Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

Temperature measurement
Principles of temperature measurement
Temperature measurement is very important in all spheres of life and especially so in the
process industries. However, it poses particular problems, since temperature measurement
cannot be related to a fundamental standard of temperature in the same way that the
measurement of other quantities can be related to the primary standards of mass, length and
time. If two bodies of lengths l1 and l2 are connected together end to end, the result is a body
of length l1+l2. A similar relationship exists between separate masses and separate times.
However, if two bodies at the same temperature are connected together, the joined body has
the same temperature as each of the original bodies.
This is a root cause of the fundamental difficulties that exist in establishing an absolute
standard for temperature in the form of a relationship between it and other measurable
quantities for which a primary standard unit exists. In the absence of such a relationship, it is
necessary to establish fixed, reproducible reference points for temperature in the form of
freezing and boiling points of substances where the transition between solid, liquid and
gaseous states is sharply defined.

Bimaterials Thermometers (strip)

The first known use of differential thermal expansion of metals in a mechanical device was that
of the English clockmaker John Harrison in 1735. Harrison used two dissimilar metals in a clock
escapement to account for the changes in temperature on board a ship. This first marine
chronometer used a gridiron of two metals that altered the flywheel period of the clock
through a simple displacement. This mechanical actuation, resulting from the different thermal
expansivities of two metals in contact, is the basis for all bimetallic actuators used today.
The bimetallic effect is now used in numerous applications ranging from domestic appliances
to compensation in satellites. The effects can be used in two ways: either as an actuator or as a
temperature measuring system. A bimetallic actuator essentially consists of two metal strips
fixed together. If the two metals have different expansitivities, then as the temperature of the
actuator changes, one element will expand more than the other, causing the device to bend out
of the plane. This mechanical bending can then be used to actuate an electromechanical switch
or be part of an electrical circuit itself, so that contact of the bimetallic device to an electrode
causes a circuit to be made. Although in its simplest form a bimetallic actuator can be
constructed from two flat pieces in metal, in practical terms a whole range of shapes are used
to provide maximum actuation or maximum force during thermal cycling.
As a temperature measuring device, the bimetallic element, similar in design to that of the
actuator above, can be used to determine the ambient temperature if the degree of bending
can be measured. The advantage of such a system is that the amount of bending can be
mechanically amplified to produce a large and hence easily measurable displacement.
The basic principle of a bimetallic actuator is shown in Figure below. Here, two metal strips of
differing thermal expansion are bonded together. When the temperature of the assembly is
changed, in the absence of external forces, the bimetallic actuator will take the shape of an arc.
The total displacement of the actuator out of the plane of the metal strips is much greater than

1|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

the individual expansions of the metallic elements. To maximize the bending of the actuator,
metals or alloys with greatly differing coefficients of thermal expansion are normally selected.
The metal having the largest thermal expansitivities is known as the active element, while the
metal having the smaller coefficient of expansion is known as the passive element. For
maximum actuation, the passive element is often an iron–nickel alloy, Invar, having an almost
zero thermal expansivities (actually between 0.1 and 1×10 –6K–1, depending upon the
composition).The active element is then chosen to have maximum thermal expansivities given
the constraints of operating environment and costs.

FIGURE 6.1 linear bimetallic strips.

In addition to maximizing the actuation of the bimetallic element, other constraints such as
electrical and thermal conductivity can be made. In such cases, a third metallic layer is
introduced, consisting of either copper or nickel sandwiched between the active and passive
elements so as to increase both the electrical and thermal conductivity of the actuator. This is
especially important where the actuator is part of an electrical circuit and needs to pass current
in addition to being a temperature sensor.
Linear Bimaterial Strip
The analysis of the stress distribution and the deflection of an ideal bimetallic strip was first
deduced by Timoshenko, who produced a simple derivation from the theory of elasticity. Figure
6.2 shows the internal forces and moments that induce bending in a bimetallic strip followed by
the ideal stress distribution in the beam. This theory is derived for bimetallic strips, but is
equally applicable to Bimaterial strips. The general equation for the curvature radius of a
bimetallic strip uniformly heated fromT0toTinthe absence of external forces is given by

Where1/R0= Initial curvature of the strip at temperature T0

α1 and α2 = Coefficients of expansion of the two elements: (1) low expansive material and
(2) High expansive material
n = E1/E2, with E1 and E2 their respective Young’s module
m = t1/t2, with t1 and t2 their respective thicknesses
t = t1+t2 thickness of the strip

The width of the strip is taken as equal to unity. Equation 5.49 applies for several strip
configurations, including the simply supported strip and a strip clamped at one end (i.e., a
2|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

cantilever). For a given configuration, the deflection of a strip can be determined by its
relationship with curvature, 1/R.

