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3
Basic Syntax
When we consider a Java program, it can be defined as a collection of objects
that communicate via invoking each other's methods. Let us now briefly look
into what do class, object, methods and instance variables mean.

Object - Objects have states and behaviors. Example: A dog has states-color,
name, breed as well as behaviors -wagging, barking, eating. An object is an
instance of a class.
Class - A class can be defined as a template/blue print that describes the
behaviors/states that object of its type support.
Methods - A method is basically a behavior. A class can contain many
methods. It is in methods where the logics are written, data is manipulated and
all the actions are executed.
Instance Variables - Each object has its unique set of instance variables. An
object's state is created by the values assigned to these instance variables.

First Java Program:

Let us look at a simple code that would print the words Hello World.

public class MyFirstJavaProgram{

/* This is my first java program. * This will print 'Hello World' as the output */
public static void main(String[]args){

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System.out.println("Hello World");
// prints Hello World
}
}

Let's look at how to save the file, compile and run the program. Please follow
the steps given below:
Open notepad and add the code as above.

Save the file as: MyFirstJavaProgram.java.

Open a command prompt window and go o the directory where you saved the
class. Assume it's C:\.

Type ' javac MyFirstJavaProgram.java ' and press enter to compile your code. If
there are no errors in your code, the command prompt will take you to the next
line(Assumption : The path variable is set).

Now, type ' java MyFirstJavaProgram ' to run your program.

You will be able to see ' Hello World ' printed on the window.

C :> javac MyFirstJavaProgram.java C :> java MyFirstJavaProgram HelloWorld

Basic Syntax:
About Java programs, it is very important to keep in mind the following points.

Case Sensitivity - Java is case sensitive, which means identifier Hello and
hello would have different meaning in Java.

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Class Names - For all class names, the first letter should be in Upper Case. If
several words are used to form a name of the class, each inner word's first
letter should be in Upper Case. Example class MyFirstJavaClass

Method Names - All method names should start with a Lower Case letter. If
several words are used to form the name of the method, then each inner word's
first letter should be in Upper Case. Example public void myMethodName()

Program File Name - Name of the program file should exactly match the class
name. When saving the file, you should save it using the class name
(Remember Java is case sensitive) and append '.java' to the end of the name (if
the file name and the class name do not match your program will not compile).
Example : Assume 'MyFirstJavaProgram' is the class name, then the file should
be saved as'MyFirstJavaProgram.java'

public static void main(String args[]) - Java program processing starts from
the main() method, which is a mandatory part of every Java program.

Java Identifiers:
All Java components require names. Names used for classes, variables and
methods are called identifiers. In Java, there are
several points to remember about identifiers. They are as follows:

All identifiers should begin with a letter (A to Z or a to z), currency character ($)
or an underscore (_).
After the first character, identifiers can have any combination of characters.
A keyword cannot be used as an identifier.
Most importantly identifiers are case sensitive.
Examples of legal identifiers: age, $salary, _value, __1_value

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Examples of illegal identifiers: 123abc, -salary

Java Modifiers:
Like other languages, it is possible to modify classes, methods, etc., by using
modifiers. There are two categories of modifiers:

Access Modifiers: default, public, protected, private

Non-access Modifiers: final, abstract, strictfp

We will be looking into more details about modifiers in the next section.
Java Variables:

We would see following type of variables in Java:

Local Variables
Class Variables (Static Variables)
Instance Variables (Non-static variables)

Java Arrays:
Arrays are objects that store multiple variables of the same type. However, an
array itself is an object on the heap. We will look into how to declare, construct
and initialize in the upcoming chapters.

Java Enums:
Enums were introduced in java 5.0. Enums restrict a variable to have one of
only a few predefined values. The values in this enumerated list are called
enums. With the use of enums, it is possible to reduce the number of bugs in
your code. For example, if we consider an application for a fresh juice shop, it
would be possible to restrict the glass size to small, medium and large. This

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would make sure that it would not allow anyone to order any size other than
the small, medium or large.
Example:
Class FreshJuice{
enum FreshJuiceSize{ SMALL, MEDUIM, LARGE }
FreshJuiceSize size;
}
public class FreshJuiceTest{
public static void main(String args[]){
FreshJuice juice =new FreshJuice();
juice.size =FreshJuice.FreshJuiceSize.MEDUIM ;
}
}
Note: enums can be declared as their own or inside a class. Methods,
variables, constructors can be defined inside enums as well.

Java Keywords:
The following list shows the reserved words in Java. These reserved words may
not be used as constant or variable or any other identifier names.

abstract assert boolean break byte

case catch char class const
continue default do double else
enum extends final finally float
for goto if implements import
instanceof int interface long native
new package private protected public
return short static strictfp super
switch synchronize this throw throws
d

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transient try void volatile while

Comments in Java
Java supports single-line and multi-line comments very similar to c and c++.
All characters available inside any comment are ignored by Java compiler.

public class MyFirstJavaProgram{

/* This is my first java program. * This will print 'Hello World' as the
output * This is an example of multi-line comments. */ public static void
main(String[]args) {

// This is an example of single line comment /* This is also an example of

single line comment. */

System.out.println("Hello World");

}
}

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4
Basic Data Types
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This
means that when you create a variable you reserve some space in memory.
Based on the data type of a variable, the operating system allocates memory
and decides what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by
assigning different data types to variables, you can store integers, decimals, or
characters in these variables. There are two data types available in Java:

Primitive Data Types

Reference/Object Data Types

Primitive Data Types:

There are eight primitive data types supported by Java. Primitive data types are
predefined by the language and named by a keyword. Let us now look into
detail about the eight primitive data types.

byte:
Byte data type is an 8-bit signed two's complement integer.

 Minimum value is -128 (-2^7)

 Maximum value is 127 (inclusive)(2^7 -1)

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 Default value is 0

 Byte data type is used to save space in large arrays, mainly in place of
integers, since a byte is four times smaller than an int.

 Example: byte a = 100, byte b = -50

short:
Short data type is a 16-bit signed two's complement integer.

Minimum value is -32,768 (-2^15)

 Maximum value is 32,767(inclusive) (2^15 -1)

 Short data type can also be used to save memory as byte data type. A
short is 2 times smaller than an int

 Default value is 0.

 Example: short s= 10000, short r = -20000

int:
int data type is a 32-bit signed two's complement integer.

 Minimum value is - 2,147,483,648.(-2^31)

 Maximum value is 2,147,483,647(inclusive).(2^31 -1)

 Int is generally used as the default data type for integral values unless
there is a concern about memory.

 The default value is 0.

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 Example: int a = 100000, int b = -200000

long:
Long data type is a 64-bit signed two's complement integer.

 Minimum value is -9,223,372,036,854,775,808.(-2^63)

 Maximum value is 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (inclusive). (2^63 -1)

 This type is used when a wider range than int is needed.

 Default value is 0L.

 Example: int a = 100000L, int b = -200000L

float:
Float data type is a single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 floating point.

 Float is mainly used to save memory in large arrays of floating point

numbers.

 Default value is 0.0f.

 Float data type is never used for precise values such as currency.

 Example: float f1 = 234.5f

double:

double data type is a double-precision 64-bit IEEE 754 floating point.

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 This data type is generally used as the default data type for decimal
values, generally the default choice.

 Double data type should never be used for precise values such as
currency.

 Default value is 0.0d.

 Example: double d1 = 123.4

boolean:
boolean data type represents one bit of information.

 There are only two possible values: true and false.

 This data type is used for simple flags that track true/false conditions.

 Default value is false.

 Example: boolean one = true

char:
char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode character.

 Minimum value is '\u0000' (or 0).

 Maximum value is '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive).

 Char data type is used to store any character.

 Example: char letterA ='A'

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Reference Data Types:

Reference variables are created using defined constructors of the classes. They
are used to access objects. These variables are declared to be of a specific type
that cannot be changed. For example, Employee, Puppy, etc.

 Class objects and various types of array variables come under reference
data type.

 Default value of any reference variable is null.

 A reference variable can be used to refer to any object of the declared

type or any compatible type.

 Example: Animal animal = new Animal("giraffe");

Java Literals:
A literal is a source code representation of a fixed value. They are represented
directly in the code without any computation. Literals can be assigned to any
primitive type variable. For example:

byte a =68;

char a ='A'

byte, int, long, and short can be expressed in decimal(base

10),hexadecimal(base 16) or octal(base 8) number systems as well. Prefix 0 is
used to indicate octal and prefix 0x indicates hexadecimal when using these
number systems for literals. For example:

int decimal=100;

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int octal =0144;
int hexa =0x64;

String literals in Java are specified like they are in most other languages by
enclosing a sequence of characters between a pair of double quotes. Examples
of string literals are:
"Hello World"
"two\n lines"
"\"This is in quotes\""

String and char types of literals can contain any Unicode characters. For
example:
char a ='\u0001';
String a ="\u0001";
Java language supports few special escape sequences for String and char
literals as well. They are:

Notation Character represented

\n Newline (0x0a)
\r Carriage return (0x0d)
\f Formfeed (0x0c)
\b Backspace (0x08)
\s Space (0x20)
\t Tab
\" Double quote
\' Single quote
\\ Backslash
\ddd Octal character (ddd)
\uxxxx Hexadecimal UNICODE
character (xxxx)

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5
Variable Types
A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can manipulate.
Each variable in Java has a specific type, which determines the size and layout
of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that
memory; and the set of operations that can be applied to the variable. You
must declare all variables before they can be used. The basic form of a variable
declaration is shown here:

data type variable [ = value][, variable [= value] ...] ;

Here data type is one of Java's datatypes and variable is the name of the
variable. To declare more than one variable of the specified type, you can use a
comma-separated list. Following are valid examples of variable declaration and
initialization in Java:

int a, b, c; // Declares three ints, a, b, and c.

int a = 10, b = 10; // Example of initialization
byte B = 22; // initializes a byte type variable B.
double pi = 3.14159; // declares and assigns a value of PI.
char a = 'a'; // the char variable a is initialized with value 'a'

This chapter will explain various variable types available in Java Language.
There are three kinds of variables in Java:

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 Local variables

 Instance variables

 Class/static variables

Local variables:

 Local variables are declared in methods, constructors, or blocks.

