
Proof. The proof is essentially the same as the Zorn’s lemma proof that every vector
space has a basis. Let H be a Hilbert space and E the collection of orthonormal subsets
of H, partially ordered by inclusion. Since H 6= (0), the collection E is not empty. If
(Eα ) is an ascending chain in E, then it is straightforward to verify that ∪α Eα is an
orthonormal set, and is an upper bound for (Eα ). Thus by Zorn’s lemma, E has a
maximal element. This maximal element is then a basis (maximal orthonormal set).
Remark 23.36. If H has a finite orthonormal basis E = {e1 , . . . , en }, then by Theorem
23.34(b), E spans (in the sense of linear algebra) and is therefore a vector space (Hamel)
basis for H. Hence H has dimension n as a vector space and further every orthonormal
basis of H has exactly n elements.
On the other hand, if H has an infinite orthonormal basis E, then it contains an
infinite linearly independent set (the basis E) and so has infinite dimension as a vector
space.
Theorem 23.37. Any two bases of a Hilbert space H have the same cardinality.
23.11. Weak convergence. In addition to the norm topology, Hilbert spaces carry
another topology called the weak topology. In these notes we will stick to the seperable
case and just study weakly convergent sequences.
Definition 23.39. Let H be a seperable Hilbert space. A sequence (hn ) in H converges
weakly to h ∈ H if for all g ∈ H,
hhn , gi → hh, gi.
/
by the Principle of Uniform boundedness, sup khn k = sup kLn k < ∞, showing (i) holds.
Item (ii) is immediate from the definition of weak convergence.
Conversely, suppose (i) and (ii) hold, let M = sup khn k. Define
ĥj = limhhn , ej i.
Thus j |ĥj |2 ≤ M 2 and therefore the series j ĥj ej is norm convergent to some h ∈ H
P P
It turns out, if (hn ) converges to h weakly, then khk ≤ lim inf khn k and further, still
assuming (hn ) converges weakly to h, khk = lim khn k if and only if (hn ) converges to h
in norm. See Problem 23.9.
Theorem 23.41 (Weak compactness of the unit ball in Hilbert space). If (hn ) is a
bounded sequence in a separable Hilbert space H, then (hn ) has a weakly convergent
subsequence.
Theorem 23.41 holds without the separability hypothesis, but the proof is much
simpler with the hypothesis.
50 MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020
Proof. Using the previous proposition, it suffices to fix an orthonromal basis (ej ) and
produce a subsequence (hnk )k such that hhnk , ej i converges for each j. This is a standard
“diagonalization” argument, and the details are left as an exercise (Problem 23.11)
23.12. Problems.
Problem 23.1. Prove the complex form of the polarization identity: if H is a Hilbert
space over C, then for all g, h ∈ H
1
kg + hk2 − kg − hk2 + ikg + ihk2 − ikg − ihk2
hg, hi =
4
Problem 23.2. (Adjoint operators) Let H be a Hilbert space and T : H → H a
bounded linear operator.
a) Prove there is a unique bounded operator T ∗ : H → H satisfying hT g, hi =
hg, T ∗ hi for all g, h ∈ H, and kT ∗ k = kT k.
b) Prove, if S, T ∈ B(H), then (aS + T )∗ = aS ∗ + T ∗ for all a ∈ K, and that
T ∗∗ = T .
c) Prove kT ∗ T k = kT k2 .
d) Prove kerT is a closed subspace of H, (ranT ) = (kerT ∗ )⊥ and kerT ∗ = (ranT )⊥ .
Problem 23.3. Let H, K be Hilbert spaces. A linear transformation T : H → K is
called isometric if kT hk = khk for all h ∈ H, and unitary if it is a surjective isometry.
Prove the following:
a) T is an isometry if and only if hT g, T hi = hg, hi for all g, h ∈ H, if and only if
T ∗ T = I (here I denotes the identity operator on H).
b) T is unitary if and only if T is invertible and T −1 = T ∗ , if and only if T ∗ T =
T T ∗ = I.
c) Prove, if E ⊂ H is an orthonormal set and T is an isometry, then T (E) is an
orthonormal set in K.
d) Prove, if H is finite-dimensional, then every isometry T : H → H is unitary.
e) Consider the shift operator S ∈ B(`2 (N)) defined by
S(a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . ) = (0, a0 , a1 , . . . ) (35)
Prove S is an isometry, but not unitary. Compute S ∗ and SS ∗ .
2
P 23.4. 2For any set J, 2let ` (J) denote the set of all functions f : J → K such
Problem
that j∈J |f (j)| < ∞. Then ` (J) is a Hilbert space.
a) Prove `2 (I) is isometrically isomorphic to `2 (J) if and only if I and J have the
same cardinality. (Hint: use Problem 23.3(c).)
b) Prove, if H is any Hilbert space, then H is isometrically isomorphic to `2 (J) for
some set J.
Problem 23.5. Let (X, M , µ) be a σ-finite measure space. Prove the simple functions
that belong to L2 (µ) are dense in L2 (µ).
MAA6617 COURSE NOTES SPRING 2020 51
Problem 23.6. (The Fourier basis) Prove the set E = {en (t) := e2πint |n ∈ Z} is an
orthonormal basis for L2 [0, 1]. (Hint: use the Stone-Weierstrass theorem to prove that
the set of trigonometric polynomials P = { N 2πint
P
n=−M cn e } is uniformly dense in the
space of continuous functions f on [0, 1] that satisfy f (0) = f (1). Then show that this
space of continuous functions is dense in L2 [0, 1]. Finally show that if fn is a sequence
in L2 [0, 1] and fn → f uniformly, then also fn → f in the L2 norm.)
Problem 23.7. Let (gn )n∈N be an orthonormal basis for L2 [0, 1], and extend each
function to R by declaring it to be 0 off of [0, 1]. Prove the functions hmn (x) :=
1[m,m+1] (x)gn (x − m), n ∈ N, m ∈ Z form an orthonormal basis for L2 (R). (Thus
L2 (R) is separable.)
Problem 23.8. Let (X, M , µ), (Y, N , ν) are σ-finite measure spaces, and let µ × ν de-
note the product measure. Prove, if (fm ) and (gn ) are orthonormal bases for L2 (µ), L2 (ν)
respectively, then the collection of functions {hmn (x, y) = fm (x)gn (y)} is an orthonromal
basis for L2 (µ × ν). Use this result to construct an orthonormal basis for L2 (Rn ), and
conclude that L2 (Rn ) is separable.
Problem 23.9. (Weak Convergence)
a) Prove, if (hn ) converges to h in norm, then also (hn ) converges to h weakly.
(Hint: Cauchy-Schwarz.)
b) Prove, if H is infinite-dimensional, and (en ) is an orthonormal sequence in H,
then en → 0 weakly, but en 6→ 0 in norm. (Thus weak convergence does not
imply norm convergence.)
c) Prove (hn ) converges to h in norm if and only if (hn ) converges to h weakly and
khn k → khk.
d) Prove if (hn ) converges to h weakly, then khk ≤ lim inf khn k.
Problem 23.10. Suppose H is countably infinite-dimensional (separable Hilbert space).
Prove, if h ∈ H and khk ≤ 1, then there is a sequence hn in H with khn k = 1 for all n,
and (hn ) converges to h weakly, but hn does not converge to h strongly.
Problem 23.11. Prove Theorem 23.41.
Problem 23.12. Prove, if (an ) is a sequence of complex numbers, then the following
are equivalent.
P
(1) Pn∈N an converges as a net;
(2) P∞n=1 an converges unconditionally;
(3) ∞ n=1 an converges absolutely.