FIGURE 6.2 Bending of bimetallic strip uniformly heated withα2≥α1. (a) Bimetallic strip. A1B1–
A2B2is an element cut out from the strip. (b) Bending of the element A1B1–A2B2when
uniformly heated. Assumingα2>α1, the deflection is convex up. The total force acting over the
section of (1) is an axial tensile force P1and bending moment M1,whereas over the section of
(2) it is an axial compressive force P2and bending moment M2. (c) Sketch of the internal
resulting stress distribution. (Left): normal stresses over the cross section of the strip. The
maximum stress during heating is produced at the interface between the two components of
the strip. This stress is due to both axial force and bending. (Right): shearing stresses at the
ends of the strip.

Resistance Temperature Detectors

One common way to measure temperature is by using Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs).
These electrical temperature instruments provide highly accurate temperature readings: simple
industrial RTDs used within a manufacturing process are accurate to ±0.1C, while Standard
Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) are accurate to ±0.0001C. The electric resistance
of certain metals changes in a known and predictable manner, depending on the rise or fall in
temperature. As temperatures rise, the electric resistance of the metal increases. As
temperatures drop, electric resistance decreases. RTDs use this characteristic as a basis for
measuring temperature.
The sensitive portion of an RTD, called an element, is a coil of small-diameter, high-purity
wire, usually constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel. This type of configuration is called a
wire-wound element. With thin-film elements, a thin film of platinum is deposited onto a
ceramic substrate. Platinum is a common choice for RTD sensors because it is known for its

3|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

long-term stability over time at high temperatures. Platinum is a better choice than copper or
nickel because it is chemically inert, it withstands oxidation well, and works in a higher
temperature range as well.
In operation, the measuring instrument applies a constant current through the RTD. As the
temperature changes, the resistance changes and the corresponding change in voltage is
measured. This measurement is then converted to thermal values by a computer. Curve-fitting
equations are used to define this resistance vs. temperature relationship. The RTD can then be
used to determine any temperature from its measured resistance.
These instruments have functions to compensate for errors such as thermoelectric voltages
and element self-heating.
In addition to temperature, strain on and impurities in the wire also affect the sensor’s
resistance vs. temperature characteristics. The Matthiessen rule states that the resistivity () of
a metal conductor depends on temperature, impurities, and deformation. is measured in
(Ωcm):

Proper design and careful material selection will minimize these effects so that resistivity will
only vary with a change in temperature.
Resistance of Metals
Whether an RTD’s element is constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel, each type of metal has
a different sensitivity, accuracy, and temperature range. Sensitivity is defined as the amount of
resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature change. Figure below shows the
sensitivity for the most common metals used to build RTDs. Platinum, a noble metal, has the
most stable resistance-to-temperature relationship over the largest temperature range –
184.44C (–300F) to 648.88C (1200F). Nickel elements have a limited temperature range
because the amount of change in resistance per degree of change in temperature becomes very
nonlinear at temperatures above 300C (572F). Copper has a very linear resistance-to-
temperature relationship. However, copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures and cannot be
used above 150C (302F). Platinum is the best metal for RTD elements for three reasons. It
follows a very linear resistance-to-temperature relationship; it follows its resistance-to-
temperature relationship in a highly repeatable manner over its temperature range; and it has
the widest temperature range among the metals used to make RTDs. Platinum is not the most
sensitive metal; however, it is the metal that offers the best long-term stability.
The accuracy of an RTD is significantly better than that of a thermocouple within an RTD’s
normal temperature range of –184.44C (–300F) to 648.88C (1200F). RTDs are also known
for high stability and repeatability. They can be removed from service and recalibrated for
verifiable accuracy and checked for any possible drift.

4|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

FIGURE 6.3 of the common metals, nickel has the highest sensitivity
Overview of Platinum RTDs
There are three main classes of Platinum Resistance Thermometers (PRTs): Standard Platinum
Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs), Secondary Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers
(Secondary SPRTs), and Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers (IPRTs). Table Below
presents information about each.