 Local variables are created when the method, constructor or block is

entered and the variable will be destroyed once it exits the method,
constructor or block.

 Access modifiers cannot be used for local variables.

 Local variables are visible only within the declared method, constructor
or block.

 Local variables are implemented at stack level internally.

 There is no default value for local variables so local variables should be

declared and an initial value should be assigned before the first use.

Example:
Here, age is a local variable. This is defined inside pupAge() method and
its scope is limited to this method only.

public class Test{

public void pupAge() {
int age = 0;

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age = age + 7;
System.out.println("Puppy age is : " + age);
}

public static void main(String args[]) {

Test test = new Test();
test.pupAge();
}
}

This would produce the following result:

Puppy age is: 7

Example:
Following example uses age without initializing it, so it would give an error at
the time of compilation.

public class Test {

public void pupAge() {

int age;

age = age + 7;

System.out.println("Puppy age is : " + age);

public static void main(String args[]){

Test test = new Test();

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test.pupAge();

This would produce the following error while compiling it:

Test.java:4:variable number might not have been initialized

age = age + 7;
1 error
Example:

// Demonstrate lifetime of a variable.

class LifeTime {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int x;
for(x = 0; x < 3; x++) {
int y = -1; // y is initialized each time block is entered
System.out.println("y is: " + y); // this always prints -1
y = 100;
System.out.println("y is now: " + y);
}
}
}

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Instance variables:

 Instance variables are declared in a class, but outside a method,

constructor or any block.

 When a space is allocated for an object in the heap, a slot for each
instance variable value is created.

 Instance variables are created when an object is created with the use of
the keyword 'new' and destroyed when the object is destroyed.
 Instance variables hold values that must be referenced by more than
one method, constructor or block, or essential parts of an object's state
that must be present throughout the class.
 Instance variables can be declared in class level before or after use.
 Access modifiers can be given for instance variables.
 The instance variables are visible for all methods, constructors and block
in the class. Normally, it is recommended to make these variables private
(access level). However visibility for subclasses can be given for these
variables with the use of access modifiers.
 Instance variables have default values. For numbers the default value is
0, for Booleans it is false and for object references it is null. Values can
be assigned during the declaration or within the constructor.
 Instance variables can be accessed directly by calling the variable name
inside the class. However within static methods and different class (
when instance variables are given accessibility) should be called using
the fully qualified name . ObjectReference.VariableName.
Example:
import java.io.*;
public class Employee{

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// this instance variable is visible for any child class.
public String name;
// salary variable is visible in Employee class only.
private double salary;
// The name variable is assigned in the constructor.
public Employee (String empName){
name = empName;
}
// The salary variable is assigned a value.
public void setSalary(double empSal){
salary = empSal;
}
// This method prints the employee details.
public void printEmp(){
System.out.println("name : " + name );
System.out.println("salary :" + salary);
}
public static void main(String args[]){
Employee empOne = new Employee("Ransika");
empOne.setSalary(1000); empOne.printEmp();
}
}

This would produce the following result:

name : Ransika
salary :1000.0

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Class/static variables:

 Class variables also known as static variables are declared with the static
keyword in a class, but outside a method, constructor or a block.

 There would only be one copy of each class variable per class, regardless
of how many objects are created from it.

 Static variables are rarely used other than being declared as constants.
Constants are variables that are declared as public/private, final and
static. Constant variables never change from their initial value.

 Static variables are stored in static memory. It is rare to use static

variables other than declared final and used as either public or private
constants.

 Static variables are created when the program starts and destroyed when
the program stops.

 Visibility is similar to instance variables. However, most static variables

are declared public since they must be available for users of the class.

 Default values are same as instance variables. For numbers, the default
value is 0; for Booleans, it is false; and for object references, it is null.
Values can be assigned during the declaration or within the constructor.
Additionally values can be assigned in special static initializer blocks.

 Static variables can be accessed by calling with the class name .

ClassName.VariableName.

 When declaring class variables as public static final, then variables

names (constants) are all in upper case. If the static variables are not

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public and final the naming syntax is the same as instance and local
variables.
Example:

import java.io.*;
public class Employee{
// salary variable is a private static variable
private static double salary;
// DEPARTMENT is a constant
public static final String DEPARTMENT = "Development ";
public static void main(String args[]){
salary = 1000;
System.out.println(DEPARTMENT+"average salary:"+salary);
}
}
This would produce the following result:
Development average salary:1000
Note: If the variables are access from an outside class the constant should be
accessed as Employee.DEPARTMENT

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6
Basic Operators
Java provides a rich set of operators to manipulate variables. We can divide all
the Java operators into the following groups:

 Arithmetic Operators

 Relational Operators

 Bitwise Operators

 Logical Operators

 Assignment Operators

 Misc Operators

The Arithmetic Operators:

Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way
that they are used in algebra. The following table lists the arithmetic operators:
Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

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Operat Description Example
or
+ Addition - Adds values on either side of A + B will
the operator give 30
- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand A - B will
operand from left hand operand give -10
* Multiplication - Multiplies values on either A * B will
side of the operator give 200
/ Division - Divides left hand operand by B / A will
right hand operand give 2
% Modulus - Divides left hand operand by B % A will
right hand operand and returns give 0
remainder
++ Increment - Increases the value of B++ gives 21
operand by 1
-- Decrement - Decreases the value of B-- gives 19
operand by 1

Example
The following simple example program demonstrates the arithmetic operators.
Copy and paste the following Java program in Test.java file and compile and
run this program:

public class Test{

public static void main(String args[]){
int a =10;
int b =20;
int c =25;
int d =25;
System.out.println("a + b = "+(a + b));

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System.out.println("a - b = "+(a - b));
System.out.println("a * b = "+(a * b));
System.out.println("b / a = "+(b / a));
System.out.println("b % a = "+(b % a));
System.out.println("c % a = "+(c % a));
System.out.println("a++ = "+(a++));
System.out.println("b-- = "+(a--));
// Check the difference in d++ and ++d
System.out.println("d++ = "+(d++));
System.out.println("++d = "+(++d));
}
}

This would produce the following result:

a + b =30
a - b =-10
a * b =200
b / a =2
b % a =0
c % a =5
a++=10
b--=11
d++=25
++d =27

The Relational Operators:

There are following relational operators supported by Java language:
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

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Operat Description Example
or
== Checks if the values of two operands are equal (A == B) is not
or not, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
!= Checks if the values of two operands are equal (A != B) is
or not, if values are not equal then condition true.
becomes true.
> Checks if the value of left operand is greater (A > B) is not
than the value of right operand, if yes then true.
condition becomes true.
< Checks if the value of left operand is less than (A < B) is
the value of right operand, if yes then condition true.
becomes true.
>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater (A >= B) is not
than or equal to the value of right operand, if true.
yes then condition becomes true.
<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than (A <= B) is
or equal to the value of right operand, if yes true.
then condition becomes true.

Example
The following simple example program demonstrates the relational operators.
Copy and paste the following Java program in Test.java file and compile and
run this program. :

public class Test{

public static void main(String args[]){
int a =10; int b =20;
System.out.println("a == b = "+(a == b));

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System.out.println("a != b = "+(a != b));
System.out.println("a > b = "+(a > b));
System.out.println("a < b = "+(a < b));
System.out.println("b >= a = "+(b >= a));
System.out.println("b <= a = "+(b <= a));
}
}
This would produce the following result:
a == b =false
a != b =true
a > b =false
a < b =true
b >= a =true
b <= a =false

The Bitwise Operators:

Java defines several bitwise operators, which can be applied to the integer
types, long, int, short, char, and byte. Bitwise operator works on bits and
performsbit-by-bit operation.
Assume if a = 60; and b = 13;
now in binary format they will be as follows:
a = 0011 1100
b = 0000 1101
-----------------
a&b = 0000 1100
a|b = 0011 1101
a^b = 0011 0001
~a = 1100 0011
The following table lists the bitwise operators:
Assume integer variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13, then:

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Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to (A & B) will give 12
the result if it exists in both operands. which is 0000 1100
| Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it (A | B) will give 61
exists in either operand. which is 0011 1101
^ Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it (A ^ B) will give 49
is set in one operand but not both. which is 0011 0001
~ Binary Ones Complement Operator is (~A ) will give -60
unary and has the effect of 'flipping' which is 1100 0011
bits.
<< Binary Left Shift Operator. The left A << 2 will give 240
operands value is moved left by the which is 1111 0000
number of bits specified by the right
operand.
>> Binary Right Shift Operator. The left A >> 2 will give 15
operands value is moved right by the which is 1111
number of bits specified by the right
operand.
>>> Shift right zero fill operator. The left A >>>2 will give 15
operands value is moved right by the which is 0000 1111
number of bits specified by the right
operand and shifted values are filled
up with zeros.
Example
The following simple example program demonstrates the bitwise operators.
Copy and paste the following Java program in Test.java file and compile and
run this program:

public class Test {

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public static void main(String args[]) {
int a =60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */
int b =13; /* 13 = 0000 1101 */
int c =0;
c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */
System.out.println("a & b = "+ c );
c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */
System.out.println("a | b = "+ c );
c = a ^ b; /* 49 = 0011 0001 */
System.out.println("a ^ b = "+ c );
c =~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */
System.out.println("~a = "+ c );
c = a <<2; /* 240 = 1111 0000 */
System.out.println("a << 2 = "+ c );
c = a >>2; /* 215 = 1111 */
System.out.println("a >> 2 = "+ c );
c = a >>>2; /* 215 = 0000 1111 */
System.out.println("a >>> 2 = "+ c );
}
}
This would produce the following result:
a & b =12
a | b =61
a ^ b =49
~a =-61
a <<2=240
a >>15
a >>>15

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The Logical Operators:
The following table lists the logical operators:
Assume Boolean variables A holds true and variable B holds false, then:
Operator Description Example
&& Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands (A && B)
are non-zero, then the condition becomes true. is false.
|| Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two (A || B)
operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes is true.
true.
! Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the !(A && B)
logical state of its operand. If a condition is true is true.
then Logical NOT operator will make false.