Table 6.1

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Each of the different metals used for sensing elements (platinum, nickel, copper) has a different
amount of relative change in resistance per unit change in temperature. A measure of a
resistance thermometer’s sensitivity is its temperature coefficient of resistance. It is defined as
the element’s change in resistance per degree C change in temperature per ohm of sensor
resistance over the range of 0C to 100C. The alpha value is the average change in resistance
per degree C per ohm resistance. The actual change in resistance per degree C per ohm is
largest at –200C and decreases steadily as the use temperatures increase.
The units for the coefficient are Ω/Ω –1/C–1. This is called the alpha value and is commonly
denoted by the Greek letter α. The larger the temperature coefficient, the greater the change in
resistance for a given change in temperature. Of the commonly used RTD metals, nickel has the
highest temperature coefficient, 0.00672, while that of copper is 0.00427. The α value of the
sensor is calculated using the equation:

5|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

WhereR0 = the resistance of the sensor at 0C

R100 = the resistance of the sensor at 100C
Three primary temperature coefficients are specified for platinum:
1. ITS-90, the internationally accepted temperature scale, requires a minimum
temperature coefficient of 0.003925 for SPRTs. This is achieved using high-purity wire (99.999%
or better) wound in a strain-free configuration.
2. With reference-grade platinum wire used in industrial elements, the temperature
coefficient is 0.003902.
3. IEC 751 [1] and ASTM 1137 [2] have standardized the temperature coefficient of
0.0038500 for platinum.
RTD Construction
Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs), the highest-accuracy platinum
thermometers, are fragile and used in laboratory environments only (Figure 5.37). Fragile
materials do not provide enough strength and vibration resistance for industrial environments.
SPRTs feature high repeatability and low drift, but they cost more because of their materials and
expensive production techniques. SPRT elements are wound from large-diameter, high-purity platinum
wire. Internal lead wires are usually made from platinum and internal supports from quartz or fused
silica. SPRTs are used over a very wide range, from –200C (–328F) to above 1000C (1832F). For SPRTs
used to measure temperatures up to 660C (1220F), the ice point resistance is typically 25.5 Ω. For
high-temperature thermometers, the ice point resistance is 2.5 Ω or 0.25 Ω. SPRT probes can be
accurate to ±0.001C (0.0018F) if properly used.
Secondary Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (Secondary SPRTs) are also intended
for laboratory environments (Figure 5.38). They are constructed like the SPRT, but the materials
are less expensive, typically reference-grade, high-purity platinum wire, metal sheaths, and ceramic
insulators. Internal lead wires are usually a nickel-based alloy. The secondary grade sensors are limited
in temperature range — –200C (–328F) to 500C (932F) — and are accurate to ±0.03C (±0.054F)
over their temperature range. Secondary standard thermometers can withstand some handling,
although they are still quite strain free. Rough handling, vibration, and shock will cause a shift in
calibration. The nominal resistance of the ice point is most often 100 Ω. This simplifies calibration
procedures when calibrating other 100-Ω RTDs. The temperature coefficient for secondary
standards using reference-grade platinum wire is usually 0.00392Ω Ω –1C–1 or higher.

FIGURE 6.4 The Secondary Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer is intended for
laboratory environments.

6|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers (IPRTs) are designed to withstand industrial

environments and are almost as durable as thermocouple . IEC 751 and ASTM 1137 standards
cover the requirements for industrial platinum resistance thermometers. The most common
temperature range is –200C (–328F) to 500C (932F). Standard models are interchangeable
to an accuracy of ±0.25C (±0.45F) to ±2.5C (±4.5F) over their temperature range.

FIGURE 6.5 Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers are almost as durable as

thermocouples.

FIGURE 6.6 The Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer is fragile and used only in
laboratory environments.

Thermistor
A Thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose primary function is to exhibit a change in
electric resistance with a change in body temperature. Unlike a wire wound or metal film
resistance temperature detector (RTD), a Thermistor is a ceramic semiconductor. An RTD
exhibits a comparatively low temperature coefficient of resistance on the order of 0.4 to 0.5%
C–1. Depending on the type of material system used, a Thermistor can have either a large
positive temperature coefficient of resistance (PTC device) or a large negative temperature
coefficient of resistance (NTC device).
Two types of PTC thermistors are available. Silicon PTC thermistors rely on the bulk properties
of doped silicon and exhibit resistance–temperature characteristics that are approximately
linear. They have temperature coefficients of resistance of about 0.7 to 0.8% C–1. The most

7|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

common application of silicon PTC thermistors is compensation of silicon semiconductor

devices and circuits. The materials used for switching-type PTC thermistors are compounds of
barium, lead, and strontium titanates. Figure 6.7 shows the resistance–temperature
characteristic of typical switching-type PTC thermistors. At low temperatures, from below 0C
to Rmin, the resistance value is low, and RT vs. T exhibits a small negative temperature
coefficient of resistance on the order of –1% C–1. As the temperature increases, the
temperature coefficient of resistance becomes positive and the resistance begins to rise. At a
threshold or switching temperature, the rate of rise becomes very rapid and the PTC
characteristic becomes very steep.
Within its switching range, the temperature coefficient of resistance can be as high as 100%
⁰C–1 and the device exhibits a high resistance value. At temperatures above the switching
range, the resistance reaches a maximum value beyond which the temperature coefficient
becomes negative again. The switching temperature can be varied between 80C and 240C by
altering the chemical composition of the ceramic.
Typical applications for switching-type PTC thermistors are over-temperature protection,
current limiting, and self-regulated heating. The temperature coefficient of resistance of a unit
used as a heating element typically is about 25% C–1 at a switching temperature of 240C.
NTC thermistors consist of metal oxides such as the oxides of chromium, cobalt, copper, iron,
manganese, nickel, and titanium. Such units exhibit a monotonic decrease in electric resistance
with an increase in temperature. The resistance–temperature characteristics of NTC
thermistors are nonlinear and approximate the characteristics exhibited by intrinsic
semiconductors for which the temperature dependence of resistance is due to the excitation of
carriers across a single energy gap. As such, the logarithm of resistance of an NTC thermistors is
approximately a linear function of its inverse absolute temperature. Below room temperature,
the slope of the function decreases and the thermistors behaves more like an extrinsic
semiconductor. The actual conduction mechanism is comparable to the “hopping” mechanism
observed in ferrites and manganites that have a spinel crystal structure. Conduction occurs
when charge carriers hop from one ionic site in the spinel lattice to an adjacent site. Such
hopping can occur when ions of the same element, with valences differing by 1, are present on
equivalent lattice sites.

FIGURE 6.7 Resistance–temperature characteristic of a typical switching-type PTC thermistors. At low

temperatures, from below 0C to Rmin, the resistance value is low and RT vs. T exhibits a small negative
temperature coefficient of resistance on the order of –1% C–1. As the temperature increases, the temperature

8|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

coefficient of resistance becomes positive and the resistance begins to rise. At a threshold or switching
temperature, the rate of rise becomes very rapid and the PTC characteristic becomes very steep. Within its
switching range, the device exhibits a high resistance value. At temperatures above the switching range, the
resistance reaches a maximum value beyond which the temperature coefficient becomes negative again.

Because of its nonlinear resistance–temperature characteristic, the temperature coefficient of

resistance of an NTC thermistors changes with temperature. Depending on the material system
used, the temperature coefficient at 25C typically is in the range of –3 to –5% C–1. At –60C, it
is in the range of –6.4 to –11.3% C–1; and at 100C, it varies between –2.1 and –3.7% C–1. The
corresponding resistance ratios with respect to 25C, RT/R25, are 41 to 228 at –60C and 0.13
to 0.03 at 100C. The slope of the log R vs. 1/T characteristic is relatively constant. The
material systems for which the above data are presented exhibit values of 2930 to 5135 K over
the range of 25 to 125C.

Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a
temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for
measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat gradient into electricity. They
are inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can
measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less
than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.

Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.
Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which
have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different
alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may
also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far
from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires
which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually
standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use
electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the
instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying
characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of
measurements.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.

9|Page
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

Figure 6.8 of Thermocouple

Principle of operation

In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any
conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as
the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily
involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then
also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose
the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use. Using a
dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate
different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement. That
difference increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolt’s per degree Celsius
(µV/°C) for standard metal combinations. The voltage is not generated at the junction of the
two metals of the thermocouple but rather along that portion of the length of the two
dissimilar metals that is subjected to a temperature gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar
metals experience the same temperature gradient, the end result is a measurement of the
temperature at the thermocouple junction.

Voltage–temperature relationship For typical metals used in thermocouples, the output voltage
increases almost linearly with the temperature difference (ΔT) over a bounded range of temperatures.
For precise measurements or measurements outside of the linear temperature range, non-linearity
must be corrected. The nonlinear relationship between the temperature difference (ΔT) and the output
voltage (mV) of a thermocouple can be approximated by a polynomial:

10 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

The coefficients an are given for n from 0 to between 5 and 13 depending upon the metals. In
some cases better accuracy is obtained with additional non-polynomial terms.

Cold junction compensation

Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute
temperature. To measure a single temperature one of the junctions—normally the cold
junction—is maintained at a known reference temperature, and the other junction is at the
temperature to be sensed. Having a junction of known temperature, while useful for laboratory
calibration, is not convenient for most measurement and control applications. Instead, they
incorporate an artificial cold junction using a thermally sensitive device such as a thermistors or
diode to measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care
being taken to minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from
a known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction applied. This is known
as cold junction compensation. Some integrated circuits such as the LT1025 are designed to
output a compensated voltage based on thermocouple type and cold junction temperature.
Alternatively cold junction compensation can be performed by computation using look-up
tables and polynomial interpolation.