Example
The following simple example program demonstrates the logical operators.
Copy and paste the following Java program in Test.java file and compile and
run this program:
public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
boolean a =true;
boolean b =false;
System.out.println("a && b = "+(a&&b));
System.out.println("a || b = "+(a||b));
System.out.println("!(a && b) = "+!(a && b));
}
}
This would produce the following result:
a && b =false

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a || b =true
!(a && b)=true

The Assignment Operators:

There are following assignment operators supported by Java language:

Operato Description Example

r

= Simple assignment operator, Assigns C = A + B will assign

values from right side operands to left value of A + B into C
side operand
+= Add AND assignment operator, It adds C += A is equivalent
right operand to the left operand and to C = C + A
assign the result to left operand
-= Subtract AND assignment operator, It C -= A is equivalent
subtracts right operand from the left to C = C - A
operand and assign the result to left
operand
*= Multiply AND assignment operator, It C *= A is equivalent
multiplies right operand with the left to C = C * A
operand and assign the result to left
operand
/= Divide AND assignment operator, It C /= A is equivalent
divides left operand with the right to C = C / A
operand and assign the result to left
operand
%= Modulus AND assignment operator, It C %= A is equivalent
takes modulus using two operands and to C = C % A
assign the result to left operand

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<<= Left shift AND assignment operator C <<= 2 is same as C
= C << 2
>>= Right shift AND assignment operator C >>= 2 is same as C
= C >> 2
&= Bitwise AND assignment operator C &= 2 is same as C
=C&2
^= bitwise exclusive OR and assignment C ^= 2 is same as C
operator =C^2
|= bitwise inclusive OR and assignment C |= 2 is same as C
operator =C|2

Example:
The following simple example program demonstrates the assignment operators.
Copy and paste the following Java program in Test.java file and compile and
run this program:
public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
int a =10;
int b =20;
int c =0;
c = a + b;
System.out.println("c = a + b = "+ c );
c += a ;
System.out.println("c += a = "+ c );
c -= a ;
System.out.println("c -= a = "+ c );
c *= a ;
System.out.println("c *= a = "+ c );
a =10;
c =15;

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c /= a ;
System.out.println("c /= a = "+ c );
a =10;
c =15;
c %= a ;
System.out.println("c %= a = "+ c );
c <<=2;
System.out.println("c <<= 2 = "+ c );
c >>=2;
System.out.println("c >>= 2 = "+ c );
c >>=2;
System.out.println("c >>= a = "+ c );
c &= a ;
System.out.println("c &= 2 = "+ c );
c ^= a ;
System.out.println("c ^= a = "+ c );
c |= a ;
System.out.println("c |= a = "+ c );
}
}
This would produce the following result:
c = a + b =30
c += a =40
c -= a =30
c *= a =300
c /= a =1
c %= a =5
c <<=2=20
c >>=2=5
c >>=2=1

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c &= a =0
c ^= a =10
c |= a =10

Misc Operators
There are few other operators supported by Java Language.
Conditional Operator (?:):
Conditional operator is also known as the ternary operator. This operator
consists of three operands and is used to evaluate Boolean expressions. The
goal of the operator is to decide which value should be assigned to the variable.
The operator is written as:

variable x =(expression)? value iftrue: value iffalse

Following is the example:

public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
int a , b;
a =10;
b =(a ==1)?20:30;
System.out.println("Value of b is : "+ b );
b =(a ==10)?20:30;
System.out.println("Value of b is : "+ b );
}
}
This would produce the following result:
Value of b is:30
Value of b is:20

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instanceof Operator:
This operator is used only for object reference variables. The operator checks
whether the object is of a particular type(class type or interface type).
instanceof operator is written as:
(Object reference variable ) instanceof (class/interface type)

If the object referred by the variable on the left side of the operator passes the
IS-A check for the class/interface type on the right side, then the result will be
true. Following is the example:
String name = ―James‖;
boolean result = name instanceof String; // This will return true since name is
type of String

This operator will still return true if the object being compared is the
assignment compatible with the type on the right. Following is one more
Example:
Class Vehicle{
} public class Car extends Vehicle{
public static void main(String args[]){
Vehicle ab =newCar();
boolean result = ab instanceof Car;
System.out.println(result);
}
}
This would produce the following result:
True

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Precedence of Java Operators:
Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This
affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher
precedence than others; for example, the multiplication operator has higher
precedence than the addition operator: For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is
assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has higher precedence than +, so it first
gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7. Here, operators with the highest
precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the lowest appear at the
bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be evaluated
first.

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] . (dot operator) Left to right
Unary ++ - - ! ~ Right to left
Multiplicative * / % Left to right
Additive +- Left to right
Shift >>>>><< Left to right
Relational >>= <<= Left to right
Equality == != Left to right
Bitwise AND & Left to right
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right
Bitwise OR | Left to right
Logical AND && Left to right
Logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment = += -= *= /= %= >>= Right to left
<<= &= ^= |=
Comma , Left to right

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7
Loop Control
There may be a situation when we need to execute a block of code several
number of times and is often referred to as a loop. Java has very flexible three
looping mechanisms. You can use one of the following three loops:
 while Loop

 do...while Loop

 for Loop

As of Java 5, the enhanced for loop was introduced. This is mainly used for
Arrays.
The while Loop:
A while loop is a control structure that allows you to repeat a task a certain
number of times.
Syntax:
The syntax of a while loop is:

while(Boolean_expression) {
//Statements
}

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When executing, if the boolean_expression result is true, then the actions
inside the loop will be executed. This will continue as long as the expression
result is true. Here, key point of the while loop is that the loop might not ever
run. When the expression is tested and the result is false, the loop body will be
skipped and the first statement after the while loop will be executed.

Example:
public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
int x =10;
while( x <20){
System.out.print("value of x : "+ x );
x++;
System.out.print("\n");
}
}
}

This would produce the following result:

value of x :10
value of x :11
value of x :12
value of x :13
value of x :14
value of x :15
value of x :16
value of x :17
value of x :18
value of x :19

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The do...while Loop:

A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except that a do...while loop is
guaranteed to execute at least one time.

Syntax:
The syntax of a do...while loop is:

do {
//Statements }
while(Boolean_expression);

Notice that the Boolean expression appears at the end of the loop, so the
statements in the loop execute once before the Boolean is tested. If the Boolean
expression is true, the flow of control jumps back up to do, and the statements
in the loop execute again. This process repeats until the Boolean expression is
false.

Example:
public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
int x =10;
do{
System.out.print("value of x : "+ x );
x++;
System.out.print("\n");
}while( x <20);
}
}

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This would produce the following result:

value of x :10
value of x :11
value of x :12
value of x :13
value of x :14
value of x :15
value of x :16
value of x :17
value of x :18
value of x :19

The for Loop:

A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a
loop that needs to execute a specific number of times. A for loop is useful when
you know how many times a task is to be repeated.
Syntax:
The syntax of a for loop is:

for(initialization;Boolean_expression; update) {
//Statements
}
Here is the flow of control in a for loop:
 The initialization step is executed first, and only once. This step allows
you to declare and initialize any loop control variables. You are not
required to put a statement here, as long as a semicolon appears.

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 Next, the Boolean expression is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the
loop is executed. If it is false, the body of the loop does not execute and
flow of control jumps to the next statement past the for loop.
 After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up
to the update statement. This statement allows you to update any loop
control variables. This statement can be left blank, as long as a
semicolon appears after the Boolean expression.
 The Boolean expression is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop
executes and the process repeats itself (body of loop, then update step,
then Boolean expression). After the Boolean expression is false, the for
loop terminates.

Example:

public class Test{

public static void main(String args[]){
for(int x =10; x <20; x = x+1){
System.out.print("value of x : "+ x );
System.out.print("\n");
}
}
}

This would produce the following result:

value of x :10
value of x :11
value of x :12
value of x :13
value of x :14
value of x :15

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value of x :16
value of x :17
value of x :18
value of x :19

Enhanced for loop in Java:

As of Java 5, the enhanced for loop was introduced. This is mainly used
for Arrays.
Syntax:
The syntax of enhanced for loop is:

for(declaration : expression) {
//Statements
}

 Declaration: The newly declared block variable, which is of a type

compatible with the elements of the array you are accessing. The variable
will be available within the for block and its value would be the same as
the current array element.
 Expression: This evaluates to the array you need to loop through. The
expression can be an array variable or method call that returns an array.

Example:
public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
int[] numbers ={10,20,30,40,50};
for(int x : numbers ){
System.out.print(x);
System.out.print(",");

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}
System.out.print("\n");
String[] names ={"swapna","balu","kiran","ramu"};
for(String name : names ){
System.out.print( name );
System.out.print(",");
}
}
}
This would produce the following result:
10,20,30,40,50,
swapna,balu,kiran,ramu,

The break Keyword:

The break keyword is used to stop the entire loop. The break keyword
must be used inside any loop or a switch statement.
The break keyword will stop the execution of the innermost loop and start
executing the next line of code after the block.

Syntax:
The syntax of a break is a single statement inside any loop:

break;

Example:

public class Test{

public static void main(String args[]){
int[] numbers ={10,20,30,40,50};

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for(int x : numbers){
if(x ==30){ break;
}
System.out.print( x );
System.out.print("\n");
}
}
}
This would produce the following result:
10
20

The continue Keyword:

The continue keyword can be used in any of the loop control structures. It
causes the loop to immediately jump to the next iteration of the loop.
 In a for loop, the continue keyword causes flow of control to immediately
jump to the update statement.
 In a while loop or do/while loop, flow of control immediately jumps to the
Boolean expression.

Syntax:
The syntax of a continue is a single statement inside any loop:

continue;

Example:

public class Test{

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public static void main(String args[]){
int[] numbers ={10,20,30,40,50};
for(int x : numbers){
if( x ==30){
continue;
}
System.out.print( x );
System.out.print("\n");
}
}
}

This would produce the following result:

10
20
40
50

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8
Decision making
There are two types of decision making statements in Java. They are:
 if statements
 switch statements

The if Statement:

An if statement consists of a Boolean expression followed by one or more

statements.

Syntax:

The syntax of an if statement is:

if(Boolean_expression) {
//Statements will execute if the Boolean expression is true
}
If the Boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of code inside the if
statement will be executed. If not, the first set of code after the end of the if
statement(after the closing curly brace) will be executed.

Example:

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public class Test{

public static void main(String args[]){
int x =10;
if( x <20){
System.out.print("This is if statement");
}
}
}
This would produce the following result:

This is if statement

The if...else Statement:

An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes
when the Boolean expression is false.
Syntax:
The syntax of an if...else is:

if(Boolean_expression){
//Executes when the Boolean expression is true
}else
{
//Executes when the Boolean expression is false
}

Example:

public class Test{

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public static void main(String args[]){
int x =30;
if(x <20){
System.out.print("This is if statement");
}else
{
System.out.print("This is else statement");
}
}
}

This would produce the following result:

This is else statement

The if...else if...else Statement:

An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement, which is
very useful to test various conditions using single if...else if statement. When
using if, else if , else statements there are few points to keep in mind.
 An if can have zero or one else's and it must come after any else if's.
 An if can have zero to many else if's and they must come before the else.
 Once an else if succeeds, none of the remaining else if's or else's will be
tested.

Syntax:
The syntax of an if...else is
if(Boolean_expression1){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 1 is true
}elseif(Boolean_expression2){

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//Executes when the Boolean expression 2 is true
}elseif(Boolean_expression3){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 3 is true
}else
{ //Executes when the none of the above condition is true.
}

Example:

public class Test{

public static void main(String args[]){
int x =30;
if( x ==10){
System.out.print("Value of X is 10");
}elseif( x ==20){
System.out.print("Value of X is 20");
}elseif( x ==30){
System.out.print("Value of X is 30");
}else{ System.out.print("This is else statement");
}
}
}
This would produce the following result:

Value of X is 30

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Nested if...else Statement:
It is always legal to nest if-else statements which means you can use one if or
else if statement inside another if or else if statement.
Syntax:
The syntax for a nested if...else is as follows:
if(Boolean_expression1){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 1 is true
if(Boolean_expression2){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 2 is true }
}
You can nest else if...else in the similar way as we have nested if statement.
Example:
public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
int x =30;
int y =10;
if( x ==30){
if( y ==10){
System.out.print("X = 30 and Y = 10");
}
}
}
This would produce the following result:
X =30 and Y =10

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The switch Statement:
A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of
values. Each value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is
checked for each case.
Syntax:
The syntax of enhanced for loop is:
switch(expression){
case value : //Statements
break;
//optional case value :
//Statements
break;
//optional
//You can have any number of case statements.
default://Optional
//Statements
}
The following rules apply to a switch statement:
 The variable used in a switch statement can only be a byte, short, int, or
char.

 You can have any number of case statements within a switch. Each case
is followed by the value to be compared to and a colon.

 The value for a case must be the same data type as the variable in the
switch and it must be a constant or a literal.

 When the variable being switched on is equal to a case, the statements

following that case will execute until a break statement is reached.

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 When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and the flow
of control jumps to the next line following the switch statement.

 Not every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears, the flow of
control will fall through to subsequent cases until a break is reached.

 A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must

appear at the end of the switch. The default case can be used for
performing a task when none of the cases is true. No break is needed in
the default case.
Example:
public class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
char grade = args[0].charAt(0);
switch(grade) {
case'A': System.out.println("Excellent!");
break;
case'B':
case'C': System.out.println("Well done");
break;
case'D': System.out.println("You passed");
case'F': System.out.println("Better try again");
break;
default: System.out.println("Invalid grade");
}
System.out.println("Your grade is "+ grade);
}
}
Compile and run above program using various command line arguments. This
would produce the following result:

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D>java Test a
Invalid grade
Your grade is a a
D> java Test A
Excellent!
Your grade is a A
D>java Test C
Welldone
Your grade is a C
D>

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9
String handling
Strings:
Java string is a sequence of characters. They are objects of type String.
Once a String object is created it cannot be changed. Stings are
Immutable.
To get changeable strings use the class called StringBuffer.
String and StringBuffer classes are declared final, so there cannot be
subclasses of these classes.
The default constructor creates an empty string.
String s = new String();

Creating Strings :
String str = "abc"; is equivalent to:
char data[] = {'a', 'b', 'c'};
String str = new String(data);
If data array in the above example is modified after the string object str is
created, then str remains unchanged.
Construct a string object by passing another string object.
String str2 = new String(str);

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String Operations :
The length() method returns the length of the string.

Eg: System.out.println(―Hello‖.length()); // prints 5

The + operator is used to concatenate two or more strings.
Eg: String myname = ―Harry‖
String str = ―My name is‖ + myname+ ―.‖;
For string concatenation the Java compiler converts an operand to a String
whenever the other operand of the + is a String object.
Characters in a string can be extracted in a number of ways.
public char charAt(int index)
– Returns the character at the specified index. An index ranges from
0 to length() - 1. The first character of the sequence is at index 0,
the next at index 1, and so on, as for array indexing.
char ch;
ch = ―abc‖.charAt(1); // ch = ―b‖
getChars() - Copies characters from this string into the destination character
array.
public void getChars(int srcBegin, int srcEnd, char[] dst, int dstBegin)
– srcBegin - index of the first character in the string to copy.
– srcEnd - index after the last character in the string to copy.
– dst - the destination array.
– dstBegin - the start offset in the destination array.
equals() - Compares the invoking string to the specified object. The result is
true if and only if the argument is not null and is a String object that
represents the same sequence of characters as the invoking object.
public boolean equals(Object anObject)
equalsIgnoreCase()- Compares this String to another String, ignoring case
considerations. Two strings are considered equal ignoring case if they are of the
same length, and corresponding characters in the two strings are equal
ignoring case.

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public boolean equalsIgnoreCase(String anotherString)
startsWith() – Tests if this string starts with the specified prefix.
public boolean startsWith(String prefix)
―Figure‖.startsWith(―Fig‖); // true
endsWith() - Tests if this string ends with the specified suffix.
public boolean endsWith(String suffix)
―Figure‖.endsWith(―re‖); // true

startsWith() -Tests if this string starts with the specified prefix beginning at a
specified index.
public boolean startsWith(String prefix, int toffset)
prefix - the prefix.
toffset - where to begin looking in the string.
―figure‖.startsWith(―gure‖, 2); // true
compareTo() - Compares two strings lexicographically.
– The result is a negative integer if this String object
lexicographically precedes the argument string.
– The result is a positive integer if this String object lexicographically
follows the argument string.
– The result is zero if the strings are equal.
– compareTo returns 0 exactly when the equals(Object) method
would return true.
public int compareTo(String anotherString)
public int compareToIgnoreCase(String str)

indexOf() – Searches for the first occurrence of a character or substring.

Returns -1 if the character does not occur.
public int indexOf(int ch)- Returns the index within this string of the first
occurrence of the specified character.