The Thermoelectric Laws

After much investigation of thermoelectric circuits several basic concepts have been conceived. These
concepts can be summed up according to 3 fundamental "laws".
1.)The Law of Homogeneous Circuits
An electric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous metal, however varying in
section, by the application of heat alone.
What this means for thermocouples, is that if there is a temperature distribution along the wires
between the hot and cold junctions, the total thermal EMF will be unaffected. Only the temperature at
the junction between the two dissimilar metals will have an effect on the EMF produced.

11 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

2.) The Law of Intermediate Metals

If two dissimilar metals A and B with their junctions at T1 and T2 are joined to a third metal C at one leg,
if C is kept at a uniform temperature along its entire length, the total EMF in the circuit will be
unaffected.
This comes into play with thermocouples because there is usually a need to introduce extra metals into
the circuit. This generally occurs when instrumentation (lead wires) is connected to measure the EMF, or
when the junction is welded together on the hot end (weld rod). One would assume that the
introduction of these extra undesired "junctions" would destroy the calibration and throw off the EMF
measurement. However, this law states that the addition of these extra metals will not have an effect on
the total EMF as long as they are kept at the same temperature as the point where they are connected.

3.) The Law of Intermediate Temperatures

If you have one thermocouple with its junction at 32&degF and some reference temperature and
another thermocouple at the same reference temperature and the measured temperature. This is
equivalent to a single thermocouple with its junction at 32&degF and the measured temperature.
This law is very important to thermocouples because of the fact that the cold junction of most
thermocouples (in real applications) will not be used at 32&degF. Unfortunately, the standardized EMF
tables are usually only available with 32&degF as a reference temperature. This law gives us a means of
relating the EMF of a thermocouple used under ordinary conditions to that of one at a standardized
temperature.

The three thermocouple effects

Seebeck Effect
In 1821 Thomas Johann Seebeck found that a circuit made from two dissimilar metals, with junctions at
different temperatures would deflect a compass magnet. Seebeck initially believed this was due to
magnetism induced by the temperature difference. However, it was quickly realized that it was an
electrical current that is induced, which by Ampere's law deflects the magnet. More specifically, the
temperature difference, produces an electric potential (voltage) which can drive an electric current in a
closed circuit. Today, this is known as the Seebeck effect.

The voltage produced is proportional to the temperature difference between the two junctions.
The Seebeck voltage does not depend on the distribution of temperature along the metals

12 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

between the junctions. This is the physical basis for a thermocouple, which is used often for
temperature measurement

The voltage difference, V, produced across the terminals of an open circuit made from a pair of
dissimilar metals, A and B, whose two junctions are held at different temperatures, is directly
proportional to the difference between the hot and cold junction temperatures, Th - Tc.

Peltier Effect
In 1834, a French watchmaker and part time physicist, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier found that an
electrical current would produce heating or cooling at the junction of two dissimilar metals. In 1838 Lenz
showed that depending on the direction of current flow, heat could be either removed from a junction
to freeze water into ice, or by reversing the current, heat can be generated to melt ice. The heat
absorbed or created at the junction is proportional to the electrical current. The proportionality
constant is known as the Peltier coefficient.
Thomson Effect
Twenty years later, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) issued a comprehensive explanation of the
Seebeck and Peltier Effects and described their interrelationship. The Seebeck and Peltier coefficients
are related through thermodynamics. The Peltier coefficient is simply the Seebeck coefficient time’s
absolute temperature. This thermodynamic derivation leads Thomson to predict a third thermoelectric
effect, now known as the Thomson effect. In the Thomson effect, heat is absorbed or produced when
current flows in a material with a temperature gradient. The heat is proportional to both the electric
current and the temperature gradient. The proportionality constant, known as the Thomson coefficient
is related by thermodynamics to the Seebeck coefficient.
The thermopile
The thermopile is the name given to a temperature-measuring device that consists of several
thermocouples connected together in series, such that all the reference junctions are at the
same cold temperature and all the hot junctions are exposed to the temperature being
measured, as shown in Figure 6.9. The effect of connecting n thermocouples together in series
is to increase the measurement sensitivity by a factor of n. A typical thermopile manufactured
by connecting together 25 chromel–constantan thermocouples gives a measurement resolution
of 0.001⁰C.