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public int indexOf(String str) - Returns the index within this string of the
first occurrence of the specified substring.
String str = ―How was your day today?‖;
str.indexof(‗t‘);
str(―was‖);

public int indexOf(int ch, int fromIndex)- Returns the index within this string of
the first occurrence of the specified character, starting the search at the
specified index.

public int indexOf(String str, int fromIndex) - Returns the index within this
string of the first occurrence of the specified substring, starting at the specified
index.
String str = ―How was your day today?‖;
str.indexof(‗a‘, 6);
str(―was‖, 2);

lastIndexOf() –Searches for the last occurrence of a character or substring. The

methods are similar to indexOf().

substring() - Returns a new string that is a substring of this string. The

substring begins with the character at the specified index and extends to the
end of this string.

public String substring(int beginIndex)

Eg: "unhappy".substring(2) returns "happy"
• public String substring(int beginIndex, int endIndex)
Eg: "smiles".substring(1, 5) returns "mile―

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concat() - Concatenates the specified string to the end of this string.
If the length of the argument string is 0, then this String object is
returned.
Otherwise, a new String object is created, containing the invoking string
with the contents of the str appended to it.
public String concat(String str)
"to".concat("get").concat("her") returns "together"

replace()- Returns a new string resulting from replacing all occurrences of

oldChar in this string with newChar.

public String replace(char oldChar, char newChar)

"mesquite in your cellar".replace('e', 'o') returns "mosquito in your collar"

trim() - Returns a copy of the string, with leading and trailing whitespace
omitted.
public String trim()
String s = ― Hi Mom! ―.trim();
S = ―Hi Mom!‖

valueOf() – Returns the string representation of the char array argument.

public static String valueOf(char[] data)
The contents of the character array are copied; subsequent modification
of the character array does not affect the newly created string.
Other forms are:
public static String valueOf(char c)
public static String valueOf(boolean b)
public static String valueOf(int i)
public static String valueOf(long l)
public static String valueOf(float f)

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public static String valueOf(double d)
• toLowerCase(): Converts all of the characters in a String to lower case.
• toUpperCase(): Converts all of the characters in this String to upper case.

public String toLowerCase()

public String toUpperCase()
Eg: ―HELLO THERE‖.toLowerCase();
―hello there‖.toUpperCase();

StringBuffer - class
A StringBuffer is like a String, but can be modified.

The length and content of the StringBuffer sequence can be changed through
certain method calls.
• StringBuffer defines three constructors:
– StringBuffer()
– StringBuffer(int size)
– StringBuffer(String str)

StringBuffer operations:
• The principal operations on a StringBuffer are the append and insert
methods, which are overloaded so as to accept data of any type.
Here are few append methods:
StringBuffer append(String str)
StringBuffer append(int num)
• The append method always adds these characters at the end of the
buffer.
• The insert method adds the characters at a specified point.
Here are few insert methods:

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StringBuffer insert(int index, String str)

StringBuffer append(int index, char ch)

Index specifies at which point the string will be inserted into the invoking
StringBuffer object.
delete() - Removes the characters in a substring of this StringBuffer. The
substring begins at the specified start and extends to the character at index
end - 1 or to the end of the StringBuffer if no such character exists. If start is
equal to end, no changes are made.

public StringBuffer delete(int start, int end)

replace() - Replaces the characters in a substring of this StringBuffer with

characters in the specified String.
public StringBuffer replace(int start, int end, String str)

substring() - Returns a new String that contains a subsequence of characters

currently contained in this StringBuffer. The substring begins at the specified
index and extends to the end of the StringBuffer.
public String substring(int start)

reverse() - The character sequence contained in this string buffer is replaced

by the reverse of the sequence.
public StringBuffer reverse()

length() - Returns the length of this string buffer.

public int length()

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capacity() - Returns the current capacity of the String buffer. The capacity is
the amount of storage available for newly inserted characters.
public int capacity()

charAt() - The specified character of the sequence currently represented by the

string buffer, as indicated by the index argument, is returned.
public char charAt(int index)

getChars() - Characters are copied from this string buffer into the destination
character array dst. The first character to be copied is at index srcBegin; the
last character to be copied is at index srcEnd-1.
public void getChars(int srcBegin, int srcEnd, char[] dst, int dstBegin)

setLength() - Sets the length of the StringBuffer.

public void setLength(int newLength)

Examples: StringBuffer
StringBuffer sb = new StringBuffer(―Hello‖);
sb.length(); // 5
sb.capacity(); // 21 (16 characters room is added
if no size is specified)
sb.charAt(1); // e
sb.setCharAt(1,‘i‘); // Hillo
sb.setLength(2); // Hi
sb.append(―l‖).append(―l‖); // Hill
sb.insert(0, ―Big ―); // Big Hill
sb.replace(3, 11, ―‖); // Big
sb.reverse(); // gib

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10
Object & Classes
Java is an Object-Oriented Language. As a language that has the Object
Oriented feature, Java supports the following fundamental concepts:
 Polymorphism
 Inheritance
 Encapsulation
 Abstraction
 Classes
 Objects
 Instance
 Method
 Message Parsing

In this chapter, we will look into the concepts Classes and Objects.
 Object - Objects have states and behaviors. Example: A dog has states-
color, name, breed as well as behaviors -wagging, barking, eating. An
object is an instance of a class.
 Class - A class can be defined as a template/blue print that describes
the behaviors/states that object of its type support.

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Objects in Java:
Let us now look deep into what are objects. If we consider the real-world we
can find many objects around us, Cars, Dogs, Humans, etc. All these objects
have a state and behavior. If we consider a dog, then its state is - name, breed,
color, and the behavior is - barking, wagging, running If you compare the
software object with a real world object, they have very similar characteristics.
Software objects also have a state and behavior. A software object's state is
stored in fields and behavior is shown via methods. So in software
development, methods operate on the internal state of an object and the object-
to-object communication is done via methods.

Classes in Java:
A class is a blue print from which individual objects are created. A sample of a
class is given below:
public class Dog{
String breed;
int age;
String color;
void barking(){
}
void hungry(){
}
void sleeping(){
}
}
A class can contain any of the following variable types.
 Local variables: Variables defined inside methods, constructors or
blocks are called local variables. The variable will be declared and

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initialized within the method and the variable will be destroyed when the
method has completed.
 Instance variables: Instance variables are variables within a class but
outside any method. These variables are instantiated when the class is
loaded. Instance variables can be accessed from inside any method,
constructor or blocks of that particular class.
 Class variables: Class variables are variables declared within a class,
outside any method, with the static keyword.

A class can have any number of methods to access the value of various kinds
of methods. In the above example, barking(), hungry() and sleeping() are
methods. Below mentioned are some of the important topics that need to be
discussed when looking into classes of the Java Language.
Constructors:
When discussing about classes, one of the most important subtopic would be
constructors. Every class has a constructor. If we do not explicitly write a
constructor for a class the Java compiler builds a default constructor for that
class. Each time a new object is created, at least one constructor will be
invoked. The main rule of constructors is that they should have the same name
as the class. A class can have more than one constructor.
Example of a constructor is given below:
public class Puppy{
public Puppy(){
}
public Puppy(String name){
// This constructor has one parameter, name.
}
}

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Creating an Object:
As mentioned previously, a class provides the blueprints for objects. So
basically an object is created from a class. In Java the new keyword is used to
create new objects. There are three steps when creating an object from a class:
 Declaration: A variable declaration with a variable name with an object
type.
 Instantiation: The 'new' keyword is used to create the object.
 Initialization: The 'new' keyword is followed by a call to a constructor.
This call initializes the new object.

Example of creating an object is given below:

public class Puppy{
public Puppy(String name){
// This constructor has one parameter, name.
System.out.println("Passed Name is :"+ name );
}
public static void main(String[]args){
// Following statement would create an object myPuppy
Puppy myPuppy =new Puppy("tommy");
}
}

If we compile and run the above program, then it would produce the following
result:

Passed Name is: tommy

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Accessing Instance Variables and Methods:
Instance variables and methods are accessed via created objects. To access an
instance variable the fully qualified path should be as follows:
/* First create an object */
ObjectReference = new Constructor();
/* Now call a variable as follows */
ObjectReference.variableName;
/* Now you can call a class method as follows */
ObjectReference.MethodName();

Example:

This example explains how to access instance variables and methods of a class:

public class Puppy{

int puppyAge;
public Puppy(String name){
// This constructor has one parameter, name.
System.out.println("Passed Name is :"+ name );
}
public void setAge(int age ){
puppyAge = age;
}
public int getAge(){
System.out.println("Puppy's age is :"+ puppyAge );
return puppyAge;
}
public static void main(String[]args){
/* Object creation */

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Puppy myPuppy =newPuppy("tommy");
/* Call class method to set puppy's age */
myPuppy.setAge(2);
/* Call another class method to get puppy's age */
myPuppy.getAge();
/* You can access instance variable as follows as well */
System.out.println("Variable Value :"+ myPuppy.puppyAge );
}
}

If we compile and run the above program, then it would produce the following
result:

PassedName is:tommy
Puppy's age is :2
Variable Value :2

Source file declaration rules:

As the last part of this section, let‘s now look into the source file declaration
rules. These rules are essential when declaring classes, import statements and
package statements in a source file.
 There can be only one public class per source file.
 A source file can have multiple non public classes.
 The public class name should be the name of the source file as well
which should be appended by .java at the end. For example : The class
name is . public class Employee{} Then the source file should be as
Employee.java.

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 If the class is defined inside a package, then the package statement
should be the first statement in the source file.
 If import statements are present then they must be written between the
package statement and the class declaration. If there are no package
statements then the import statement should be the first line in the
source file.
 Import and package statements will imply to all the classes present in
the source file. It is not possible to declare different import and/or
package statements to different classes in the source file.

Classes have several access levels and there are different types of
classes; abstract classes, final classes, etc. I will be explaining about all
these in the access modifiers chapter.

Apart from the above mentioned types of classes, Java also has some
special classes called Inner classes and Anonymous classes.

Java Package:
In simple, it is a way of categorizing the classes and interfaces. When
developing applications in Java, hundreds of classes and interfaces will
be written, therefore categorizing these classes is a must as well as
makes life much easier.

Import statements:
In Java if a fully qualified name, which includes the package and the
class name, is given, then the compiler can easily locate the source code or
classes. Import statement is a way of giving the proper location for the compiler
to find that particular class.

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For example, the following line would ask compiler to load all the classes
available in directory java_installation/java/io

import java.io.*;

A Simple Case Study:

For our case study, we will be creating two classes. They are Employee and
EmployeeTest.

First open notepad and add the following code. Remember this is the Employee
class and the class is a public class. Now, save this source file with the name
Employee.java.

The Employee class has four instance variables name, age, designation and
salary. The class has one explicitly defined constructor, which takes a
parameter.

import java.io.*;
public class Employee{
String name;
int age;
String designation;
double salary;
// This is the constructor of the class Employee
public Employee(String name){
this.name = name;
}
// Assign the age of the Employee to the variable age.

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public void empAge(int empAge){
age = empAge;
}
/* Assign the designation to the variable designation.*/
public void empDesignation(String empDesig){
designation = empDesig;
}
/* Assign the salary to the variable salary.*/
public void empSalary(double empSalary){
salary = empSalary;
}
/* Print the Employee details */
public void printEmployee(){
System.out.println("Name:"+ name );
System.out.println("Age:"+ age );
System.out.println("Designation:"+ designation );
System.out.println("Salary:"+ salary);
}
}

As mentioned previously in this notes, processing starts from the main method.
Therefore in-order for us to run this Employee class there should be main
method and objects should be created. We will be creating a separate class for
these tasks.

Given below is the EmployeeTest class, which creates two instances of the class
Employee and invokes the methods for each object to assign values for each
variable.

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Save the following code in EmployeeTest.java file

import java.io.*;
publicclassEmployeeTest{
publicstaticvoid main(String args[]){
/* Create two objects using constructor */
Employee empOne =newEmployee("balu");
Employee empTwo =newEmployee("swapna ");
// Invoking methods for each object created
empOne.empAge(23);
empOne.empDesignation("Senior Software Engineer");
empOne.empSalary(100000);
empOne.printEmployee();
empTwo.empAge(25);
empTwo.empDesignation("Software Engineer");
empTwo.empSalary(50000);
empTwo.printEmployee();
}
}

Now, compile both the classes and then run EmployeeTest to see the result as
follows:

C :> javac Employee.java

C :> vi EmployeeTest.java
C :> javac EmployeeTest.java
C :> java EmployeeTest
Name:swapna

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Age:23
Designation:SoftwareEngineer
Salary:100000.0
Name:balu
Age:25
Designation:SoftwareEngineer
Salary:50000.0

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11
Methods
A Java method is a collection of statements that are grouped together to
perform an operation. When you call the System.out.println method, for
example, the system actually executes several statements in order to display a
message on the console. Now you will learn how to create your own methods
with or without return values, invoke a method with or without parameters,
overload methods using the same names, and apply method abstraction in the
program design.
Creating Method:
Considering the following example to explain the syntax of a method:
public static int funcName(int a, int b)
{
// body
}

Here,
 public static : modifier.
 int: return type
 funcName: function name
 a, b: formal parameters
 int a, int b: list of parameters

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Methods are also known as Procedures or Functions:
 Procedures: They don't return any value.
 Functions: They return value.

Method definition consists of a method header and a method body. The same is
shown below:

modifier returnType nameOfMethod (Parameter List)

{
// method body
}

The syntax shown above includes:

 modifier: It defines the access type of the method and it is optional to
use.
 returnType: Method may return a value.
 nameOfMethod: This is the method name. The method signature
consists of the method name and the parameter list.
 Parameter List: The list of parameters, it is the type, order, and number
of parameters of a method. These are optional, method may contain zero
parameters.
 method body: The method body defines what the method does with
statements.

Example:
Here is the source code of the above defined method called max(). This
method takes two parameters num1 and num2 and returns the
maximum between the two:

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/** the snippet returns the minimum between two numbers */
public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2) {
int min;
if (n1 > n2) min = n2;
else min = n1;
return min;
}

Method Calling:
For using a method, it should be called. There are two ways in which a method
is called i.e. method returns a value or returning nothing (no return value). The
process of method calling is simple. When a program invokes a method, the
program control gets transferred to the called method. This called method then
returns control to the caller in two conditions, when:
 return statement is executed.
 reaches the method ending closing brace.

The methods returning void is considered as call to a statement.

Lets consider an example:

System.out.println("This is tutorialspoint.com!");

The method returning value can be understood by the following example:

int result = sum(6, 9);

Example:
Following is the example to demonstrate how to define a method and how
to call it:

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public class ExampleMinNumber{

/** returns the minimum of two numbers */

public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2) {
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else min = n1;
return min;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a = 11;
int b = 6;
int c = minFunction(a, b);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + c);
}
}

This would produce the following result:

Minimum value = 6

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The void Keyword:
The void keyword allows us to create methods which do not return a value.
Here, in the following example we're considering a void method
methodRankPoints. This method is a void method which does not return any
value. Call to a void method must be a statement i.e.
methodRankPoints(255.7);. It is a Java statement which ends with a semicolon
as shown below.
Example:
public class ExampleVoid {
public static void main(String[] args) {
methodRankPoints(255.7);
}
public static void methodRankPoints(double points) {
if (points >= 202.5)
{ System.out.println("Rank:A1");
}
else if (points >= 122.4) {
System.out.println("Rank:A2");
} else
{
System.out.println("Rank:A3");
}
}
}

This would produce the following result:

Rank:A1

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Passing Parameters by Value:
While working under calling process, arguments is to be passed. These should
be in the same order as their respective parameters in the method
specification. Parameters can be passed by value or by reference. Passing
Parameters by Value means calling a method with a parameter. Through this
the argument value is passed to the parameter.

Example:
The following program shows an example of passing parameter by value. The
values of the arguments remains the same even after the method invocation.

public class swappingExample {

public static void swapFunction(int a, int b) {
System.out.println("Before swapping(Inside), a = " + a + " b = " + b);
// Swap n1 with n2
int c = a;
a = b;
b = c;
System.out.println("After swapping(Inside), a = " + a + " b = " + b);
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 30;
int b = 45;
System.out.println("Before swapping, a = " + a + " and b = " + b);
// Invoke the swap method
swapFunction(a, b);
System.out.println("\n**Now, Before and After swapping values will be
same here**:");

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System.out.println("After swapping, a = " + a + " and b is " + b);
}
}
This would produce the following result:
Before swapping, a = 30 and b = 45
Before swapping(Inside), a = 30 b = 45
After swapping(Inside), a = 45 b = 30
**Now, Before and After swapping values will be same here**:
After swapping, a = 30 and b is 45

Method Overloading:

When a class has two or more methods by same name but different
parameters, it is known as method overloading. It is different from overriding.
In overriding a method has same method name, type, number of parameters
etc. if number of parameters are same, then type of parameters should be
different.

Lets consider the example shown before for finding minimum numbers of
integer type. If, lets say we want to find minimum number of double type. Then
the concept of Overloading will be introduced to create two or more methods
with the same name but different parameters.

The below example explains the same:

public class ExampleOverloading{
// for integer
public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2) {
int min;
if (n1 > n2) min = n2;
else min = n1;

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return min;
}
// for double
public static double minFunction(double n1, double n2) {
double min;
if (n1 > n2) min = n2;
else min = n1;
return min;
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 11;
int b = 6;
double c = 7.3;
double d = 9.4;
int result1 = minFunction(a, b);
// same function name with different parameters
double result2 = minFunction(c, d);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + result1);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + result2);
}
}

This would produce the following result:

Minimum Value = 6
Minimum Value = 7.3
Overloading methods makes program readable. Here, two methods are given
same name but with different parameters.
The minimum number from integer and double types is the result.

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Using Command-Line Arguments:
Sometimes you will want to pass information into a program when you run it.
This is accomplished by passing command-line arguments to main( ). A
command-line argument is the information that directly follows the program's
name on the command line when it is executed. To access the command-line
arguments inside a Java program is quite easy. they are stored as strings in
the String array passed to main( ).

Example:
The following program displays all of the command-line arguments that it is
called with:

public class CommandLine{

public static void main(String args[]){
for(int i=0; i<args.length; i++){
System.out.println("args["+ i +"]: "+args[i]);
}
}
}
Try executing this program as shown here:

java CommandLine this is a command line 200-100

This would produce the following result:

args[0]:this
args[1]:is
args[2]: a
args[3]: command

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args[4]: line
args[5]:200
args[6]:-100

The Constructors:
A constructor initializes an object when it is created. It has the same name as
its class and is syntactically similar to a method. However, constructors have
no explicit return type. Typically, you will use a constructor to give initial
values to the instance variables defined by the class, or to perform any other
startup procedures required to create a fully formed object. All classes have
constructors, whether you define one or not, because Java automatically
provides a default constructor that initializes all member variables to zero.
However, once you define your own constructor, the default constructor is no
longer used.
Example:
Here is a simple example that uses a constructor:
// A simple constructor.
class MyClass{
int x;
// Following is the constructor
MyClass(){
x =10;
} }
You would call constructor to initialize objects as follows:
public class ConsDemo{
public static void main(String args[]){
MyClass t1 =new MyClass();

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MyClass t2 =new MyClass();
System.out.println(t1.x +" "+ t2.x);
}
}
Most often, you will need a constructor that accepts one or more parameters.
Parameters are added to a constructor in the same way that they are added to
a method, just declare them inside the parentheses after the constructor's
name.
Example:
Here is a simple example that uses a constructor:
// A simple constructor.
class MyClass{
int x;
// Following is the constructor
MyClass(int i ){
x = i;
}
}
You would call constructor to initialize objects as follows:

public class ConsDemo{

public static void main(String args[]){
MyClass t1 =new MyClass(10);
MyClass t2 =new MyClass(20);
System.out.println(t1.x +" "+ t2.x);
}
}
This would produce the following result:
10 20

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Variable Arguments(var-args):
JDK 1.5 enables you to pass a variable number of arguments of the same type
to a method. The parameter in the method is declared as follows:
typeName... parameterName