13 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

Figure 6.9 Thermopile

Flow Measurement
Flow measurement is an everyday event. Whether you are filling up a car with petrol (gasoline)
or wanting to know how much water the garden sprinkler is consuming, a flow meter is
required. Similarly, it is also difficult to think of a sector of industry in which a flow meter of one
type or another does not play a part. Given the size of the flow meter market, and the value of
product being measured, it is somewhat surprising that both the accuracy and capability of
many flow meters are poor in comparison to those instruments used for measurement of other
common process variables such as pressure and temperature. For example, the orifice plate
flow meter, which was first used commercially in the early 1900s and has a typical accuracy of ±
2% of reading, is still the only flow meter approved by most countries for the fiscal
measurement of natural gas. Although newer techniques such as Coriolis flow meters have
become increasingly popular in recent years, the flow measurement industry is by nature
conservative and still dominated by traditional measurement techniques.
The rate at which fluid flows through a closed pipe can be quantified by either measuring the
mass flow rate or measuring the volume flow rate. Of these alternatives, mass flow
measurement is more accurate, since mass, unlike volume, is invariant. In the case of the flow
of solids, the choice is simpler, since only mass flow measurement is appropriate.
Mass flow rate
The method used to measure mass flow rate is largely determined by whether the measured
quantity is in a solid, liquid or gaseous state. Some of these techniques are discussed below.
Conveyor-based methods
These methods are concerned with measurement of the flow of solids that are in the form of
small particles. Such particles are usually produced by crushing or grinding procedures in
process industries, and the particles are usually transported by some form of conveyor. This
mode of transport allows the mass flow rate to be calculated in terms of the mass of material
on a given length of conveyor multiplied by the speed of the conveyor. Figure 6.10 shows a
typical measurement system. A load cell measures the mass M of material distributed over a
length L of the conveyor. If the conveyor velocity is v, the mass flow rate, Q, is given by:

As an alternative to weighing the flowing material, a nuclear mass-flow sensor can be used, in
which a gamma-ray source is directed at the material being transported along the conveyor.
14 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

The material absorbs some radiation, and the amount of radiation received by a detector on
the other side of the material indicates the amount of material on the conveyor. This technique
has obvious safety concerns, and is therefore subject to licensing and strict regulation.

Figure 6.10 Conveyor-based mass flow rate measurement.

Coriolis flow meter

The Coriolis flow meter is primarily used to measure the mass flow rate of liquids, although it
has also been successfully used in some gas-flow measurement applications. The flow meter
consists of either a pair of parallel vibrating tubes or else a single vibrating tube that is formed
into a configuration that has two parallel sections.
The two vibrating tubes (or the two parallel sections of a single tube) deflect according to the
mass flow rate of the measured fluid that is flowing inside. Tubes are made of various materials,
of which stainless steel is the most common. They are also manufactured in different shapes
such as B-shaped, D-shaped, U-shaped, triangular-shaped, helix-shaped and straight. These
alternative shapes are sketched in Figure 6.11 (a) and a U-shaped tube is shown in more detail
in Figure 6.11(b). The tubes are anchored at two points. An electromechanical drive unit,
positioned midway between the two anchors, excites vibrations in each tube at the tube
resonant frequency.
The vibrations in the two tubes, or the two parallel sections of a single tube, are 180 degrees
out of phase. The vibratory motion of each tube causes forces on the particles in the flowing
fluid. These forces induce motion of the fluid particles in a direction that is orthogonal to the
direction of flow, and this produces a Coriolis force. This Coriolis force causes a deflection of the
tubes that is superimposed on top of the vibratory motion. The net deflection of one tube
relative to the other is given by d =kfR, where k is a constant, f is the frequency of the tube
vibration and R is the mass flow rate of the fluid inside the tube. This deflection is measured by
a suitable sensor.