In the method declaration, you specify the type followed by an ellipsis (...) Only
one variable-length parameter may be specified in a method, and this
parameter must be the last parameter. Any regular parameters must precede
it.
Example:
public class VarargsDemo{
public static void main(String args[]){
// Call method with variable args
printMax(34,3,3,2,56.5);
printMax(new double[]{1,2,3});
}
public static void printMax(double... numbers){
if(numbers.length ==0){
System.out.println("No argument passed");
return;
}
double result = numbers[0];
for(int i =1; i < numbers.length; i++)
if(numbers[i]> result) result = numbers[i];
System.out.println("The max value is "+ result);
} }
This would produce the following result:
The max value is 56.5
The max value is 3.0

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Garbage Collection
Since objects are dynamically allocated by using the new operator,
you might be wondering how such objects are destroyed and their memory
released for later reallocation. In some languages, such as C++,
dynamically allocated objects must be manually released by use of
a delete operator. Java takes a different approach; it
handles deallocation for you automatically. The technique that
accomplishes this is called garbage collection. It works like this: when no
references to an object to an object exist, that object is assumed to be no
longer needed, and the memory occupied by the object can be reclaimed.
There is no explicit need to destroy objects as in C++. Garbage collection
only occurs sporadically (if at all) during the execution of your program. It
will not occur simply because one or more objects exist that are no longer
used. Furthermore, different java run-time implementations will take
varying approaches to garbage collection, but for the most part, you should
not have to think about it while writing your programs

The finalize () Method

Sometimes an object will need to perform some action when it is

destroyed. For example, if an object is holding some non-java resource
such as a file handle or window character font, then you might want to
make sure these resources are freed before an object is destroyed. To
handle such situations, java provides a mechanism called finalization. By
using finalization, you can define specific actions that will occur when an
object is just about to be reclaimed by the garbage collector.

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To add a finalizer to a class, you simply define he finalize() method.
The java run time calls that method whenever it is about to recycle an
object of that class. Inside the finalize() method you will specify those
actions that must be performed before an object is destroyed. The garbage
collector runs periodically, checking for objects that are no longer
referenced by any running state or indirectly through other referenced
objects. Right before an asset is freed, the java run time calls
the finalize()method on the object.

The finalize() method has this general form:

protected void finalize()

{
// finalization code here
}

Here, the keyword protected is a specifier that prevents access

to finalize() by code defined outside its class.

It is important to understand that finalize() is only called just prior

to garbage collection. It is not called when an object goes out-of-scope, for
example. This means program should provide other means of releasing
system resources, etc., used by the object. It must not rely on finalize() for
normal program operation.

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Example:

/** Example shows garbage collector in action Note that the finalize() method of
object GC1 runs without being specifically called and that the id's of garbage
collected objects are not always sequential.
*/

class TestGC {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Runtime rt = Runtime.getRuntime();

System.out.println("Available Free Memory: " + rt.freeMemory());

for(int i=0; i<10000; i++ ) {

GC1 x = new GC1(i);
}

System.out.println("Free Memory before call to gc(): " +

rt.freeMemory());
System.runFinalization();
System.gc();
System.out.println(" Free Memory after call to gc(): " +
rt.freeMemory());

}
}

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class GC1 {

String str;
int id;

GC1(int i) {
this.str = new String("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz");
this.id = i;
}

protected void finalize() {

System.out.println("GC1 object " + id + " has been finalized.");
}

Some Example programs:

class Current_Bill3{
String connection_no;
double previous_reading;
double present_reading;
double bill_amount=0;
double billing_units=0;

Current_Bill3(){
connection_no="123";
previous_reading=300;

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present_reading=450;
}

Current_Bill3(String str, double prv, double prs){

connection_no=str;
previous_reading=prv;
present_reading=prs;
}

void compute_bill(){

billing_units=present_reading-previous_reading;
if (billing_units<=100)
bill_amount=billing_units*5;
else if (billing_units>100 && billing_units<=500)
bill_amount=billing_units*7;
else if (billing_units>500)
bill_amount=billing_units*10;

public static void main(String args[]){

double total_amt;
Current_Bill3 b1= new Current_Bill3("125",100,200);
Current_Bill3 b2= new Current_Bill3("124",500,700);

b1.compute_bill();

b2.compute_bill();
total_amt=b1.bill_amount+b2.bill_amount;

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System.out.println("first connection charges=Rs."+b1.bill_amount);
System.out.println("second connection charges=Rs."+b2.bill_amount);
System.out.print("total charges for 2 connections =");
System.out.println(total_amt );

}
}

Some Example programs:

This program updates opening balance after account holders either deposit
or withdraw, minimum transaction amount should be rs.100.

import java.util.Scanner;
class Account{
int acc_no;
double open_bal;
// constructor
Account(){
acc_no= 222;
open_bal=1000.00;
}
// overloaded constructor
Account(int n, double d){
acc_no=n;
open_bal=d;
}
// deposit method
void deposit(double d){
System.out.println("before deposit yr o.b ="+open_bal);

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open_bal=open_bal+d;

System.out.println("after deposit yr o.b ="+open_bal);

}
// deposit method for minimum transaction amount.
void deposit(){

System.out.println("before deposit yr o.b ="+open_bal);

open_bal=open_bal+100;

System.out.println("after deposit yr o.b ="+open_bal);

}
// withdraw method
void withdraw( double w) {
System.out.println("before withdraw yr o.b ="+open_bal);

open_bal=open_bal-w;
System.out.println("after withdraw yr o.b ="+open_bal);

}
// withdraw method for minimum transaction amount.
void withdraw() {
System.out.println("before withdraw yr o.b ="+ open_bal);

open_bal=open_bal-100;
System.out.println("after withdraw yr o.b ="+open_bal);

}
public static void main(String args[]){

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Scanner in= new Scanner(System.in);
double amt;
Account tr1= new Account();

Account tr2= new Account(199,5000.00);

System.out.println("enter amount to deposit(min rs.100)");
amt=in.nextDouble();
tr1.deposit(amt);
System.out.println("enter amount to withdraw (min rs.100)");
amt=in.nextDouble();
tr1.withdraw(amt);

System.out.println("enter amount to deposit(min rs.100)");

amt=in.nextDouble();

if (amt<100)
tr2.deposit();
else
tr2.deposit(amt);
System.out.println("enter amount to withdraw (min rs.100)");
amt=in.nextDouble();
if (amt<100)
tr2.withdraw();
else
tr2.withdraw(amt);
}
}

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Recursion
Java supports recursion. Recursion is the process of defining something in
terms of itself. As it relates to Java programming, recursion is the attribute
that allows a method to call itself. A method that calls itself is said to be
recursive. The classic example of recursion is the computation of the factorial of
a number. The factorial of a number N is the product of all the whole numbers
between 1 and N. For example, 3 factorial is 1 × 2 × 3, or 6. Here is how a
factorial can be computed by use of a recursive method:

Example

class Factorial {
// this is a recursive method
int fact(int n) {
int result;
if(n==1) return 1;
result = fact(n-1) * n;
return result;
}
}
class Recursion {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Factorial f = new Factorial();
System.out.println("Factorial of 3 is " + f.fact(3));
System.out.println("Factorial of 4 is " + f.fact(4));
System.out.println("Factorial of 5 is " + f.fact(5));
}

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}
The output :

Factorial of 3 is 6
Factorial of 4 is 24
Factorial of 5 is 120

Example:

class RecTest {
int values[];
RecTest(int i) {
values = new int[i];
}
// display array -- recursively
void printArray(int i) {
if(i==0) return;
else printArray(i-1);
System.out.println("[" + (i-1) + "] " + values[i-1]);
}
}
class Recursion2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
RecTest ob = new RecTest(10);
int i;
for(i=0; i<10; i++) ob.values[i] = i;
ob.printArray(10);
}
}
This program generates the following output:

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[0] 0
[1] 1
[2] 2
[3] 3
[4] 4
[5] 5
[6] 6
[7] 7
[8] 8
[9] 9

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12
Modifier Types
Modifiers arekeywords that you add to those definitions to change their
meanings. The Java language has a wide variety of modifiers, including the
following:

1. Java Access Modifiers

Java provides a number of access modifiers to set access levels for classes,
variables, methods and constructors. The four access levels are:
 Visible to the package, the default. No modifiers are needed.
 Visible to the class only (private).
 Visible to the world (public).
 Visible to the package and all subclasses (protected).

Default Access Modifier - No keyword:

Default access modifier means we do not explicitly declare an access modifier
for a class, field, method, etc. A variable or method declared without any access
control modifier is available to any other class in the same package. The fields
in an interface are implicitly public static final and the methods in an interface
are by default public.

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Example:

Variables and methods can be declared without any modifiers, as in the

following examples:
String version ="1.5.1";
boolean processOrder()
{
return true;
}

Private Access Modifier - private:

Methods, Variables and Constructors that are declared private can only be
accessed within the declared class itself. Private access modifier is the most
restrictive access level. Class and interfaces cannot be private. Variables that
are declared private can be accessed outside the class if public getter methods
are present in the class. Using the private modifier is the main way that an
object encapsulates itself and hide data from the outside world.
Example:

The following class uses private access control:

public class Logger{

private String format;
public String getFormat(){
return this.format;
}
public void setFormat(String format)
{

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this.format = format;
}
}

Here, the format variable of the Logger class is private, so there's no way for
other classes to retrieve or set its value directly. So to make this variable
available to the outside world, we defined two public methods: getFormat(),
which returns the value of format, and setFormat(String), which sets its value.

Public Access Modifier - public:

A class, method, constructor, interface etc declared public can be accessed

from any other class. Therefore fields, methods, blocks declared inside a public
class can be accessed from any class belonging to the Java Universe. However
if the public class we are trying to access is in a different package, then the
public class still need to be imported. Because of class inheritance, all public
methods and variables of a class are inherited by its subclasses.
Example:

The following function uses public access control:

public static void main(String[] arguments){

// ...
}
The main() method of an application has to be public. Otherwise, it could not
be called by a Java interpreter (such as java) to run the class.

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Protected Access Modifier - protected:

Variables, methods and constructors which are declared protected in a

superclass can be accessed only by the subclasses in other package or any
class within the package of the protected members' class.
The protected access modifier cannot be applied to class and interfaces.
Methods, fields can be declared protected, however methods and fields in a
interface cannot be declared protected. Protected access gives the subclass a
chance to use the helper method or variable, while preventing a nonrelated
class from trying to use it.
Example:

The following parent class uses protected access control, to allow its child class
overrideopenSpeaker() method:
class AudioPlayer{
protected boolean openSpeaker(Speaker sp){
// implementation details
}
}
class StreamingAudioPlayer{
boolean openSpeaker(Speaker sp){
// implementation details
}
}

Here, if we define openSpeaker() method as private, then it would not be

accessible from any other class other than AudioPlayer. If we define it as
public, then it would become accessible to all the outside world. But our
intension is to expose this method to its subclass only, thats why we used
protected modifier.

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Access Control and Inheritance:

The following rules for inherited methods are enforced:

 Methods declared public in a superclass also must be public in all
subclasses.
 Methods declared protected in a superclass must either be protected or
public in subclasses; they cannot be private.
 Methods declared without access control (no modifier was used) can be
declared more private in subclasses.
 Methods declared private are not inherited at all, so there is no rule for
them.

Non Access Modifiers

To use a modifier, you include its keyword in the definition of a class,

method, or variable. The modifier precedes the rest of the statement, as
in the following examples (Italic ones):
public class className {
// ...
}
private boolean myFlag;
static final double weeks =9.5;
protected static final int BOXWIDTH =42;
public static void main(String[] arguments)
{
// body of method
}

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Access Control Modifiers:

Java provides a number of access modifiers to set access levels for classes,
variables, methods and constructors. The four access levels are:
 Visible to the package. the default. No modifiers are needed.
 Visible to the class only (private).
 Visible to the world (public).
 Visible to the package and all subclasses (protected).

Non Access Modifiers:

Java provides a number of non-access modifiers to achieve many other
functionality.
 The static modifier for creating class methods and variables
 The final modifier for finalizing the implementations of classes, methods,
and variables.
 The abstract modifier for creating abstract classes and methods.
 The synchronized and volatile modifiers, which are used for threads.

To use a modifier, you include its keyword in the definition of a class,

method, or variable. The modifier precedes the rest of the statement, as
in the following examples (Italic ones):
Public class className {
// ...
}
private boolean myFlag;
static final double weeks =9.5;
protected static final int BOXWIDTH =42;
public static void main(String[] arguments){
// body of method
}

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Access Control Modifiers:
Java provides a number of access modifiers to set access levels for classes,
variables, methods and constructors. The four access levels are:
 Visible to the package. the default. No modifiers are needed.
 Visible to the class only (private).
 Visible to the world (public).
 Visible to the package and all subclasses (protected).

Non Access Modifiers:

Java provides a number of non-access modifiers to achieve many other

functionality.
 The static modifier for creating class methods and variables
 The final modifier for finalizing the implementations of classes, methods,
and variables.
 The abstract modifier for creating abstract classes and methods.
 The synchronized and volatile modifiers, which are used for threads.

Understanding static
There will be times when you will want to define a class member that will be
used independently of any object of that class. Normally, a class member must
be accessed only in conjunction with an object of its class. However, it is
possible to create a member that can be used by itself, without reference to a
specific instance. To create such a member, precede its declaration with the
keyword static. When a member is declared static, it can be accessed before
any objects of its class are created, and without reference to any object. You
can declare both methods and variables to be static. The most common
example of a static member is main( ). main( ) is declared as static because it

must be called before any objects exist. Instance variables declared as static

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are, essentially, global variables. When objects of its class are declared, no copy
of a static variable is made. Instead, all instances of the class share the same
static variable.

Methods declared as static have several restrictions:

• They can only call other static methods.
• They must only access static data.
• They cannot refer to this or super in any way. (The keyword super relates to
inheritance and is described in the next chapter.)
If you need to do computation in order to initialize your static variables, you
can declare a static block that gets executed exactly once, when the class is
first loaded. The following example shows a class that has a static method,
some static variables, and a static initialization block:

Example
class UseStatic {
static int a = 3;
static int b;
static void meth(int x) {
System.out.println("x = " + x);
System.out.println("a = " + a);
System.out.println("b = " + b);
}
static {
System.out.println("Static block initialized.");
b = a * 4;
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
meth(42);
}

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}
As soon as the UseStatic class is loaded, all of the static statements are run.
First, a is set to 3, then the static block executes, which prints a message and
then initializes b to a * 4 or 12. Then main( ) is called, which calls meth( ),
passing 42 to x. The three println( ) statements refer to the two static
variables a and b, as well as to the local variable x.

Here is the output of the program:

Static block initialized.
x = 42
a=3
b = 12

Outside of the class in which they are defined, static methods and variables
can be used independently of any object. To do so, you need only specify the
name of their class followed by the dot operator. For example, if you wish to
call a static method from outside its class, you can do so using the following
general form:
classname.method( ).

A static variable can be accessed in the same way—by use of the dot operator
on the name of the class. This is how Java implements a controlled version of
global methods and global variables.

Example

class StaticDemo {
static int a = 42;
static int b = 99;
static void callme() {
System.out.println("a = " + a);

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}
}
class StaticByName {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StaticDemo.callme();
System.out.println("b = " + StaticDemo.b);
}
}

This would produce the following result:

a = 42
b = 99

Introducing final key word :

A variable can be declared as final. Doing so prevents its contents from being
modified. A final method prevents overriding and a final class prevents
inheritance, later two are discussed in the following chapters.
This means that you must initialize a final variable when it is declared. For

Example:

final int FILE_NEW = 1;

final int FILE_OPEN = 2;
final int FILE_SAVE = 3;
final int FILE_SAVEAS = 4;
final int FILE_QUIT = 5;
Subsequent parts of your program can now use FILE_OPEN, etc., as if they
were constants, without fear that a value has been changed.

final - keyword is also used with methods and classes, these two topics are
discussed in chapter: 16 ( java abstraction)

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13
Inner Classes
Why Use Nested Classes?
There are several compelling reasons for using nested classes, among them:
· It is a way of logically grouping classes that are only used in one place.
· It increases encapsulation.
· Nested classes can lead to more readable and maintainable code.
Logical grouping of classes—If a class is useful to only one other class, then it
is logical to embed it in that class and keep the two together. Nesting such
"helper classes" makes their package more streamlined.
Increased encapsulation—Consider two top-level classes, A and B, where B
needs access to members of A that would otherwise be declared private. By
hiding class B within class A, A's members can be declared private and B can
access them. In addition, B itself can be hidden from the outside world.
More readable, maintainable code—Nesting small classes within top-level
classes places the code closer to where it is used.

It is possible to define a class within another class; such classes are known as
nested classes. The scope of a nested class is bounded by the scope of its
enclosing class. Thus, if class B is defined within class A, then B does not exist
independently of A. A nested class has access to the members, including
private members, of the class in which it is nested. However, the enclosing
class does not have access to the members of the nested class. A nested class
that is declared directly within its enclosing class scope is a member of its

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enclosing class. It is also possible to declare a nested class that is local to a
block.

There are two types of nested classes: static and non-static. A static nested
class is one that has the static modifier applied. Because it is static, it must
access the members of its enclosing class through an object. That is, it cannot
refer to members of its enclosing class directly. Because of this restriction,
static nested classes are seldom used. The most important type of nested class
is the inner class. An inner class is a non-static nested class. It has access to
all of the variables and methods of its outer class and may refer to them
directly in the same way that other non-static members of the outer class do.

The following program illustrates how to define and use an inner class. The
class named Outer has one instance variable named outer_x, one instance
method named test( ), and defines one inner class called Inner.

// Demonstrate an inner class.

class Outer {
int outer_x = 100;
void test() {
Inner inner = new Inner();
inner.display();
}
// this is an inner class
class Inner {
void display() {
System.out.println("display: outer_x = " + outer_x);
}
}
}

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class InnerClassDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Outer outer = new Outer();
outer.test();
}
}

Output from this application is shown here:

display: outer_x = 100

In the above program, an inner class named Inner is defined within the scope
of class Outer. Therefore, any code in class Inner can directly access the
variable outer_x. An instance method named display( ) is defined inside Inner.
This method displays outer_x on the standard output stream. The main( )
method of InnerClassDemo creates an instance of class Outer and invokes its
test( ) method. That method creates an instance of class Inner and the
display( ) method is called.

class OuterClass
{
private int i = 9;

public void createInner()

{
InnerClass i1 = new InnerClass();
i1.getValue();
}

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class InnerClass
{
public void getValue()
{
System.out.println("value of i =" + i);
}
}
}

class InnerClassDemo2
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
OuterClass otr = new OuterClass();

OuterClass.InnerClass inr = otr.new InnerClass();

inr.getValue();

otr.createInner();
}
}

Output from this application is shown here:

value of i =9
value of i =9

In this program the inner class object also can be created and used to call
inner class variables and methods.

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