15 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

Figure 6.11 (a) Coriolis flow meter shapes; (b) detail of U-shaped Coriolis flow meter.
Coriolis meters give excellent accuracy, with measurement uncertainties of ±0.2% being typical. They also have low
maintenance requirements. However, apart from being expensive, they suffer from a number of operational
problems. Failure may occur after a period of use because of mechanical fatigue in the tubes. Tubes are also
subject to both corrosion caused by chemical interaction with the measured fluid and abrasion caused by particles
within the fluid. Diversion of the flowing fluid around the flow meter causes it to suffer a significant pressure drop,
though this is much less evident in straight tube designs.
Volume flow rate
Volume flow rate is an appropriate way of quantifying the flow of all materials that are in a
gaseous, liquid or semi-liquid slurry form (where solid particles are suspended in a liquid host),
although measurement accuracy is inferior to mass flow measurement as noted earlier.
Materials in these forms are carried in pipes, and various instruments can be used to measure
the volume flow rate as described below.
Differential pressure (obstruction-type) meters Differential pressure meters involve the
insertion of some device into a fluid-carrying pipe that causes an obstruction and creates a
pressure difference on either side of the device. Such meters are sometimes known as
obstruction-type meters or flow-restriction meters. Devices used to obstruct the flow include
the orifice plate, the Venturi tube, the flow nozzle and the Dall flow tube, as illustrated in Figure
6.12.When such a restriction is placed in a pipe, the velocity of the fluid through the restriction
increases and the pressure decreases. The volume flow rate is then proportional to the square
root of the pressure difference across the obstruction. The manner in which this pressure
difference is measured is important. Measuring the two pressures with different instruments
and calculating the difference between the two measurements is not satisfactory because of
the large measurement error which can arise when the pressure difference is small. Therefore,
the normal procedure is to use a differential pressure transducer, which is commonly a
diaphragm type.
The Pitot static tube is a further device that measures flow by creating a pressure
difference within a fluid-carrying pipe. However, in this case, there is negligible obstruction of
flow in the pipe. The Pitot tube is a very thin tube that obstructs only a small part of the flowing
fluid and thus measures flow at a single point across the cross-section of the pipe. This
measurement only equates to average flow velocity in the pipe for the case of uniform flow.
The Annubar is a type of multi-port Pitot tube that does measure the average flow across the

16 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

cross-section of the pipe by forming the mean value of several local flow measurements across
the cross-section of the pipe.

Figure 6.12 Obstruction devices: (a) orifice plate; (b) venturi; (c) flow nozzle; (d) Dall flow
tube.
All applications of this method of flow measurement assume that flow conditions upstream of
the obstruction device are in steady state, and a certain minimum length of straight run of pipe
ahead of the flow measurement point is specified to ensure this. The minimum lengths required
for various pipe diameters are specified in British
Standards tables (and also in alternative but equivalent national standards used in other
countries), but a useful rule of thumb widely used in the process industries is to specify a length
of ten times the pipe diameter. If physical restrictions make this impossible to achieve, special
flow smoothing vanes can be inserted immediately ahead of the measurement point.
Flow-restriction type instruments are popular because they have no moving parts and are
therefore robust, reliable and easy to maintain. One disadvantage of this method is that the
obstruction causes a permanent loss of pressure in the flowing fluid. The magnitude and hence
importance of this loss depends on the type of obstruction element used, but where the
pressure loss is large, it is sometimes necessary to recover the lost pressure by an auxiliary
pump further down the flow line. This class of device is not normally suitable for measuring the
flow of slurries as the tapping’s into the pipe to measure the differential pressure are prone to
blockage, although the Venturi tube can be used to measure the flow of dilute slurries.
Figure 6.13 illustrates approximately the way in which the flow pattern is interrupted when
an orifice plate is inserted into a pipe. The other obstruction devices also have a similar effect to
this. Of particular interest is the fact that the minimum cross-sectional area of flow occurs not
within the obstruction but at a point downstream of there. Knowledge of the pattern of
pressure variation along the pipe, as shown in Figure 6.13, is also of importance in using this
technique of volume flow rate measurement. This shows that the point of minimum pressure
coincides with the point of minimum cross section flow, a little way downstream of the
obstruction. Figure 16.5 also shows that there is a small rise in pressure immediately before the
obstruction. It is therefore important not only to position the instrument measuring P2 exactly

17 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

at the point of minimum pressure, but also to measure the pressure P1 at a point upstream of
the point where the pressure starts to rise before the obstruction.

Figure 6.13 Profile of flow across orifice plate.

Q is given by:

In the absence of any heat transfer mechanisms, and assuming frictionless flow of an
incompressible fluid through the pipe, the theoretical volume flow rate of the fluid, where A1
and P1 are the cross-sectional area and pressure of the fluid flow before the obstruction, A2
and P2 are the cross-sectional area and pressure of the fluid flow at the narrowest point of the
flow beyond the obstruction, and ρ is the fluid density.
Turbine flow meters
A turbine flow meter consists of a multi-bladed wheel mounted in a pipe along an axis parallel
to the direction of fluid flow in the pipe, as shown in Figure 6.14. The flow of fluid past the
wheel causes it to rotate at a rate that is proportional to the volume flow rate of the fluid. This
rate of rotation has traditionally been measured by constructing the flow meter such that it
behaves as a variable reluctance tacho generator. This is achieved by fabricating the turbine
blades from a ferromagnetic material and placing a permanent magnet and coil inside the
meter housing. A voltage pulse is induced in the coil as each blade on the turbine wheel moves
past it, and if these pulses are measured by a pulse counter, the pulse frequency and hence
flow rate can be deduced.
In recent instruments, fiber optics are also now sometimes used to count the rotations by
detecting reflections off the tip of the turbine blades. Provided that the turbine wheel is
mounted in low friction bearings, measurement inaccuracy can be as low as ±0.2%. However,
turbine flow meters are less rugged and reliable than flow-restriction type instruments, and are
badly affected by any particulate matter in the flowing fluid. Bearing wear is a particular
problem and they also impose a permanent pressure loss on the measured system. Turbine
meters are particularly prone to large errors when there is any significant second phase in the
18 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

fluid measured. For instance, using a turbine meter calibrated on pure liquid to measure a
liquid containing 5% air produces a 50% measurement error. As an important application of the
turbine meter is in the petrochemical industries, where gas/oil mixtures are common, special
procedures are being developed to avoid such large measurement errors.
Turbine meters have a similar cost and market share to positive displacement meters, and
compete for many applications, particularly in the oil industry. Turbine meters are smaller and
lighter than the latter and are preferred for low-viscosity, high-flow measurements. However,
positive-displacement meters are superior in conditions of high viscosity and low flow rate.

Figure 6.14 Turbine flow meter.

Electromagnetic flow meters

Electromagnetic flow meters are limited to measuring the volume flow rate of electrically
conductive fluids. The typical measurement inaccuracy of around ±1% is acceptable in many
applications, but the instrument is expensive both in terms of the initial purchase cost and also
in running costs, mainly due to its electricity consumption.
A further reason for high cost is the need for careful calibration of each instrument
individually during manufacture, as there is considerable variation in the properties of the
magnetic materials used. The instrument, shown in 6.15, consists of a stainless steel cylindrical
tube, fitted with an insulating liner, which carries the measured fluid. Typical lining materials
used are Neoprene, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polyurethane. A magnetic field is
created in the tube by placing mains-energized field coils either side of it, and the voltage
induced in the fluid is measured by two electrodes inserted into opposite sides of the tube. The
ends of these electrodes are usually flush with the inner surface of the cylinder. The electrodes
are constructed from a material which is unaffected by most types of flowing fluid, such as
stainless steel, platinum–iridium alloys, Hastelloy, titanium and tantalum. In the case of the
rarer metals in this list, the electrodes account for a significant part of the total instrument cost.
By Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the voltage, E, induced across a length, L, of
the flowing fluid moving at velocity, v, in a magnetic field of flux density, B, is given by:

19 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

L is the distance between the electrodes, which is the diameter of the tube, and B is a known
constant. Hence, measurement of the voltage E induced across the electrodes allows the flow
velocity v to be calculated from equation above. Having thus calculated v, it is a simple matter
to multiply v by the cross-sectional area of the tube to obtain a value for the volume flow rate.
The typical voltage signal measured across the electrodes is 1mV when the fluid flow rate is
1m/s.

Figure 6.15 Electromagnetic flow meter.

The internal diameter of magnetic flow meters is normally the same as that of the rest of the
flow-carrying pipe work in the system. Therefore, there is no obstruction to the fluid flow and
consequently no pressure loss associated with measurement. Like other forms of flow meter,
the magnetic type requires a minimum length of straight pipe work immediately prior to the
point of flow measurement in order to guarantee the accuracy of measurement, although a
length equal to five pipe diameters is usually sufficient.
Whilst the flowing fluid must be electrically conductive, the method is of use in many
applications and is particularly useful for measuring the flow of slurries in which the liquid
phase is electrically conductive. Corrosive fluids can be handled providing a suitable lining
material is used. At the present time, magnetic flow meters account for about 15% of the new
flow meters sold and this total is slowly growing. One operational problem is that the insulating
lining is subject to damage when abrasive fluids are being handled, and this can give the
instrument a limited life.
Current new developments in electromagnetic flow meters are producing physically smaller
instruments and employing better coil designs which reduce electricity consumption and make
battery-powered versions feasible (these are now commercially available). Also, whereas
conventional electromagnetic flow meters require a minimum fluid conductivity of
10µmho/cm3, new versions can cope with fluid conductivities as low as 1µmho/cm 3.

20 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student
 Instrumentation and measurement (TELT 2206) 2012

21 | P a g e
A Great Teacher Deserves A Great Student